^-r^^>>V, y*J*g*iga^'*WIW*W, ? msmmfm ZEUGMA: ARMAGEDDON ON THE EUPHRATES? Mark Wilson Oral Roberts University Tulsa, OK INTRODUCTION Above Zeugma, the Euphrates flows through a narrow valley with steep sides; below the site (fig. 4), No archaeological site in the world has gathered the river spreads out as the valley broadens and the more attention in 2000 than that of Zeugma in Turkey. plateau (fig. 5) disappears. This deep river trough to Zeugma has been featured in such diverse media as the north has hindered east-west traffic throughout the New York Times, U. S. News & World Report, and history. In antiquity, the only two major river cross­ ABC World News Tonight, as well as archaeological ings above Zeugma were at Tomisa near Melitene, publications such as Archaeology and Archaeology and at Samosata, the capital of the Commagenian Odyssey. Global interest has been generated because Empire.2 The matter of river crossings relates direct­ of the spectacular finds discovered shortly before the ly to the route of the Persian Royal Road that ran from site was flooded by the Birecik Dam (fig. 1), located Sardis to Susa. Some advocates of the northern route just downstream.' proposed a crossing near Melitene.3 Others, such as William Ramsay (1890: 27-29), as well as proponents Geographical Location of the southern route plotted its course through the Cilician Gates. This would put the crossing at Zeugma is located in southeastern Turkey (fig. 2) Zeugma (Yamauchi, 1996: 175-76). George M. A. on the Euphrates River (Fyrat Nehri), approximately Hanfmann (1972: 19), the excavator of Sardis, sug­ five miles northeast of Nizip in the province of gests a hybrid route from Caesarea Mazaca to Gaziantep. In 1738, Pocoke (1745: 156) was one of Germanica before crossing at Zeugma. Regardless of the first travelers in the region to inquire about the the route of the Royal Road to the Euphrates, the ford location of Zeugma. In 1917, Franz Cumont at Zeugma was already a major river crossing point by (1917:119-50) argued persuasively for placing the sixth century B.C. Zeugma at its current site. In the 1970s, Jorg Wagner (1976:132-46) began fieldwork at the villages of Historical Background Belkis and Tilmusa and made a strong circumstantial case for the site's identification based on the discov­ Around 300 B.C., the Macedonian ruler, ery of stamped roof tiles that bore the name of the TV Seleucus I Nicator, founded twin cities on the Legion Scythica. However, no inscriptions have yet Euphrates: Seleucia he named after himself, while been found to secure the identification. Zeugma is Apamea was named after one of his wives (Appian, really twin cities (fig. 3), Seleucia on the west bank Syr. 57).4 He linked them with the only permanent and Apamea on the east, lying on the border between bridge in the region, built in pontoon (schedia)-sty\e. Syria and Mesopotamia. At Zeugma, the Euphrates It was known as Seleucia on the Bridge to distinguish has a gentle S-shaped bend, and here the river is at its it from the eight other Seleucias founded by Seleucus closest point, approximately 100 miles, to the (he founded two other Apameas as well), and later Mediterranean Sea at the Gulf of Issus (Vskenderun). simply as the Bridge—Zeugma in Greek (Jones 1971: Pliny the Elder (Nat. 5.67; 6.126) states that the dis­ 243^44).5 tance to Seleucia Pieria, the port of Syria's capital The Roman presence in the region began early in Antioch, was 175 Roman miles (ca. 161 miles), while the first century B.C.. Rome's first contact with the distance southward to Seleucia on the Tigris was Parthia occurred in about 92 B.C. when L. Cornelius 724 Roman miles (ca. 666 miles). Sulla met a messenger of Mithridates II Eupator, who 23 inj^, 24 WILSON NEASB 45 mmmi < j -+ ~* J, **»J*wa>1 ^> «_" ",7 'X.-' 1 **v% Si 1' 4 /* • J' " L 3 Fig. 1. Birecik Dam with flooded villas. was requesting the friendship of Rome, on the west hegemony of the client kings of Commagene ruling bank of the Euphrates. Rome's contact with Parthia from Samosata. But after Octavian's defeat of Antony over the next 150 years was very complex, so only a at Actium in 31 B.C., Aune (1997 2: 893) writes, "the few high points of this period will be mentioned.6 control of Seleucia or Zeugma ("bridge"), the main Pompey led the first Roman army east of the crossing point for the Euphrates, passed into the Euphrates in the mid 60s B.C., driving as far east as hands of the Romans, and the Euphrates became the Armenia and the Caucasus. After M. Licinius Crassus main symbolic boundary between Rome and became governor of Syria in 55 B.C., he invaded Parthia."7 Both Strabo (Geogr. 16.1.28) and Velleius Parthia by crossing at Zeugma. He was killed at his (Hist.Rom. 2.101) affirm that the Euphrates was decisive defeat at Carrhae (Haran) in 53 B.C. by the Rome's limes at this time. superior Parthian archers (Plutarch, Crass. 