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Command and Control of Canadian Aerospace Forces At the end of the 20th century warfare was increasingly characterized by operations where the forces of different nations fought together in coalitions and different branches of the armed forces (e.g., army, navy and air force) worked together closely to accomplish a mission. These operations are often called combined and joint, respectively. At the beginning of the 21st century, new security challenges have caused many Western nations to have their armed forces work much more closely with other agencies, and this phenomenon has added expressions like Joint, Interagency, Multinational, and Public (JIMP); 3D (defence, diplomacy and development); and “integrated” to the national security lexicon. Working in these environments creates command and control challenges at all rank levels in the military. While there is some literature on the challenges of working in multi-national coalitions, the literature on command and control in joint operations, let alone in the new integrated operating environment, is extremely sparse, despite the fact that joint operations are even more numerous than combined operations and integrated operations are becoming the norm. Effective command and control (C2) is essential to the successful conduct of military and integrated operations and especially to the application of aerospace power. However, in much of the current C2 doctrine, the terms “command,” “control” and “command and control” are not defined clearly or are defined in ways that fail to provide practical help to military professionals in the exercise of command or in the design of command arrangements. Some of the confusion is due to the fact that, as is explained in Canadian Forces leadership doctrine, the “inter-relationships and interconnectedness of command, management, and leadership functions often make it difficult to disentangle the command, management, and leadership effects achieved by individuals in positions of authority.” Due to this lack of clarity, the terms command, management, and leadership are sometimes used interchangeably. Nevertheless, the interconnectedness of leadership and command is such that leadership is “an essential role requirement for commanders;” therefore, that interconnectedness is reflected in this publication. Command&Control Conceptualof Canadian Aerospace Foundations Forces: Dr Allan English Command&Control of Canadian Aerospace Forces: Conceptual Foundations ISBN Number: D2-225/2008E 978-0-662-48659-6 ISBN Number: D2-225/2008E-PDF 978-0-662-48660-2 This publication is available online at trenton.mil.ca/lodger/cfawc/index-e.asp on the intranet or www.airforce.forces.gc.ca/CFAWC on the internet Art direction and editing by Canadian Forces Aerospace Warfare Centre Production Section. This publication was prepared for the Canadian Department of National Defence but the views expressed in it are solely those of the author. They do not necessarily reflect the policy or the opinion of any agency, including the Government of Canada and the Canadian Department of National Defence © Her Majesty the Queen as represented by the Minister of National Defence, 2008 ii Command&Control of Canadian Aerospace Forces: Conceptual Foundations Table of Contents Table of Contents Conceptual Foundations Introduction vii General ix Approach x Purpose xii Endnotes Chapter 1 Theories of Command & Control 1 General 3 The Origins of Some Command and Control Terms 3 Background 4 Unity of Command or Operational Command 4 Operational Control 6 Operational Direction 6 Implications of Historical Experience for Today 7 New Ways of Thinking about Command, Control, and C2 8 The Czerwinski Command Framework 9 The Pigeau-McCann Command Framework 9 General 10 Definition of Key Terms 11 Dimensions of Command44 12 Command Capability Space and the Balanced Command Envelope45 13 The Relationship between Command and Control 14 Intent and C2 15 Intent 15 Common Intent 16 Explicit and Implicit Intent 16 Balancing Explicit and Implicit Intent52 19 Types of C2 Organizations 20 Endnotes Chapter 2 Command & Control in the 21st Century ‑ Context 23 General 25 Network-Centric Warfare / Network-Enabled Operations 25 Network-Centric Warfare 26 Network-Enabled Operations 27 Effects-Based Operations 29 Network-Centric Warfare and Effects-Based Operations 30 Operational Art iii Command&Control of Canadian Aerospace Forces: Conceptual Foundations 31 The Canadian Army and Operational Art 32 Modern Theories of Manoeuvre – The OODA Loop 34 Manoeuvre in a Canadian Context 36 Manoeuvre and the Contemporary Operational Environment 37 Conclusion 38 Endnotes Chapter 3 The Origins of Current Canadian Aerospace Command and Control Arrangements1 43 General 44 Historical Overview 45 The CF Air Element and the Fragmentation of Command