Determinants and Effectiveness of Local-Level Adaptation to Climate Change: Case Studies of Two Initiatives in BangladeshSummary October 2012

REGIONAL CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATIONKNOWLEDGEPLATFORM for Asia Acknowledgements

This report summarizes the findings of the case studies on the determinants and effectiveness of local-level adaptation to climate change in Bangladesh that the Regional Resource Centre for Asia and the Pacific (RRC.AP) had supported under the aegis of the Regional Climate Change Adaptation Knowledge Platform for Asia (Adaptation Knowledge Platform).

Conducted from February to June 2012, the case studies draw on Adaptation Knowledge Platform’s work in progress to disseminate and exchange adaptation knowledge among a wider audience.

This report was prepared by Dwijen Mallick and Nazzina Mohsin of the Bangladesh Centre for Advanced Studies (BCAS) with assistance and inputs from Mozaharul Alam, United Nations Environment Programme Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (UNEP ROAP), and Hiromi Inagaki, RRC.AP.

We extend special thanks to Dr. Atiq Rahman, Executive Director of BCAS, Dr. Abu Wali Raghib Hassan, Project Director of Disaster & Climate Risk Management in Agriculture (DCRMA), Ministry of Agriculture of the Government of Bangladesh, and Dr. Anowara Begum Shelly, Director of Caritas Fisheries Programme, Dhaka, for supporting this endeavor by sharing their documents and opinions. We are also grateful to the countless institutions, organizations, and individuals that provided key inputs and insights for the brief. We welcome your suggestions and comments.

Edited by Manraj Grewal Layout by Lowil Espada

[email protected] 2012 Bangkok, Thailand October 2012

HowThe Determinants to obtain the digital and Effectiveness copy: of Local-level Adaptation to Climate Change: Case Studies of Two Initiatives in Bangladesh

- Summary can be electronically downloaded from the www. asiapacificadapt.net. This digital publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for educational or non-profit purposes without special permission from the copyright holder, provided the source is acknowledged. The Regional Climate Change Adaptation Knowledge Platform for Asia would appreciate receiving a copy of any publication that uses this report as a source. Determinants and Effectiveness of Local-Level Adaptation to Climate Change: Case Studies of Two Initiatives in BangladeshSummary October 2012 ii Contents

ACRONYMS iv Chapter 1 Background and Introduction 1

Need for New Knowledge on Local-level Adaptation and its 2 Effectiveness Objectives and Scope of Case Studies 2 Analytical Framework 2 Methodologies of Case Studies 3 Case study in the coastal area 4 Case study in the drought-prone area 4 Chapter 2 Existing Knowledge on Characteristics, Determinants and Effectiveness of Local-level 5 Adaptation Key Characteristics and Approaches of Local-level Adaptation 6 Factors and Determinants of Local-level Adaptation 7 Effectiveness of Local-level Adaptation 7 Chapter 3 Local Contexts, Determinants and Effectiveness of Two Adaptation Initiatives in 9 Bangladesh Local Contexts: Climate Risks and Vulnerabilities 10 Adaptation Strategies of the Two Initiatives 11 Adaptation Actions of the Two Initiatives 12 Factors and Determinants of the Two Initiatives 12

Determinants of Local-level Adaptation in Coastal 12 Ecosystems

Determinants of Local-level Adaptation in Drought-prone 14 Upland

Common and Different Determinants of Local-level 15 Adaptation Effectiveness of Local-level Adaptation 15

Determinants Leading toward Achievement of Greater 17 Effectiveness Chapter 4 Conclusions 19 References 21 Annex 1: List of Experts and Project Staff interviewed 22

iii Determinants and Effectiveness of Local-Level Adaptation to Climate Change

ACRONYMS

ADPC AKP Asian Disaster Preparedness Centre AR4 Regional Climate Change Adaptation Knowledge Platform for Asia ARCAB 4th Assessment Report of IPCC BADC Action Research on Climate Change Adaptation in Bangladesh BARI Bangladesh Agricultural Development Corporation BCAS Bangladesh Agriculture Research Institute BCCSAP Bangladesh Centre for Advanced Studies CBA Bangladesh Climate Change Strategies and Action Plan CBO Community Based Adaptation DAE Community Based Organization DPHE Department of Agricultural Extension DRR Department of Public Health and Engineering FAO Disaster Risk Reduction FGD Food and Agriculture Organization GaIn focused group discussions GoB Global Adaptation Index IIED Government of Bangladesh IPCC International Institute for Environment and Development KII Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change LACC key informant interviews LAPA Livelihood Adaptation to Climate Change LGED Local Adaptation Programme of Action LLA Local Government and Engineering Department M&E local level adaptation NAPA Monitoring and Evaluation NGO National Adaptation Programme of Action PR Non Governmental Organization PVA Participatory Research PVCA Participatory Vulnerability Assessment R&D participatory vulnerability and capacity assessment RWHS Rain Water Harvesting System Research and Development TAR Third Assessment Report of IPCC UNEP United Nations Environment Programme UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change WRI World Resources Institute

iv Chapter 1 Background and Introduction Determinants and Effectiveness of Local-Level Adaptation to Climate Change

Need for New Knowledge on Local- experience that is of generic significance. There was a level Adaptation and special thrust on supporting the existing community- level adaptation activities, especially those of NGOs. its Effectiveness Further consultations among AKP partners and stakeholders in Bangladesh brought to the fore the need for research on factors that influence and determine the effectiveness of LLA. The primary angladesh ministries, including the ministries aim of the research was to better understand how of agriculture, environment and forest, water, the local conditions and external factors determine health, rural development, food and disaster the effectiveness of local-level adaptation initiatives. management, children and women affairs, relevant The specific objectives include: departments and NGOs have been implementing a number of local level adaptation (LLA) projects with Investigating the existing knowledge on various their limited resources and capacity in response to the characteristics of and factors influencing LLA, National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) and its effectiveness; and the Bangladesh Climate Change Strategies and Investigating the context-specific factors BAction Plan (BCCSAP). Already known as a pioneering that determine the effectiveness of local- country in the field of LLA, Bangladesh recognizes level adaptation initiatives undertaken in the growing interest in approaches, determinants, Bangladesh; and planning and implementation processes and Verification of the findings of these activities effectiveness of LLA among policy makers, with national and local stakeholders. practitioners, researchers, development agencies, Analytical Framework and vulnerable communities. In particular, there is a strong need for updated information and knowledge on climate change trends, risks and vulnerability of human and ecological systems; adaptation options There are many definitions of adaptation in and technologies; planning, implementation, and literature, and this research follows some of the evaluation of LLA. It is also important to obtain in- simpler ones. Adaptation to climate change takes depth knowledge and understanding of various place through adjustments to reduce vulnerability local and external factors that govern LLA and its or enhance resilience in response to observed and effectiveness. expected changes in climate and associated extreme Objectives and Scope events. Adaptation occurs in physical, ecological and of Case Studies human systems, which involves changes in social and environmental processes, perceptions of climate risks, practices and functions to reduce potential damages or to realize new opportunities. Biological The Regional Resource Centre for Asia and the Pacific adaptation is slow and reactive, whereas individuals (RRC.AP), a UNEP collaboration centre located in and societies adapt to both observed and expected the Asian Institute of Technology, entrusted to the changes through autonomous, anticipatory, and Bangladesh Centre for Advanced Studies (BCAS) planned actions. However, adaptive capacity is the task of conducting an in-depth research into uneven across and within societies, and there the determinants and effectiveness of local-level have been limits and barriers to adaptation (Adger adaptation to climate change as part of an initiative et al, 2007). Enhancement of adaptive capacity called the Regional Climate Change Adaptation is a necessary condition for reducing risks and Knowledge Platform for Asia (AKP). Thirteen vulnerability, particularly for the most affected countries were identified as focal countries for the regions, nations, and socio-economic groups (Smit AKP’s first three years of operation. Among these, et al, 2001: in TAR of IPCC). Bangladesh was recognized as the most advanced in terms of its efforts to mainstream adaptation For investigating the effectiveness of LLA, it is into overall development planning. The focus of necessary to examine the characteristics, types the country’s activities for 2010–2011 reflects and enabling factors of LLA initiatives or the this approach, with efforts to strengthen existing determinants of LLA, as termed in this report. As processes, and to learn lessons from the Bangladesh suggested by Smit et al (2001), characteristics, types

