The Educational System in

Ministry of , Science and Culture 1998 contents

BACKGROUND ...... 4

PRE-SCHOOL EDUCATION ...... 10

COMPULSORY EDUCATION ...... 16

UPPER ...... 24

HIGHER EDUCATION ...... 32

TABLES ...... 40

3 B ACKGROUND

Iceland is a republic Iceland is an island in the North for a four-year term. Executive with a parliamentary Atlantic Ocean, on the borders power lies with the cabinet democracy. of the temperate and the Arctic formed by the political parties. zones, with its extreme northern The government must have the point touching the Arctic Circle. direct or indirect support of the Its nearest neighbour to the west majority of the Icelandic parlia- is Greenland, at a distance of ment, which has 63 members. 278 km. Some 420 km to the Parliamentary elections are held southeast lie the Faroe Islands. at intervals of four years or less.

Iceland´s total area is approxi- The Evangelical Lutheran 2 mately 103,000 km of which Church is the official state only 23% is arable land. church.

As of the 1st of December 1997, is exercised the population of Iceland was by 162 municipalities. 272,064 with a population densi- 2 ty of ca. 2.5 inhabitants per km . In 1996, the principal employ- Icelandic is the national lan- ment sectors were: agriculture, guage. 4.5% of work force; fishing and fishing industry, 10.9%; industry Iceland is a republic with a par- other than fishing, 11.1%; con- liamentary democracy. The Pres- struction, 6.5%; commerce and ident is elected by popular vote repair services, 13.7%; hotel and

4 A fundamental princi- restaurant, 3.1%; transport and tionally been organised within ple of Icelandic educa- communications, 7.1%; banking the public sector, and there are tion is that everyone and insurance, 3.2%; public ad- very few private institutions in should have equal op- ministration, 4.2%; real estate the school system. Almost all portunities to acquire and business services, 6.2%; ed- private schools receive public an education. ucation, 6.7%; health services funding. and social work, 14.7%; others, 8.1%. At the pre-school level, teaching and education are carried out As of the 1st of November 1997, with clear goals in mind, under 3.8% of the work force was un- the guidance of specially trained employed. personnel.

Basic principles The main purpose of compulso- A fundamental principle of Ice- ry schooling (ages six to sixteen landic education is that every- years) is to prepare pupils for one should have equal opportu- life and work in a continuously nities to acquire an education, ir- developing, democratic society. respective of sex, economic sta- The organisation of the school tus, residential location, religion, as well as its work shall, there- possible handicap, and cultural fore, be guided by tolerance, or social background. According Christian values and democratic to the of 1974 on the educa- co-operation. tional system, everyone is enti- tled to free compulsory upper At the upper secondary level, secondary and . which normally includes the six- Education in Iceland has tradi- teen- to twenty-year age group,

5 of opportunity among adults without regard to location, age, gender, occupation or previous education.

Distribution of responsibility Icelandic parliament is legally and politically responsible for the educational system. It deter- mines its basic objectives and administrative framework. All education comes under the juris- diction of the Ministry of Educa- tion, Science and Culture, with The Icelandic parlia- anyone who has completed the exception of a few spe- ment is legally and or has cialised schools. politically responsible turned eighteen has the right to for the educational enter a course of studies. An ef- The educational system has, to a system. fort must be made to give pupils large extent, been decentralised a choice of subjects and forms of both with regard to responsibili- instruction in accordance with ties and decision-making. This their needs and wishes. The pri- reflects a general trend in Ice- mary aims of upper secondary landic society. Local municipali- education are to prepare pupils ties are responsible for the oper- for life and work in a democrat- ation of pre-schools and primary ic society by offering them suit- and lower secondary schools. able opportunities to learn and On the other hand, the state develop individually, and pre- runs the upper secondary pare them for employment schools and schools at the high- through specialised studies lead- er education level. ing to professional qualifications or further study. Central administration The Ministry of Education, Sci- are charged with the ence and Culture is directed by a task of carrying out research and Secretary General, who acts on offering higher education pro- the instructions of the Minister. grammes in different subjects as stipulated by the legislation gov- The Ministry is divided into three erning each institution. offices: • Office of the Minister and Sec- The main purpose of adult edu- retary General, which includes cation is to encourage equality four departments: Administra-