16-31). In 20 B.C., Augustus regained the spoils and The Parthians retaliated in the years following by standards lost by Crassus in 53 B.C. and by Antony in invading the Roman province of Syria. During the 40 B.C. and 36 B.C. through diplomatic means Roman Civil Wars the Parthians supported Pompey (Augustus, Res Gestae 27; 29). A pax augusta ensued (49 B.C.) and Cassius (44 B.C.), but when the in the East until the time of Nero (Velleius, Hist. Rom. Parthians invaded Syria around 40 B.C., Marc Antony 2.126; Strabo, Geogr. 16.1.28). In A.D. 59, Corbulo, succeeded in driving them out (38 B.C.). During the governor of Syria, conquered Armenia and the much of the first century B.C. Zeugma was under the Roman victory over the Parthians was total. Only 2000 ZEUGMA: ARMAGEDDON ON THE EUPHRATES? 25 :£:-x-:::\::::::^ ' •'.'.'^::::::;:::::.:^" >-•••-•- •(y./;,<>;•>•.•.\k.-.•.•..;.-.. •..;.--...-,•_;-...;..•'-;._.-. Mo //••// .//}'ZEUGMA*-' • • ' * ' > '• "- •-" .'p.' '' .#CYHRHUS"i •ALEPPO >: •CHALCIS £u • HP$ / B y fcv- i§ ?.' DURA EUROPOS .'.'.'•' ..-I'VP'ALMYRA I J-A r*» ,r-:^^#%^.•.-.•.•. •.-.•••. • '••->* i^- i2^ .-'.•.•.'.° '.'..• v^'C* DAMASCUS" .'.•'.•'.'.'. <5" '•'. ' BAGHDAD NXTESIPHON l~-;.-.+My-- ••••'••'•• :•:•:•:•:•:•>•:•:•:•:/ , -•.•'!-' •' -I-^/? '.'.'. '•o.euBQu" '.'.'.'.'. >•.•.'.": ;.:. •. [?K$«»:- •.-.•.•-•.•.•.;.•.;.•.;.•-•.;. ;^ • > ]*''.'"> ^'"" .'•."'.-'.••••'.•••.'••.••'.'•'•'••.'•'•.;. ' A.< • •' • • - «Q- EL-AZRAQ .• ', •i/J)' "tAMMAN .9, • '-> mmmmm: LAND OVER 1000M %v\l^dv^ •.-.•-• ;--:*5^•.•.•.•••.•.•.'.•.•.• /"ft -' JfJ/v'^^A-.v '.'.•.'. -'^'-T .•.-.'.•.'.• ...• .-'f'\' ^PETHA . ->' \J*£-\ "\- LAND OVER S00M 30Omm ISOHYET (approi Tina? Fig. 2. Geographical location of Zeugma (modified from Kennedy and Riley 1990). through the folly of the client king Tigranes in 60 crown. The Parthian client king was treated as visiting A.D. and the ineptitude of his replacement, Paetus, royalty by Nero, and the emperor was hailed for were the Parthians able to regain an advantage by restoring peace to the empire with his triumph over defeating the Romans at Rhandeia in 62 A.D. Once the Parthians. Tiridates visited the cities of Asia on his Corbulo reestablished the Roman position in 63 A.D., return to Parthia, and the impression given to its resi­ the Parthians again become suppliants with Tiridates dents, including John and the Asian Christians, would forced to travel to Rome in 65 A.D. to receive his have been of a submitted monarch rather than a victo- 26 WILSON NEASB 45 7" ... ..ZEUGMA \ Archaeological Project SiWlf! \\ fer\~>'\ -v.- \&M Ancient City :r; |||9 Cemeteries ,—.V;,1 ; if \ [|||| Modem Villages \M.''~*> (A) Tumuli . j--. <*'"' JK:. f¥ . II "2 \ V'''-'";>;v, ji V \ -N- fv"' H o b a b \ '/ Plain 0 Tilmusa North Ncciopolisll.C--^ Flood line V" 410m—' •...•' Apamea v-\Tilobtir> •BirecikDam "-^--I '?<'*}/•' ;V> ',--' J'.';-^- /.'7 ,--' / '--"'„-' J-'r '^B-f-V ^-'^^^^l NecropolisJ) ;_ / & kjCK Kilometres _s^&_ Fig. 3. Map of Zeugma (Seleucia and Apamea) from Kennedy 1998. rious general. on Jerusalem. Josephus (JW 7.5.2@105-106) reports The civil war in 68-69 A.D. would have been an that, following the destruction of Jerusalem in A.D. ideal time for the Parthians to strike against their 70, Titus traveled from Antioch to Zeugma, where he longtime enemy. Mucianus, then governor of Syria, received a golden crown from the Parthian king had left the eastern frontier vulnerable when he led Vologeses I in recognition of his victory over the the sixth legion westward to depose Vitellius. But Jews. After hosting a banquet for the king's deputa­ Henderson (1908: 145) indicates that "neither tion, Tims returned to Antioch. Following his reor­ Vologeses, nor his brother Tiridates in Armenia, ganization of the East after A.D. 72, Vespasian main­ showed any desire to break the peace and friendship tained IV Scythica at Zeugma (Levick 1999: 166). recently secured by the Neronian policy." In fact, Following the fall of Jerusalem, "the eastern half of Vologeses offered Vespasian 40,000 Parthian cavalry the Empire caused little anxiety to the Flavian to help him secure the principate. The Flavians were Emperors " (Henderson 1927: 59). In fact, the peace thus indebted to the Parthians for their cooperation with Parthia lasted over fifty years and is reflected by during this tumultuous transition. Half a legion from the total absence on Roman coinage of anti-Parthian Zeugma, probably X Fretensis (Josephus JW war types, which only return again in the second cen­ 7.1.3@17; Millar, 1993:75), joined the 50,00-60,000 tury (Grant 1968: 48 n). troops that gathered in Caesarea for the final assault One of the more amusing anecdotes regarding I^imimmmm ittt^tmmmi^M 2000 ZEUGMA: ARMAGEDDON ON THE EUPHRATES? 27 Fig.