2 Case Studies of Two Initiatives in Bangladesh

and forms of local adaptation are classified primarily introduced at a local level meet the expressed according to what climate-related stimuli (drought, objectives of the measures. As described earlier, the salinity, cyclone, etc) systems adapt to; who adapt main objective of an adaptation initiative is to reduce (vulnerable groups, farmers, forest people and vulnerability or enhance the resilience of human ecosystems); how adaptation occurs; and what the and ecological systems. Hence, the effectiveness outcomes (relating to ecological regeneration, social of LLA initiatives should be measured by how well protection, livelihood promotion, and disaster risk they contribute to reducing the level of risks and reduction) are. Enabling factors and conditions for vulnerability or building local capacity and resilience implementing LLA relate to dynamic social processes, in different systems. economic resources, technological arrangements and knowledge diffusion; biophysical and political Chapter 2 discusses the determinants of local contexts that may vary over time, location, sectors adaptation; the internal and external factors and scales (ibid). influencing effective adaptation; and the indicators for measuring the effectiveness of LLA. These factors can be classified as local and external. Methodologies of Case The former may include participatory planning and Studies engagement of targeted beneficiaries or vulnerable communities their recognition of project approaches and interventions. The latter may include an enabling The paper resorted to an extensive review of national policy and institutional supports resources literature and consultations with experts to gather from government and donor partners. existing knowledge about the characteristics of LLA, the various factors enabling LLA and the determinants of its effectiveness. Over a hundred The paper further discussesBox_1 the effectivenessKey Issues of of FGDs and KIIs LLA. Even though certain documents were collected factors and conditions from government offices, may enable development research organizations, and implementation of Following were the key issues raised during NGOs, UNFCCC, UN adaptation initiatives FGDs and KIIs: agencies, international at a local level, there is development partners and no guarantee that these Climate risks and vulnerability in the websites. adaptation initiatives local and social contexts that the projects will lead to effective have documented through participatory Context-specific factors adaptation. Local and research enabling LLA and external factors and Local characteristics, factors, and determinants of the determinants enabling determinants of adaptation actions effectiveness of LLA were LLA may pose differing Views and learning about the local investigated through levels of effectiveness planning, and engagement of local actors the case studies of two in different ecosystems Key components and strategies of local existing LLA initiatives and social systems. But adaptation promoted by the projects; and undertaken in the salinity- how can we measure their relevance, effectiveness, and efficacy affected coastal zone and the effectiveness of LLA? The level of blending of local and external/ the drought-prone upland According to UNFCCC scientific knowledge or innovation in an of Bangladesh (detailed (2010) an adaptation adaptation technology information on the case initiative or measure can The level of adaptive capacity and study sites is given below). be termed effective if its resilience in natural, human, and Information collected outcomes and outputs institutional systems with short-term and from the case studies meet its expressed long- term outcomes included the physical objectives. Effectiveness of Good adaptation practices of communities impacts of climate change LLA is hence determined under the projects to tackle the impacts of and social vulnerability; by the level at which climate change; and views of local actors outputs and outcomes The early learnings of the communities, and stakeholders in the of adaptation measures and the challenges ahead. two initiatives about

3 Determinants and Effectiveness of Local-Level Adaptation to Climate Change

Case study in the drought-prone area: the planning and implementation processes; and project outcomes in terms of enhancing the adaptive capacity of the vulnerable communities, regeneration The other project chosen for this study was called of ecosystem services, livelihood protection, and Livelihood Adaptation to Climate Change (LACC) disaster risk reduction. and it was implemented by the Department of Agricultural Extension (DAE) of the Government The case studies mainly employed qualitative of Bangladesh in the northwestern upland of methods and participatory reflections of project Bangladesh. The study villages were located in the staff and communities collected through focus group Nachole Upzila in Chapai Nawabganj district (Figure discussion (FGDs) and key informant interviews 1 shows the project locations ). The initial phase of (KII). Box 1 lists the questions asked during FGDs the DAE project was implemented in partnership and KIIs. Participatory research (PR) techniques with FAO. The second phase of the project is being were followed to collect local evidence and views directly managed and implemented by the DAE, of vulnerable communities and local actors about which emphasized technology and knowledge the project approaches, adaptation strategies, and transfer, local innovation and institution building to Caseoutcomes. study in the coastal area: enhance resilience in ecosystem and social systems.

The study team collected detailed information about the local contexts, characteristics and Figure_1 Map of Bangladesh showing the determinants such as The project chosen for Project Locations geophysical conditions, the study was called climatic factors, and “Enhancing Coping social vulnerability. It and Adaptation of also studied the enabling Coastal Community to factors, including reduce Vulnerability to local institutional Climate Change” It was arrangements, and implemented by Caritas participation of Bangladesh, a national vulnerable people development agency in planning and with strong community implementation. The links. The local actions views of the local actors of the coastal adaptation and stakeholders were project emphasized on solicited to gauge the participatory planning, effectiveness of local communication of climate adaptation actions. risks, DRR, and livelihood protection. The project villages were located in the Shyamnagar Upzila of Satkhira District in the southwest coastal Bangladesh.