6 The Ministry of Educa- tion, Financial Affairs, Interna- The National Centre for Educa- tion, Science and Cul- tional Relations and Legal Affairs. tional Materials (under the aus- ture issues the Nation- • Office of Education and Re- pices of the Ministry of Educa- al Guide- search tion, Science and Culture) devel- lines for compulsory • Office of Cultural Affairs. ops and publishes educational and upper secondary materials for compulsory schools education Each of these departments and and distributes them to pupils offices is under the control of a free of charge. Director General. The Institute for Educational Re- The Ministry determines the ed- search is an independent institu- ucational programme for pre- tion funded by the state through school education at the national the Ministry of Education, Sci- level by issuing an educational ence and Culture. Its main func- programme which the pre- tion is to carry out research in schools are to follow. the field of education, both at the compulsory and upper sec- The Ministry issues the National ondary levels. The Institute is re- Curriculum Guidelines for com- sponsible for organising, setting pulsory and upper secondary and grading the nationally co-or- education. These National Cur- dinated examinations. riculum Guidelines are intended both to provide the detailed ob- By law, each higher education jectives necessary to implement institution is directly responsible the law and offer direction as to to the Ministry of Education, Sci- how they should be carried out ence and Culture. in practice.

7 co-operation between the indi- vidual pre-schools.

A school board is responsible for compulsory educational af- fairs for each municipality. It is to ensure that all children of school age in the area receive the instruction prescribed by law. Local municipalities are re- sponsible for the full operation of schools at the compulsory level (primary and lower sec- ondary education), including the construction, operation and Local municipalities Local administration maintenance of facilities in ac- are responsible for Local municipalities are respon- cordance with the law of 1995 the full operation of sible for the full operation of concerning compulsory educa- pre-schools, primary pre-schools, and primary and tion. and lower secondary lower secondary schools. Apart schools. from being represented in the There is no local administration school boards of upper sec- at the upper secondary and ondary schools, local municipal- higher education level. ities have no administrative re- sponsibilities at the upper sec- Evaluation and ondary level, or at the higher ed- supervision ucation level. According to legislation and reg- ulations on pre-school educa- Pre-school education is con- tion, the Ministry of Education, trolled by the pre-school board Science and Culture is responsi- which supervises pre-school ed- ble for carrying out a compre- ucational affairs in the munici- hensive evaluation of pre- pality concerned. The larger mu- schools, i.e. their general educa- nicipalities have pre-school rep- tional performance with regard resentatives who are employees to the national objectives and of the municipalities in question. the schools´ educational plans. The pre-school representative works in co-operation with the Legislation adopted in 1995 on pre-school and its director, giv- compulsory education and in ing advice, monitoring the oper- 1996 on upper secondary educa- ation of the pre-schools within tion stipulates that all compulso- that municipality and promoting ry and upper secondary schools The Ministry of Educa- are to adopt methods of evaluat- Financing tion, Science and Cul- ing school activities, including Local municipalities pay for the ture shall investigate instruction and administrative construction and the operation the self-evaluation practices, internal communica- of pre-schools and primary and methods used by tion and external relations. The lower secondary schools. Par- compulsory and upper Ministry of Education, Science ents pay fees for their children secondary schools at and Culture is to investigate the to attend pre-schools. Compul- a five-year interval. self-evaluation methods used by sory education (primary and the schools at five-year intervals. lower secondary), including textbooks and materials, is com- The Ministry is responsible for pletely free of charge but in up- carrying out evaluation of com- per secondary and higher edu- pulsory schools and their activi- cation only tuition is free. The ties to ensure that schooling state pays for all educational ma- complies with provisions of the terials at the compulsory level. law on compulsory education and the National Curriculum The operating costs of upper Guidelines. secondary education are funded by the state. Construction costs According to recent legislation and initial capital investment for and regulations concerning indi- equipment are divided between vidual higher education institu- the state and the municipalities, tions, evaluation of which pay 60% and 40% respec- programmes must be conducted tively. on a regular basis. In recent years, the Ministry has taken University level institutions re- steps to initiate such regular ceive annual budget allocations evaluation. which they themselves adminis- ter. PRE-SCHOOL EDUCATION