Unification: Canada’s Air Forces 1968-1975 45 Overview of Unification 47 The CF Organizational Concept for Unification 48 Unification and the CF “Air Element” 49 Operational and Personnel Considerations of Unification 51 The New CF Command Structure 52 Mobile Command 53 Maritime Command 53 Air Defence Command 54 Air Transport Command 54 Materiel Command 54 Training Command 55 NATO Europe – 1 Air Division 55 Unification and the Problems of the Air Element 57 Corrective Measures – A Window of Opportunity 59 Summary 61 The Struggle to Centralize Air Force Command: Canada’s Air Force and Air Command 1975 – 2005 61 Introduction 63 The Command and Control Structure of Air Command – The First 12 Years 63 The Headquarters Structure 63 The Air Group Structure 66 The Base Structure 67 Restructuring in 1993 – The Wing Concept 71 Restructuring in 1997 – the MCCRT 72 The Air Staff at NDHQ 72 1 Canadian Air Division HQ 72 Wing Headquarters 73 A Critique of the AFCCRT 74 The Air Force Capability Framework 75 Capability Advisory Groups 76 Systemic Problems with Air Force Re-organization and Transformation 77 The Air Reserve and the Total Force Concept 79 Summary 81 Endnotes iv Command&Control of Canadian Aerospace Forces: Conceptual Foundations Chapter 4 Current Canadian Aerospace Command and Control Arrangements‑ Context and Issues 85 Introduction 87 Command and Control Definitions 88 Traditional Principles of Command 88 Traditional Command and Control Relationships 90 New Command and Control Relationships 90 Supporting/Supported Command 91 Canadian Aerospace Forces Command and Control Organization 91 Air Command Organization 91 Chief of Air Staff Organization 91 1 Canadian Air Division Headquarters Organization 93 Summary 94 Endnotes Chapter 5 Principles of Command, Control, and Command and Control 95 General 96 Principles of Command 96 Competency 97 Authority 97 Responsibility 98 The Balance between Authority and Responsibility 98 Mission Command 98 Flexibility in Approaches to Command 99 Principles of Control 101 Principles of C2 101 Intent 102 Common Intent 102 Balancing Explicit and Implicit Intent 103 Conclusion 104 Endnotes 105 Abbreviations 109 Bibliography 115 Recommended Reading List v Command&Control of Canadian Aerospace Forces: Conceptual Foundations Foreword This book is not doctrine and it should not be treated as such. Its purpose is much more fundamental. As the title implies, the author provides an overview of the major concepts, or theoretical approaches, that underpin current debate on command and control (C2). Given the complex nature and importance of C2 within the context of modern military operations, it should come as no surprise that the concepts and theories vary widely in focus and scope. Command and Control of Aerospace Forces: Conceptual Foundations seeks to establish a basis for understanding how these basic principles have influenced C2 doctrinal development. Although the book discusses C2 conceptual foundations from a wide variety of sources, it pays more attention to those that influenced the development of Canadian joint C2 doctrine in general and that might guide the develop- ment of Canadian aerospace C2 doctrine in particular. Canadian aerospace doctrine, of which C2 doctrine is a key element, is in a developmental phase and thus influenced by ongoing conceptual debates. Therefore, this work is necessary and timely; necessary in that it will aid in creating a broader understanding of C2 concepts and timely in that it well help to identify C2 principles that will guide aerospace doctrine development. Therefore, I encourage Air Force members to treat Command and Control of Aerospace Forces: Conceptual Foundations as a companion work to Cana- dian aerospace doctrine. The information therein will serve to both educate and stimulate the reader with respect to basic C2 concepts and theories. The end result will be a broader base of aerospace professionals better prepared to positively contribute to C2 doctrine from the ground up. olonel . ottingham CommandingC J.F Officer,C Canadian Forces Aerospace Warfare Centre vi Introduction General At the end of the 20th century warfare was increasingly char- acterized by operations where the forces of different nations fought together in coalitions and different branches of the armed forces (e.g., army, navy and air force) worked together closely to accomplish a mission. These operations are often called combined and joint, respectively. At the beginning of the 21st century, new security challenges have caused many Western nations to have their armed forces work much more closely with other agencies, and this phenomenon has added expressions like Joint, Interagency, Multinational, and Public Command and Control of Canadian Aerospace Forces: (JIMP); 3D (defence, diplomacy and development);
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