4 Chapter 2 Existing Knowledge on Characteristics, Determinants and Effectiveness of Local-level Adaptation Determinants and Effectiveness of Local-Level Adaptation to Climate Change

Key Characteristics and Approaches of The social dimensions of vulnerability to climate Local-level Adaptation change are primarily internal as these relate to the level of awareness, asset base and capacity of the human and social systems to formulate and implement adaptation measures considering the Local-level adaptation involves an alteration current and future risks and vulnerability Thus, both in awareness and interest of the vulnerable physical and social vulnerability and the capacity in communities as well as their activities in local community, macro socio-economic conditions, response to climate change stresses and stimuli technological arrangements and institutional (Smit et al, 2001). The characteristics of local capacity, and the national policy environment adaptation are primarily determined by who adapts determine the planning and implementation of to what climate trends, risks and vulnerability; appropriate local level adaptation actions, and their how do they adapt to the changes and impacts; effectiveness. and finally what are the immediate outcomes (awareness raised, adaptive capacity and resilience The World Resources Institutes (WRI) in their recent built and vulnerability reduced) as well as long-term report has identified a number of characteristics for results such as protection of lives and livelihoods, effective decision making in relation to adaptation. sustainability of ecosystem productivity, and their These include responsiveness, flexibility, robustness services and contribution to local-level sustainable and durability. The local drivers and determinants development. may include long-term changes in climate and weather patterns, extremes, level of exposure, A recent study by UNEP and BCAS on ‘Adaptation and sensitivity, vulnerability and adaptive capacity of the Development – Perspectives from Bangladesh’ has local ecosystems and communities. Engagement of highlighted key elements of local adaptation. These actors and stakeholders, including public institutions include stakeholder engagement and participatory and vulnerable communities, in decision-making planning; reduction in risk and vulnerability; and planning besides action-relevant information new knowledge generation and dissemination of and resources have been suggested as key elements awareness about climate change and its impacts, in effective planning and implementation of local livelihood protection and resilience building; better adaptation (WRI et al, 2011). adaptive capacity, poverty reduction, DRR, and enhancement of social safety net (Haider, 2012). McGray (2007) and Huq et al (2003) call for linking local adaptation to sustainable development. Both the local and external factors are important for The range of adaptation activities may include planning and implementation of LLA, which has to a continuum of responses to climate change to consider the climate-related vulnerability from two pursue development on the one hand, and very dimensions: i) an external dimension consisting explicit adaptation measures on the other. Thus, the of risks, shocks and stresses to which people are vulnerability-oriented adaptation efforts overlap subject; and ii) an internal dimension encompassing with traditional development practices, where the the means to understand the risks and vulnerability development activities take little or no account of the and withstand or adjust to the damaging impacts specific impacts of climate change. At the other end, (Duarte, 2007). highly specialized adaptation action may fall outside the realm of conventional development. Hence, Hence, the biophysical aspects of vulnerability there is an urgent need for building synergies and are largely external to the local community, and in continuum between development and adaptation, many cases they are unable to resist and moderate which can be broadly categorized into four types the processes (such as temperature rise, drought of adaptation efforts. These are: addressing the and erratic rainfall, sea level rise, salinity intrusion, drivers of vulnerability; building response capacity, floods, cyclones and tidal surges) and their impacts. managing climate risk; and confronting climate change.

6 Case Studies of Two Initiatives in Bangladesh

Factors and Determinants of Local- Participatory risk assessment is another important level Adaptation factor in planning, engaging vulnerable community and implementing effective LLA. The cross-cutting risks induced by climate change may trigger new climatic hazards, and affect the present formula Climate experts and adaptation practitioners being used for adapting to changes. It is important have identified a number of determinants of local, to analyze and assess potential risks in the local and regional and sectoral adaptation. The determinants regional context, and formulate policies with an eye and enabling factors have been identified in the on long-term policy frameworks. The adaptation light of various contexts such as physical, ecological, plans and implementation programs should also social, knowledge dissemination and awareness be closely connected to disaster risk management building, enabling technological, institutional, and strategies. Further, findings of climate change political setting. Adaptation to climate change takes risk assessments should be integrated into DRR place in dynamic social, economic, technological, planning. Informed policy decisions are also vital for biophysical and political contexts that vary over an effective LLA. time, location, and sector. This complex mix of conditions determines the capacity of systems to Long-term funding too is essential for the effective adapt. The main features of communities or regions implementation of LLA. Many adaptation initiatives that seem to determine their adaptive capacity are undertaken at a local level are unable to sustain due economic wealth, technology, information and skills, to lack of sufficient funds for long-term planning infrastructure, institutions, and equity (Smit et al, and implementation. Financial support to least 2001). developed countries (LDCs), including Bangladesh, is needed with priority being accorded to long-term Appropriate technology is an important determinant adaptation strategies and implementation of large- of local adaptation. Lack of technology can scale projects to tackle the impacts of climate change. seriously impede a nation’s ability to implement Compared to LDCs, the wealthy nations are better adaptation options by limiting the range of possible prepared to bear the costs of adaptation to climate responses. Technology generation, transfer, and change impacts and risks. local innovation are an important basis for LLA. Effectiveness of Local- Successful adaptation requires new knowledge and level Adaptation information about risks, vulnerability and available options, the capacity to assess them, and the ability to implement the most suitable ones. Hence, research and knowledge management are important inputs UNFCCC (2010) states that effectiveness of for planning and implementation of an effective adaptation implies that outcomes and outputs of an LLA. The chapter 18 of IPCC’s fourth assessment adaptation initiative or measure meet its expressed report mentions that the current knowledge of objectives. As an adaptation action essentially aims adaption, adaptive capacity and government policies to reduce vulnerability or enhance the resilience is insufficient for reliable adaptation measures. of human and ecological systems, the effectiveness Hence, in-depth research is required to enhance largely depends on how well adaptation measures the effectiveness of local adaptation. Participatory contribute to reducing vulnerability or enhancing and local-level planning exercise is essential to resilience besides lowering exposure and sensitivity ensure effective implementation of adaptation. of different affected systems and subsystems. Participatory research (PR) can help understand the For example, drought management and fresh local context, needs and priorities of the community water conservation introduced by agricultural for adaptation. The PR can also reduce knowledge departments can be termed effective if the level of and technology gaps. bio-physical vulnerability-related risks faced by farmers is reduced.