Pre-school is the first General description of young children. The Ministry school level in The present legislation concern- is also to see to it that the educa- Iceland. ing pre-schools was passed in tion provided in pre-schools 1994. The first article of the law blends in smoothly with the ed- defines pre-schools as the first ucation that children receive in level of the educational system. the first years of compulsory ed- According to the law, pre- ucation. schools are to provide education for children who have not Local municipalities have the re- reached the age at which com- sponsibility of implementing the pulsory education begins. law on pre-school education. According to the law, the con- The Ministry of Education, Sci- struction and operation of pre- ence and Culture lays down the schools are to be funded and ad- framework and policy for pre- ministered by local municipali- school education, including its ties, which are to establish and educational role, and sets the operate pre-schools for children general policy regarding the and manage the schools in ac- methods used. The Ministry is to cordance with the law. They are, issue an educational programme furthermore, expected to em- that specifies the aims that pre- ploy pre-school representatives schools are to follow and de- who advise on matters that per- scribes the basic means and atti- tain to such schools and super- tudes that apply in the education vise their operation. Most pre-schools are All parents pay fees for their Other parties may also operate a established and run children to attend pre-school. pre-school in consultation with by the Parental contributions cover the municipality. Almost all pri- municipalities. roughly 30% of the operating vate pre-schools receive finan- costs of publicly run pre- cial support from the municipal- schools. The fees in privately ity. run pre-schools are around 15- 20% higher than in the public Pre-schools are for all children ones. who have not reached the age at which compulsory school be- Pre-schools are most often in gins, i. e. the 1st of September of buildings that are specifically de- the year in which the child turns signed and constructed for their six. However, very few pre- operation, and they are situated schools accept children less than where there is enough room to one year old, and the youngest have a spacious playground, ap- children are usually two years proximately 30 to 40 square me- of age. In local municipalities tres of space for each child. In- where there may be insufficient doors, 7 square metres of space room to accommodate all appli- are required for each child. Pre- cants, the children of single par- schools are intended for both ents and are often giv- boys and girls, and with only en priority. one exception, pre-schools in Iceland are co-educational. Handicapped children have the same right as other children to Most pre-schools are established attend pre-schools, and in many and run by the municipalities. cases are given a priority status provided in groups under the di- rection of pre-school ;

• to place emphasis on encour- aging, in co-operation with par- ents, the all-round development of the children in accordance with the individual nature and needs of each child and to strive to offer them the emotional and physical support needed to en- joy their childhood;

• to encourage tolerance and open-mindedness in the chil- Handicapped children in regard to admission. The pro- dren and to provide them with have the same right as gramme for handicapped chil- equal opportunities to develop; other children to dren is the same as for other attend pre-schools. children, but adapted to their • to support their Christian ethi- abilities. cal development and lay the foundations for children to be- The children are usually divided come independent, conscious, into separate groups according active and responsible partici- to age. It is not uncommon, pants in a democratic society however, especially in smaller which is constantly and rapidly communities that children in dif- changing; ferent age brackets are kept to- gether in a group. • to foster the children’s creative and expressive abilities in order Curriculum to strengthen their self-image, The law concerning pre-schools de- feelings of security and ability to fines their main aim in education as solve problems in a non-aggres- follows: sive manner. • to provide children with safe conditions in which to play and As the law concerning pre- a healthy environment in which schools stipulates, the Ministry to grow up; of Education, Science and Cul- ture issues an educational pro- • to give children the opportuni- gramme which they are to fol- ty of participating in games and low. This programme is to in- activities and to enjoy the more clude a definition of the educa- varied educational opportunities tional and pedagogical role of The nucleus of the pre-schools and a policy of how The educational programme for educational work in that role is to be carried out. The pre-schools is issued in lieu of a pre-schools is the play. current pre-school educational curriculum. programme is based on a child- The programme deals with the centred ideology, where empha- following educational areas: sis is placed on childhood as a • Caring and daily routine separate stage of development • Play and playing conditions with special qualities which • Speech and speech stimula- must be borne in mind; the indi- tion vidual development and needs • Visual creativity and of each child must be the focal expression point. The nucleus of education- • Music, sound and movement al work in pre-schools is play, • Nature which is considered the best • Society way for the child to learn and mature. There are no clear demarcation lines between these areas as in Children attend pre-schools the case of traditional school from 4 hours to a maximum of 9 subjects and each pre-school de- hours a day. termines how much time is spent on each area and how Pre-school education is intended they are integrated. to bridge the gap between caring for children and educating them, Special Teaching supporting their all-round devel- Pre-school-age children who opment and thus preparing them need special assistance or train- for primary school and life itself. ing because of a handicap or

3 takes place in their school is evaluated on a regular basis. The present law concerning pre- schools gives the Ministry of Ed- ucation, Science and Culture the duty of carrying out a compre- hensive assessment of their gen- eral educational performance.