7 Determinants and Effectiveness of Local-Level Adaptation to Climate Change

A few more studies have also identified similar various systems such as natural, human, social and factors as determinants of the effectiveness/success economic. The adaptive capacity is determined by of adaptation. For example, the ARCAB project economic wealth, technology, information and skills, suggests that reduction in climate change risk and infrastructure, institutions and equity (Smit et al, vulnerability as well as institutional and technical 2001). Hence, measuring the effectiveness of LLA sustainability of adaptation initiatives determine requires understanding how well these economic, their effectiveness (IIED and BCAS, 2011). Doria technological, institutional and social conditions are et al (2009) have identified a number of criteria improved. For example, poverty alleviation needs to for measuring successful adaptation. These include be considered as a necessary condition for building reduction of risk from climate hazards, reduction of the capacity to design and implement adaptation exposure and sensitivity to climate variability and measures that address possible climate risks, and hazards by increasing adaptive capacity and the level can be subsequently integrated into local adaptation of resilience in addressing the impacts on economic process. Also, a community or a society vulnerable and social development processes. to climate change impacts should promote sharing of right information about weather and climate change Smit et al (2001) further argue that enhancement impacts in local contexts, blending of scientific of adaptive capacity is a necessary condition for and local knowledge, enhancement of institutional reducing climate-related risks and vulnerability. capacity and engagement of local government in This means that the effectiveness in reducing the implementing adaptation actions (BCAS, 2010 and risks and vulnerability is inherently associated with Adger et al, 2007). the level of improvement in adaptive capacity in

8 Chapter 3 Local Contexts, Determinants and Effectiveness of Two Adaptation Initiatives in Bangladesh Determinants and Effectiveness of Local-Level Adaptation to Climate Change

Local Contexts: Climate Risks and nature, environment, climate and society. They Vulnerabilities also did not have adequate disaster preparedness at family and community levels (BCAS and Caritas, 2008). The poor people and women, particularly the fishers, forest product collectors, wage earners outhwestern Coastal Zone: The biophysical and small farmers were extremely vulnerable due to condition of the southwestern coastal zone lack of capacity and awareness about climate change is highly vulnerable to salinity, sea level rise, impacts on their lives and livelihoods. frequent cyclones, and storm surges. Significant swathes of the coastal area are already facing Northwestern Upland: The Barind (upland in the salinity intrusion, which will become more Northwestern part of Bangladesh) in Rajshahi pronounced due to sea level rise. Coastal agriculture, Division has been experiencing drought condition for forests, biodiversity, drinking and domestic water the last 2–3 decades. In the recent years, the drought use, among others, are key vulnerable areas, and has aggravated due to temperature rise and poor Sneed new approaches and technologies to deal rainfall in the region. This has affected soil moisture, with existing and future salinity and cyclonic fertility and agricultural productivity. People face problems in the coastal area. In the context of severe water scarcity in both long summers and dry biophysical vulnerability, the project carried out winters. Nachole is one of the severely drought-hit field reconnaissance and participatory vulnerability upazilas. Agricultural productivity has decreased in assessment (PVA) in the Munshiganj union in the many of the drought affected villages and most of the Shyamnagar Upazila under Satkhira district. people suffer from food scarcity, malnutrition, and livelihood insecurity. The increased salinity in the locality has affected water, soil, agriculture, vegetation, mangrove forest, Nachole is part of the Barind tract, whose distinctive fisheries and livelihoods of the communities and geographical feature consists of a group of dry households. It has also posed serious health risks terraces in uplifted blocks. It covers an area of 8,720 due to scarcity of drinking water. The locals say sq kms in northwestern Bangladesh, and is located cyclones with tidal surges that increase the width between the floodplains of two major rivers, the of the rivers are also damaging human settlements, Padma and the Jamuna. Around 532,000 hectares homesteads, infrastructure, productive land and of the 773,000 hectares of the Barind tract are natural resources, thereby shrinking the livelihoods cultivable despite dry soil and inadequate ground assets and potential of the poor and marginal and surface water. Lack of rainfall has created community. difficulties for the farmers by drying up the natural sources of water. The usual rainy season for the The physical environment and the climatic factors Barind Tracts lasts from late April to October but have increased the social vulnerability of the poor due to long spells of dry weather, the rainfall is often communities. In the villages in Munshiganj, about not enough to adequately water the soils for a longer 60%–70% of the people are poor. Of them, about period of time. The temperature too often exceeds 40% are extremely poor and live on wage labor, 40 degree Celsius (Hassan, 2012). Considering the collection of forestry products from the Sundarbans increasing impacts of drought in the region, the and subsistence fishing, while others are engaged in DAE of the Ministry of Agriculture undertook the agriculture, shrimp/fish farming and small trading. LACC project in three Upazilas, including Nachole in The poor, marginal people, women and children Chapai Nawabganj district. suffer the most from salinity intrusion, decrease in agricultural productivity, increasingly frequent The project has identified the following issues cyclones, and tidal surges. They have limited capacity as those impacting agriculture and livelihoods in and resources to deal with shocks and vulnerability Nachole and greater Barind Tracts: to climate change. They are also engaged in risky jobs such as fishing in the offshore areas, and collecting High evaporation rate and temperature materials from the mangrove forest for their survival. Extreme agricultural drought and dryness Before the project, they lacked proper understanding Dried up canals and water bodies; and and awareness about the emerging changes in Damage to agricultural crops.

10 Case Studies of Two Initiatives in Bangladesh

Adaptation Strategies of the Two Initiatives see expressed purposes/objectives of the projects and expected outputs/outcomes in Matrix 1). The common strategies included the following:

Local adaptation objectives, outputs, outcomes and Participatory planning and social mobilization strategies were formulated based on the examination To improve understanding about risks and of the local contexts, climatic factors (e.g. drought, vulnerability; salinity and cyclones), and current coping and Awareness raising and communication of adaptation needs of the vulnerable communities. climate risks; The main purpose of the two adaptation projects Improve coping abilities and strengthen DRR; (implemented by Caritas Bangladesh and DAE of the Conservation of natural resources and GoB) was to enhance the adaptive capacity of the enhancement of ecosystem services vulnerable communities and ecosystems to tackle Facilitate local innovation and technology climate impacts, risks and vulnerability in the local generation; contexts (salinity and drought) and protect the lives Promotion of food and livelihood security; and livelihoods of the common people. There were Local capacity and institution building; and several commonalities in the adaptation strategies Learning, sharing and policy advocacy. of the two projects to achieve their goals. (Please Matrix 1: Key Features of the Two LLA Projects Key Project Features Issues Adaptation of Coastal Community LACC in Drought Prone Areas Purposes/ objectives To enhance the adaptive capacity of the poor, To enhance adaptive capacity to tackle the drought marginal and vulnerable community to address the impacts for sustainable agriculture and food security impacts of increasing salinity, cyclone, tidal surges, of the marginal farmers Expected erosion and possible sea level rise outputs/ outcomes To make the selected community and To improve understanding and awareness of the stakeholders aware of the present and future selected farming community and stakeholders salinity intrusion, tidal inundation, and impacts about the present and future impacts (such as of cyclones on their lives and livelihoods, besides temperature rise, lack of rainfall or its pattern the associated risks and vulnerability; change, weather and seasonal pattern change, To improve coping mechanism, and enhance reduction of ground water-level) on their lives and adaptive capacity of the vulnerable community livelihoods and associated risks and vulnerability; for livelihood diversification To enhance knowledge transfer and local To communicate climate risks and improve innovation community disaster preparedness To improve coping mechanism and enhance To share learning, experiences and advocacy to adaptive capacity for food and livelihood security influence the policy and decision making process To share learning, experiences and advocacy to at regional, national and international levels. influence policies and decisions of the government Key and actors. Strategies Awareness raising and communication of climate Better understanding on the climate impacts, risks risk and vulnerability Promotion of safe drinking water for the Better farm and agronomic management community (through rain water harvesting) Crop diversification, intensification and Fresh water conservation for agriculture and introduction of drought-tolerant crop varieties and domestic use of water farming practices Social forestry, tree plantation and bio-resources Water conservation, efficient and multiple use of conservation scarce water resources Climate-resilient agriculture and crop Introduction of new technologies and innovation diversification in water and farm management Promotion of alternative livelihood activities; and Alternative enterprise development (integrated Strengthening of disaster preparedness at homestead gardening and pond fish culture) household and community level. Institutional adjustment Knowledge dissemination Community development (farmers’ field schools and farmers’ clubs)

11 Determinants and Effectiveness of Local-Level Adaptation to Climate Change

Adaptation Actions of the Two Initiatives Drought-tolerant crop varieties; Integrated homestead gardening; Adaptation Actions in the Coastal Zone Organic inputs and pest management; Knowledge dissemination; and : The Linking farmers with local government and adaptation activities were demand driven and development agencies. relevant to the local contexts. The local adaptation Factors and used both local and external knowledge and Determinants of the resources. The main objectives of the local adaptation actions and innovations were to increase local Two Initiatives capacity, diversity in livelihood, reduce disaster risk and conserve natural resources (water, mangrove forests, and bio-resources) which were being severely affected by the growing salinity and climatic A number of local and external factors and extremes. Following are some of the effective local determinants were instrumental in the effective adaptation actions: implementation of the two projects. The local factors included participatory planning and engagement Creation of awareness about climate risks of community and targeted beneficiaries; inputs of Setting up of an environment school the vulnerable community and actors about project Rainwater harvesting approaches and interventions; awareness, training Re-excavation of ponds, and water and capacity building; integration of local knowledge, conservation for drinking and domestic use needs and priorities into local adaptation strategies; Canal re-excavation and conservation of rain local innovation and support from local government water for irrigation bodies such as the Union Council, Local Government Community-led mangrove afforestation Engineering Department (LGED), Department of Integrated agriculture and aquaculture; and Public Health Engineering (DHPE), and community organizations. High levels of climate vulnerability, Adaptation Crab fattening Actions in in saline the Drought-prone water. Upland widespread poverty, food and livelihood insecurity : among the majority of the locals were critical local The land of the Barind Tracts is very dry with poor conditions and factors that necessitated adaptation fertility due to its geographical location, and the interventions. The key external factors included impacts of climate change. For this reason, the an enabling national policy environment and DAE and the farmers work closely to help promote institutional support (Bangladesh’s NAPA guideline drought-resilient sustainable farming. Decisions and research partnership of DAE with FAO as well as are made based on climatic changes observed in the IIED and BCAS support to Caritas); resources from previous seasons, and the local adaptation actions government and donor partners; R&D, technology are identified through field tests and experiences. Determinantsand knowledge transfer. of Local-level The adaptation strategies were developed via Adaptation in Coastal Ecosystems participatory research and consultations with the affected people, including the farmers. The research took the farmers’ experiences over generations There have been a number of local determinants into account to understand how the farming cycles (such as geophysical conditions, climate stresses have been influenced by the impacts of seasonal and social vulnerability), technological interventions and weather pattern changes. The key interventions (rainwater harvesting, new varieties of crops and included: water management), institutional support (formation of community-based organization and engagement Farmers’ field school and farmers’ clubs; of local government) and external factors (support Water conservation and irrigation from Caritas Australia and collaboration between management; BCAS and Caritas Bangladesh) that determined the Mini-pond for water conservation and drought designing and implementation of local adaptation, management; which yielded some early good results for the Crop diversification and intensification; vulnerable communities.

12 Case Studies of Two Initiatives in Bangladesh

The high level of vulnerability due to climatic factors about improved crop varieties and their proper and poverty primarily determined the planning upkeep played a determining role for effective and implementation of the local-level adaptation. adaptation. Affected communities require capacity Targeting the vulnerable community and engaging building programs such as hands-on training to it purposefully in planning and implementation understand the potential of the improved seeds was an important determinant for the effective or organized crab farming to overcome the risks implementation of the project. The second most posed by climate change to their socio-economic important enabling condition was the interest development. The demonstrations and knowledge- shown by the community members, and their sharing process inspire the affected people to active participation in the project. Other important accept and utilize the innovation. The farmers of determinants such as knowledge, technology, Munshiganj and the implementing agency agreed capacity building and resource allocation are that continuous research on rice varieties and other Localdiscussed Factors below. saline-tolerant crops, vegetables and fruits will help them in sustaining adaptation in the long term. : Participatory planning and communicating of climate risk were initial steps The rainwater harvesting technology at the primary toward successful implementation of local-level school reduced the risks of various types of water- adaptation. Blending of scientific knowledge with borne diseases resulting primarily from saline local knowledge was an important determinant water. However, the water stored at the school is for demonstrating effective local adaptation in insufficient to serve the entire community. The agriculture, water conservation, and livelihood setting up of at least 8–10 such rainwater harvesting diversification. The scientific and technological storage systems would help the entire community to information blended with existing practices and significantly benefit from the technology. indigenous knowledge motivated the farmers of Munshiganj to return to crop cultivation. Support from the local government (Union Parishad and Upazila officials) was critical for implementing Earlier, as the land became unsuitable for growing adaptation activities such as canal digging for fresh traditional crops due to salinity intrusion, the farmers water conservation. Linkage with local government had little choice but to take to shrimp farming. and gaining institutional support for the vulnerable However, this too had a negative impact on the local communities—government land was allotted for environment as frequent cyclones damaged the fresh water conservation, irrigation management banks of shrimp farms, leading to further intrusion and fish culture; the agricultural extension of saline waters. Besides, in recent years, the plague- department also gave the community fertilizers and hit shrimp farms had been suffering losses, which seeds of salt-tolerant rice—can also be considered compelled the farmers to explore alternatives. important local determining factors for effective Ironically, one of the alternative options turned Externalimplementation Factors of LLA in the coastal ecosystem. out be revisiting agriculture with scientifically- improved seeds of saline-tolerant rice varieties. : The key external factors that Sharing of scientific and technical knowhow with influenced the coastal project of Caritas included marginalized and vulnerable communities was a directives from national policies and strategies major determinant in the effective implementation identifying the coastal area as the most vulnerable of adaptation. Had it not been for the advanced ecosystem in Bangladesh, and the adaptation saline-resilient rice varieties, the farmers who had strategies of NAPA which mooted urgent adaptation once lost hope of cultivating rice, would not have actions in the coastal agriculture, while addressing been able to return to farming in the face of the fast the issues of salinity and water management, coastal changing climatic variables. Improvement of the afforestation and disaster preparedness. Caritas’ early warning system for crop sowing will also play participation in the NAPA formulation process also a determining role for a positive output from the encouraged them to customize their institutional technically-adjusted farming system. policy and strategies for climate-resilient development and take adaptation actions in coastal Along with scientific knowledge and local innovation, ecosystems. The other external factors included training workshops for disseminating knowledge research collaboration with International Institute