Teachers Pre-school teachers are required to complete a three-year course of studies at the Icelandic Col- lege for Pre-school Teachers or at the . Special assistance or emotional or social difficulties Most of the students who enter training is provided in are provided with such training. this college have completed ma- pre-schools for Aimed at increasing the child’s triculation examinations. The handicapped children competence, this training and is programme is divided into two- and children with undertaken within the pre- thirds academic subjects and emotional or social school they attend, according to one-third practical training in a difficulties. certain rules and under the su- pre-school under the supervi- pervision of a pre-school teach- sion of a qualified pre-school er, a social pedagogue or other . specialists. All children who get special assistance or training are It has become quite common for given regular check-ups to mon- qualified pre-school personnel itor their health and develop- to supplement their education ment. after having worked for a mini- mum of three years in a pre- Assessment school. In-service training for Pre-schools are not required to pre-school teachers is not re- assess the performance or the quired by law. progress of each child. Howev- er, such an assessment is made Pre-school education is to be giv- by the pre-school staff or spe- en by staff who has professional cialists, if any suspicion of devia- training in working with children tion from normal development at this level. It is not until the 1994 arises within the pre-school. law on pre-school education that the title pre-school teacher is Heads of pre-schools see to it used officially, but it has not the that the educational work that status of a professional title.

4

COMPULSORY EDUCATION

Primary and lower General description 170 and classes are held five secondary education In 1995, new legislation con- days a week. School hours vary. form part of the same cerning compulsory schools was school level. passed. In comparison with pre- The law makes it the duty of vious legislation, the greatest parents to see to it that their chil- change is that as of the 1st of dren register for and attend August, 1996, local municipali- school. The law also specifies ties took over the operation of the duty of the state and local schools at the compulsory level. municipalities to see to it that in- struction, as decreed by law, be The law concerning compulsory given. education stipulates mandatory education for children and ado- There is no division between lescents between the ages of six primary and lower secondary and sixteen. The law determines education. They form part of the the length of the academic year same school level and usually and the minimum number of take place in the same school. lessons to be given each week There are no entrance require- and defines which subjects are ments at this school level, and obligatory. The school year lasts all children are accepted at the for nine months, normally be- age of six years. The enrolment ginning on the 1st of September rate is 100%. and ending on the 31st of May. The number of school days is Local municipalities operate

6 The local compulsory schools for children thermore, the school is to sys- municipalities operate and adolescents between the tematically integrate handi- compulsory schools ages of six and sixteen. They capped pupils into mainstream for children and pay for instruction, general education. adolescents teaching, substitute teaching, ad- between the ages of ministration and specialists’ ser- The state monitors the imple- six and sixteen. vices as well as the establish- mentation of educational law ment and running of schools at and regulations and is responsi- the compulsory level, and the ble for the publication of educa- provision of , tional materials. Furthermore, including the teaching of chil- the state is responsible for as- dren in hospitals and the opera- sessing individual schools and tion of a school attached to the the educational work that is car- state psychiatric ward for chil- ried out in them to ensure that dren. Special schools follow the all such activities are in compli- same programmes as ordinary ance with existing law and the compulsory schools. The law National Curriculum Guidelines. concerning schools at the com- pulsory level stipulates that all Local education offices provide children are to receive suitable schools with various specialist instruction, taking into account services, such as general peda- the nature of the pupil and his gogical counselling, counselling or her needs and promoting the in respect to particular subjects, development, health and educa- educational counselling for stu- tion of each individual. Pupils dents and have the right to attend school services. Where such services in the area where they live. Fur- are not offered by the local mu-

7 pupils. In rural areas, outside Reykjavík and its suburbs, there are many small schools, some with fewer than 10 pupils.

Almost one-half of all compulso- ry schools have fewer than 100 pupils. All compulsory schools are co-educational, i.e., pupils of both sexes attend.