13 Determinants and Effectiveness of Local-Level Adaptation to Climate Change

for Environment and Development (IIED), BCAS and to understand climate change related variables, and support from donors. respond to the change with new technologies such as drought-tolerant crops and integrated farming. Policy-makers, researchers, non-government In line with that, it worked on developing field agencies and donors need to come together to schools and climate schools for farmers which later ensure that improved technologies and knowledge became self-sustaining clubs dedicated to sharing of are shared with the vulnerable communities free knowledge and technologies. The DAE utilized the of cost or at a subsidized cost. Institutional backing workshop programs in these schools to train the and an increase in such programs will enhance farmers and their female family members, who also the community’s resilience. Empowerment and play a significant role in crop and seed management, capacity building of the local-level staff members food security, family health and nutrition. of both Government and non-government sectors will also promote information sharing for better Participatory discussions with the farming outputs. Large-scale and longer duration adaptation community were therefore key to understanding programs too will result in climate-resilient indigenous knowledge. This process of knowledge Determinantssustainable development. of Local-level sharing helped the implementing agency to identify primary issues resulting from the impacts of Adaptation in Drought-prone Upland climate change, and disseminate proper scientific information and technologies needed for an effective The key determinants of LLA in drought-prone agricultural solution. Availability of resources was upland were geophysical conditions, climatic factors, one of the important determinants for effective high levels of poverty, and social vulnerability. implementation of adaptation techniques. DAE, The other determinants and enabling conditions the implementing agency in this case, continues included knowledge and capacity building to grasp to seek resources such as scientific information, technological information about cropping pattern relevant technologies, drought-tolerant seeds, and better farm management. Clear guidance and fertilizers, financial support, and human resources advice was needed for practical and meaningful to implement the project successfully. actions to draw positive results in the changed conditions. The agricultural community required The farmers shared their everyday experiences capacity building and awareness to understand what of dealing with temperature rise or late arrival of was happening to their livelihoods, what the future the winter, but they could not clearly understand risks would be, and how the impacts of climate could why the changes were taking place. The DAE gave them a clear insight into their current and future Localbe tackled Factors with new knowledge and technologies. environmental and climatic surroundings, and : There were a number of enabling they were able to understand why existing farming and local factors for effective implementation of practices were failing despite their hard work. They LLA in the drought-prone area. These included local were also able to see the rationale behind changing participatory planning with farmers, awareness the cropping patterns to ensure soil health for the creation and communication of risks; innovation following seasons. Subsequently, they shifted from and technology transfer (promotion of drought- the traditional variety of rice to alternative crops tolerant varieties, mini-pond for water conservation, such as wheat, lentils, and chickpeas. cropping diversity and integrated farming), purposeful engagement of project staff, training and Sharing of technologies and blending of scientific and capacity building, and institutional support from line indigenous knowledge were the key determinants agencies such as BADC and BARI, which provided for ensuring successful adaptation in agriculture, seeds of drought-tolerant rice and vegetables along water, and farm management. The advancement with fertilizers. of cropping technologies on the basis of scientific innovation and participatory research provided The DAE disseminated essential knowledge about strong support for adapting to changes. However, it new technologies for water management in an was also crucial to gain a thorough understanding of intensifying drought condition. It worked closely with indigenous knowledge that the farmers have been farmers to share knowledge and build their capacity relying upon for centuries. Adjustments were made

14 Case Studies of Two Initiatives in Bangladesh

in the cropping patterns by combining scientific adaptation undertaken in the floodplain of the information with existing knowledge. This resulted north and central parts of Bangladesh. The coastal in better management of crops as the farmers Bangladesh faces a different set of climatic stresses, understood how the new information could be used which include salinity, water-logging, cyclones, tidal along with their existing practices. surges and high tides.

Local institution and capacity building of farmers Social determinants such as level of poverty, through field schools and clubs linked with livelihood typologies and local institutional government departments to access information; arrangement (formal and informal) also vary community interest in gaining new skills for according to the ecosystem. integrated farming and water management in the intensifying drought conditions, and introduction But community organizations (farmers’ clubs in of new crops were important local determinants for Nachole and CBOs in Shyamnagar), high level of Externaleffective LLA Factors in the drought prone area. participation by local actors in the face of disaster risks and need for collective action; new livelihood : These included the expertise options; and local technological innovations such for assessing climate risks and vulnerability, as water conservation in canals and mini-ponds, development of local adaptation strategies with the rainwater harvesting, and crab cultivation, can be help of FAO and Asian Disaster Preparedness Centre considered common determinants, but in different (ADPC) scientists, and mobilization of resources local contexts. from FAO and CDMP-II projects. The national policy Effectiveness of Local- on environment and climate strategies (NAPA and level Adaptation BCCSAP) and support from government and donors were other important external factors. Independent monitoring and supervision of the project also helped to achieve the desired outcomes. Dissemination of The effectiveness of the two adaptation initiatives information about climate change and adaptation can be assessed by analyzing whether or not the through radio and TV also constituted key external outcomes of the initiatives met their expressed objectives. The main objectives of the two adaptation factorsCommon for the and project. Different Determinants projects were to enhance the adaptive capacity of the of Local-level Adaptation vulnerable communities and ecosystems to tackle climate change risks and vulnerability in the local contexts, and protect the lives and livelihoods of the There were a number of common determinants common people. The key outcomes included rise of LLA in the two ecosystems. They included in awareness and propagation of new knowledge, dissemination of right information, new knowledge, transfer of local innovation and technology, and promotion of awareness about climate change improvement in agricultural and farming systems, trends, its impacts, associated risks and vulnerability increase in farm productivity, enhancement of and adaptation needs. Affected communities in both food and social security, capacity building of local the ecosystems took an active part in the LLA, which institutions, promotion livelihoods of the poor and formed an important basis for effective planning and vulnerable community in the changed conditions, implementation of the two initiatives. Other common strengthening of DRR practice, and regeneration of elements and determinants included participatory ecosystem services. vulnerability and capacity assessment (PVCA), Local Adaptation Plan of Action (LAPA) and harmonization The adaptation project implemented by Caritas of local knowledge with external knowledge and resulted in good outcomes in terms of better technology. awareness, social mobilization, motivation and local actions. The construction of Rainwater Harvesting However, there was a difference in biophysical and and Purification System (RWHS), water conservation social determinants of LLA between two ecosystems. ponds and canals have improved ecological services For example, frequency and intensity of floods and and enhanced productivity in agriculture, fisheries their impacts on the resource base, livelihood and and home-based vegetable growing, thereby infrastructure were the key determinants for local

15 Determinants and Effectiveness of Local-Level Adaptation to Climate Change

enhancing the livelihood potentials and outcomes in early warning systems and disaster preparedness terms of availability and access to food, better heath have also built local capacity and resilience, thereby and family wellbeing. The knowledge exchange, curtailing the level of risk and vulnerability among technology transfer leading to the introduction of the coastal community. saline-tolerant rice and local innovation also helped in protecting resources and enhancing productivity. In addition, the adaptation actions implemented They also helped in harnessing benefits from the by the DAE in the drought-prone Nachole resulted changing environment through crab cultivation. All in a set of good outcomes in terms of awareness these efforts have improved the local livelihoods raising about climate change impacts, local capacity and reduced risk and vulnerability caused by building, improvement of farming systems, increase climate change, natural disasters, environmental in agricultural productivity and enhancement degradation, and other social factors. of ecosystems services. The climate change risk analysis of the drought-prone area has been worked These initiatives are an effective beginning of the out, and the project is working toward tackling the adaptation process in the coastal villages, and risks with successful implementation of a number of their legacy lies in the continuation of efforts by adaptation measures in its pilot phase. The actions the community, local actors and government. The that are being taken by the DAE have helped to project has played an important role in addressing reduce climate change risks among the community extreme poverty by improving livelihoods and members, particularly the farmers and their families economic status of the poor and marginalized whose livelihoods were in jeopardy before the people. It has also addressed health issues caused intervention. by the intrusion of saline water, and raised awareness about the importance of plantation and The locals have been very enthusiastic about preservation of the Sundarbans’ ecosystem among receiving technical support from the DAE. The the youth and their families. There has also been an farmers who attended the DAE farmers’ school are improvement in infrastructure with the construction benefitting from the knowledge and experience of embankments and excavation of ponds and canals about adaptation that they have gained from the to allow non-saline water conservation for farming workshops. The DAE tackled the existing issues and household use. after consulting the locals about their needs and requirements, and is continuing to provide support Local innovative actions such as aquaculture were to the farmers with regular visits to the community, introduced on the basis of canal development for which has played a strong role in the effective irrigation. This has significantly improved the implementation of the adaptation techniques. lives of the people practicing aquaculture. Some of the farmers are working toward returning to the The soil fertility and quality has improved ever since agriculture sector, while also remaining involved DAE introduced multiple crops. The land, which in crab farming. Despite being located in a remote had once became uncultivable due to drought, is and highly vulnerable area of the country, the now being used to grow paddy and wheat through multi-initiative livelihood programs are helping effective adaptation measures. The DAE partnership to raise the local community’s economic status with farmers in Nachole is exemplary, and worthy of slowly but steadily. The initiative has motivated being replicated in other parts of the country. a number of community members to undertake crab-fattening programs, thus reducing the risks of Further, continued scientific research and support financial hardship in the community. The livelihoods to the farmers will ensure long-term effectiveness diversification promoted by this program has played of adaptation strategies, and safeguarding of a determining role for poverty reduction. livelihoods in this drought-prone Barind Tract. Made more resilient by this project, the farmers are now The project played a positive role in distributing self-sufficient in sharing and gathering knowledge, improved varieties of seeds to the farmers besides and utilizing it for better farm management. The providing start-up aid for crab fattening. Thanks to farmers, who were able to produce better quality this small but meaningful support, the farmers are and quantity of grains, are sharing their seeds with now producing good quantity of rice and crabs. The their less-fortunate counterparts. The community

16 Case Studies of Two Initiatives in Bangladesh

bonding has become stronger through the farmers’ community, climate scientists and development school, which is now sustaining itself through its practitioners improved awareness about alumni initiatives of turning it into a cooperative climate risks at the community, local and club for sharing knowledge. regional levels, and engaged community and Determinants Leading actors in adaptation and DRR related actions. toward Achievement of Both the projects used popular communication tools (posters, leaflets and folk songs) for Greater Effectiveness building awareness and communicating climate risks, which in turn resulted in community unity and collective actions to address climate All the determinants of LLA identified above were change. instrumental in planning and implementation of the two adaptation initiatives. The factors that led to c. Training and capacity building: Both the projects the achievement of the objectives of the initiatives provided orientation and capacity building included participatory planning, research support, trainings in climate-resilient agriculture, awareness raising and communication of climate water and natural resources management risks, training and capacity building, knowledge (conservation of pond, canal digging for creation, innovation and technology generation, rainwater harvesting) and alternative resource transfer, and local institution building. livelihoods (crab farming in coastal villages) to farmers, women, vulnerable communities a. Participatory research (PR) and local planning: and local actors. The new skills and knowledge Both the Caritas and DAE projects invested a lot gained by the people helped them to increase of their time and effort in PR and local planning, their farm productivity besides promoting which helped the projects and the communities livelihoods, and regenerating ecosystem to understand risks and vulnerability in the services, thus contributing to achieving the contexts of salinity and drought. It also helped goals and objectives of the local adaptation them to identify appropriate adaptation initiatives. strategies and actions for agriculture, water management, afforestation, livelihood d. New knowledge, innovation and technology: promotion and DRR. In the drought-prone The projects supported knowledge generation upland, the DAE and FAO supported farmer- and dissemination, local innovation, and led action research for drought-resilient technology generation for drought and salinity- crops, water and farm management which tolerant crops, cropping diversity and intensity increased agricultural productivity and considering the climate stresses in both ensured food security. BCAS and IIED provided initiatives. Only a few of the demonstrations research support to Caritas for conducting were successful as adaptation activities are participatory vulnerability assessment (PVA) relatively new in both project sites. There is and local planning in the coastal ecosystems a great need for further R&D to improve the that resulted in the development of locally effectiveness of the demonstrated technologies appropriate adaptation action plan, which was and explore other options for irrigation implemented by the communities, NGOs and management and livelihood improvement in local government. view of the future climatic stresses and impacts. However, technology transfer and local b. Awareness creation and communication innovations were more effective in drought- of climate risk: The PR generated a lot of prone areas than in the coastal ecosystem, information about local and regional-level which has been degraded to a great extent due climate change trends, risks and vulnerability to salinity and frequent natural disasters. It was faced by different categories of people, and difficult to get higher yield from new varieties the current coping and adaptation needs of rice in the coastal area. of the communities. The co-learning by the

17 Determinants and Effectiveness of Local-Level Adaptation to Climate Change

e. Resources transfer: The initial resources also linked with government agencies and allocation from FAO and government of development organizations. They are now Bangladesh for the DAE project was a great help taking a lead in advancing local adaptation, in initiating the project in the drought-prone natural resources conservation, DRR, and area. The donor support for the Caritas project livelihood promotion of the poor and vulnerable was equally important for launching research groups. and community action for local adaptation. Further resources are required to upscale the g. Policy environment: National policy approaches and initiatives. environment and climate change strategies were great external supports to the LLAs of f. Local institution building: Efforts were made to both DAE and Caritas. build local institutions in both the projects. The farmers’ schools and clubs were introduced h. Monitoring and supervision: The DAE project and strengthened by DAE, while Caritas formed staff observed that monitoring and supervision CBOs (Community-based Organization) to was extremely helpful for achieving higher implement the activities at the local and levels of effectiveness. The Caritas project also community levels. The local organizations are followed a participatory M&E plan.

18 Chapter 4 Conclusions Determinants and Effectiveness of Local-Level Adaptation to Climate Change

The characteristics, types and forms of local Coordination among the actors and adaptation depend primarily on climate stimuli and stakeholders; and the level of vulnerability; who have to adapt (their Regular monitoring and supervision. knowledge, resources and technology base) and how do they adapt to the changes, and the policy Adaptation is an evolving field, and many new but environment of the country and the institutions related issues are being included in the adaptation concerned. Local adaptation actions are being carried basket besides the conventional DRR, livelihood, out across the developing world (WRI et al, 2011 and development, and ecosystem management. Both UNFCCC, 2010), but on a limited scale. Adaptation qualitative and quantitative methods are required for varies across ecosystems and social systems, and so measuring the effectiveness of local adaptation and do its determinants as the adaptive capacity of the understanding the various factors that determine communities is related to the physical, economic, it. There is a growing interest in using appropriate social, institutional and technological conditions that tools and methods for measuring the effectiveness of either facilitate or impede effective local adaptation. local adaptation. A complex mix of conditions and determinants may enable the community to adapt better. Policy and The local contexts of the two initiatives are different institutional support, knowledge and information as one relates to a coastal ecosystem, while the other dissemination, technological innovation and concerns a drought-prone upland of Bangladesh. The purposeful engagement of actors and stakeholders adaptation strategies and actions were identified after can enhance capacity and promote local adaptation. considering the climatic factors, natural disasters, and The effectiveness of LLA can be measured by the associated risks and vulnerability faced by the local assessing the key outcomes and results in relation communities, including small farmers, fishers, forest to risks and vulnerability reduction, capacity and produce collectors, and women. The effectiveness of resilience building, and development outcomes. the two projects was determined by a set of common and diverse local determinants. Participatory Adaptation calls for a comprehensive and planning, awareness raising and communication of participatory approach, taking into account the climate risks, social mobilization and community nature and extent of the problems, causalities, and interest, local capacity and institution building consequences. Hence, the following issues must be (farmers’ clubs and CBOs); improvement in farm addressed in order to formulate and implement production and management of natural resources; successful and more effective adaptation: and blending of scientific knowhow with indigenous knowledge were some of the common determinants Defining risk and vulnerability in the local and that led to a greater level of effectiveness of the two social contexts; local adaptation initiatives in Bangladesh. Participation planning and engagement of local actors and local government institutes A wide range of local and external factors were (LGIs) through Participatory Vulnerability instrumental in the planning and implementation Assessment (PVA) and LAPA; of the two adaptation initiatives with a few of them Capacity of the vulnerable communities holding the key to achieving the goal, objectives and different actors and stakeholders for and subsequent effectiveness of the initiatives. implementing LAPA; The key determinants, which had a greater impact, Improving coping by blending of local and included participatory planning and research external/scientific knowledge; support, awareness and communication of climate Building resilience with short-term and long- risk, training and capacity building, knowledge term outcomes; sharing, innovation and technology generation, Protection of resources, lives, and livelihoods; resources transfer, and local institution building. Effective synergies between adaptation, DRR, The effectiveness of the two adaptation initiatives and development; was assessed mainly in terms of relevance, inputs, Strengthening local institutional capacity and outputs and outcomes of the interventions after linkages with relevant actors; meeting the locals and the project staff. A more Enhancing social protection, safety net, and rigorous evaluation involving quantitative and public services. qualitative approaches is needed to gauge the effectiveness and the cost–benefit analysis of the project interventions.

20 Case Studies of Two Initiatives in Bangladesh

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Doria Miguel de Franca, Boyd E and Adger W N (2009) Using Expert Elicitation to define Successful Adaptation, ELSEVIER (Environmental, Science and Policy Journal), Oxford, UK

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21 Determinants and Effectiveness of Local-Level Adaptation to Climate Change

Annex 1: List of Experts and Project Staff interviewed

SL Name Affiliation Dr. Abu Wali Raghib Hassan

1 Department of Agricultural Extension Project Director Khamar Bari, Farmgate, Dhaka DisasterDr. Mazharul & Climate Aziz Risk Management in Agriculture

2 Department of Agricultural Extension Deputy Project Director Khamar Bari, Farmgate, Dhaka DisasterDr. Anowara & Climate Begum Risk Shelly Management in Agriculture

3 Caritas Bangladesh DiscussionsDirector, in Drought-prone Caritas Fisheries Area Program of Chapai Nawabgonj 4 Md. Jahedul Haq

Nachole, Chapai Nawabgonj Upazila Agriculture Officer

56 Climate Field School Shibpur Shiala, Nachole

Shobdolpur village – Farmers’ ICM Club Shobdolpur, Sonaichandi, Nachole, Chapai Nawabgonj

7 Pump operator of Barindra Multi-purpose Development Shobdolpur, Nachole, Chapai Nawabgonj DiscussionsAuthority in coastal (BMDA) area of Satkhira

8 Project Implementation team, Munshigonj Unit Office, Caritas Bangladesh, Shymnagar, Mr. Shanjib, Mr Prashanta and Mr. Chandrashakhor Satkhira

9 Dhankhali Registered Non Government Primary School Dhankhali, Shymnagar, Satkhira Committee

10 Environment School Management Committee Mothurapur village, Munshigonj, Shymnagar, Satkhira

11 Farmers of crab fattening in saline water bodies Harinagar, Munshigonj, Shymnagar, Satkhira

12 Farmers Group of Saline Tolerant Agriculture and Harinagar, Munshigonj, Shymnagar, Satkhira Aquaculture

13 Beneficiaries of canal re-excavation and conservation of Shymnagar, Satkhira freshwater for irrigation and fish culture

14 Beneficiaries of pond re-excavation and installation of Kulltali village, Munshigonj, Shymnagar, Satkhira Pond Sand Filter

22

Secretariat

Adaptation Knowledge Platform Regional Resource Centre for Asia and the Pacific (RRC.AP) Outreach Building, P.O. Box 4, Klong Luang Pathumthani 12120, Thailand Tel: +662 524 5386/5384; Email: [email protected] Website: http://www.climateadapt.asia

October 2012 Photo credits : BCAS, 2012