Smaller rural schools generally have only a single teaching shift, with all pupils attending at the same time, but many of the larg- Almost one-half of all nicipalities themselves, the local er schools in urban areas are un- compulsory schools authority in question is under an able to accommodate all their have fewer than one obligation to negotiate with oth- pupils at the same time due to hundred pupils. er local municipalities or with shortage of space. Classes are institutions, such as teacher then staggered, with one portion training institutions or other par- of the pupils attending school ties which provide similar ser- during the earlier part of the day vices. and the remaining portion dur- ing the latter part of the day. Compulsory school is divided Some municipalities provide into ten grades. Three types of out-of-hours provision for the schools are the most common: children. The children then re- schools that have all ten grades, main at school after regular schools that have grades one to teaching is over, to study, play, seven and schools that have and pursue their hobbies. grades eight to ten. Schools that have grades eight to ten are of- Home-room or advisory teach- ten merger schools, i.e. they ers, who are required for each take in pupils from more than class by law, are intended in one school in the catchment particular to offer pupils advice area that has grades one to sev- on their studies and their study en. choice. Special school counsel- lors are relatively rare and are The size of schools varies found primarily in the larger tremendously. The largest schools. schools are in the capital and its suburbs and have about 700-800 The National Curriculum The National Curriculum Guide- Curriculum Guidelines The main aims of compulsory edu- lines are a further development apply to all grades and cation, as stated in the law of 1995, of the law and have the legal subjects in are the following: status of a ministry regulation. compulsory school. * to prepare pupils for life and They interpret the law and fur- work in a continually develop- ther specify what is to be co-or- ing democratic society. The or- dinated in all Icelandic compul- ganisation of the school and the sory schools. Furthermore, the work that takes place there is National Curriculum Guidelines thus to be guided by tolerance, set the parameters for each Christian values and democratic school and its staff in respect to co-operation. organisation, execution and evaluation of education within * to aim at conducting its opera- that school. The National Cur- tion in the fullest possible accor- riculum Guidelines apply to all dance with the nature and needs grades and subjects in compul- of its pupils and to encourage sory school. the development, health and ed- ucation of each individual. In addition to the National Cur- riculum Guidelines, the Ministry * to give pupils an opportunity of Education, Science and Cul- to acquire knowledge and skills ture issues guidelines on the and to cultivate work habits that proportion of total teaching time promote a continuous interest in to be devoted to individual sub- seeking education and self-de- jects for each year. The number velopment. School work is of hours of instruction varies ac- therefore to lay the foundation cording to the age of the pupils. for independent thinking and to train pupils’ ability to co-operate According to the law on com- with others. pulsory education, the staff of each school is obliged to write a On basis of the law, the Ministry school working guide which is of Education, Science and Cul- to be based on the National Cur- ture issues regulations and Na- riculum Guidelines, but gives tional Curriculum Guidelines. each school an opportunity to These provide the details of how take into account its circum- the law is to be implemented and stances and special characteris- define more clearly the educa- tics. The school working guide tional role of compulsory schools is to be an administrative plan and the main objectives of in- for each school. struction in individual subjects in accordance with that role. calendar, the organisation of teaching, the aims and content of the education offered, pupil assessment procedures, assess- ment of the work that goes on in the school, extra-curricular activ- ities and other aspects of the op- eration of the school.

According to the law concerning compulsory education, the num- ber of lessons per week will be increased so that, by the aca- demic year 2001-2002, the num- ber of lessons per week will be In the academic year It is to account for the school 30 in grades 1 to 4, 35 in grades of 2000 - 2001 the year and to include an annual 5 to 7 and 37 in grades 8 to 10. number of lessons per week in compulsory school will be 30 in grades 1 to 4, 35 in grades 5 to 7 and During the academic year of 1997-98 the number of lessons for each grade 37 in grades 8 to 10. was as follows:

Year 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Lessons per week 28 28 28 28 32 33 35 36 36 36

At the conclusion of ten years of compulsory education, the pupils’ scheduled school time will have been divided among the various subjects in approxi- mately the following manner:

Icelandic 18% Mathematics 15% Arts, crafts and home economics 20% Modern languages 9% Natural sciences 6% Social studies 7% Religious studies 3% 10% Electives and misc. extra studies 12% The law on Icelandic, mathematics, arts and and social sciences. compulsory education crafts, home economics, music, provides for special social studies, natural sciences In recent years, the number of instruction in and physical education are sub- immigrants has increased in Ice- Icelandic for jects which all pupils study from land. Most come from Scandi- children whose mother grade 1 through to grade 9. Dan- navia, Eastern Europe and from tongue is not ish is studied from grade 6 Asian countries. In the law on Icelandic. (eleven-year-olds) and English compulsory education, there are from grade 7. In the 10th grade provisions for the rights of immi- (the final year of compulsory ed- grant children, i.e., all children ucation), all pupils study Ice- whose mother tongue is not Ice- landic, mathematics, English, landic, to receive special instruc- Danish and physical education, tion to help them learn Ice- while other subjects and elec- landic. According to a regulation tives vary. in 1996 concerning the instruc- tion in Icelandic for pupils Pupils are generally expected to whose mother tongue is not Ice- cover the same subject material landic, such pupils shall, as far at roughly the same speed. Indi- as can be arranged and with the viduals having difficulty are pro- agreement of the local munici- vided with remedial teaching, pality in question, receive in- primarily in Icelandic and math- struction in their mother tongue. ematics, but remain with their class for most of their lessons. Special teaching Teachers choose teaching meth- Compulsory school pupils expe- ods suited to their pupils, their riencing academic or social diffi- instructional aims and the condi- culties are offered a consider- tions under which they teach. In able amount of remedial instruc- general, an attempt is made to tion, after the pupil’s academic provide as much variety as pos- difficulties have been diagnosed. sible. This instruction can take place in two different ways: either the Instruction based on the school’s remedial teacher works with the immediate environment general- form teacher in the classroom, ly takes place in the form of field where he or she assists the trips which are most often pupil, or the pupil is taken out linked to studies in traditional of the classroom and tutored by subjects. Studies of pollution in the remedial teacher on an indi- a nearby lake or river or studies vidual basis or in a small group. of soil erosion and actions to al- A number of schools also have leviate the problem are exam- special departments for pupils ples of projects related to natural with severe learning . on referenced criteria (10 being the highest). The purpose of these examinations is primarily to indicate the pupil’s standing at the completion of his compul- sory education and to assist her/him in choosing a course of upper-secondary study. At the end of compulsory schooling, all pupils receive a certificate stat- ing their marks on both the na- tionally co-ordinated examina- tions and all other courses com- pleted in their final year at school. Nationally co-ordinat- Assessment ed examinations in Examinations and other forms of The law concerning compulsory Icelandic and assessment, usually written, are education stipulates that nation- mathematics in grades carried out by individual teach- ally co-ordinated examinations 4 and 7 were set for ers and schools. Assessment is in core subjects be instituted in the first time in 1996. therefore not standardised be- the 4th and 7th grades. National- tween different schools and ly co-ordinated examinations for teachers. The way in which the grades 4 and 7 were set for the reports on pupils’ progress are first time in the autumn of 1996. written varies greatly: the assess- The subjects examined were Ice- ment could be in the form of a landic and mathematics. numerical or letter grade, or an oral or written commentary. Re- The Ministry is to produce sur- ports are given at regular inter- vey examinations and standard- vals throughout the school year ised proficiency examinations and at the end of each year. for the schools, in order to mea- sure the academic standing of At the end of the tenth and final students. The law also stipulates year of compulsory education, that each school is to introduce all pupils sit the nationally co-or- methods which will enable it to dinated examinations in Ice- evaluate its own educational landic, mathematics, English and work. This evaluation must in- Danish. These examinations are clude, among other things, composed, marked and organ- teaching and administration, ised by The Institute of Educa- communication within the tional Research. Marks ranging school and relationships with from one to ten are given, based external parties. Every five years To qualify as a the school’s methods of assess- school teacher, a three-year compulsory school ment are to be evaluated by an course at a teacher training col- teacher a three year outside party. lege is required. course at a teacher training college is The Ministry is also responsible Teachers are employed by the required as a for carrying out the evaluation of municipalities and work either minimum. schools and school activities to full-time or part-time. ensure that schooling complies with the provisions of the law Participation in in-service train- on compulsory education. ing or is not compulsory, but collective Teachers bargaining agreements provide At primary level (grades 1-7), the for teachers to attend training same teacher instructs a class in courses. Each year, teacher train- most subjects. At lower sec- ing institutions offer a variety of ondary level (grades 8-10), courses, both during the school teachers generally teach one or year and in the summer. more subjects to a number of different classes. Teachers may or may not continue with the same group from one year to an- other.To qualify as a compulsory UPPER SECONDARY EDUCATION

Anyone who has com- General description among other things, describe the pleted compulsory Upper secondary education is objectives and contents of indi- education has the governed by law from 1996. Cer- vidual programmes of study. right to enter a course tain provisions of the law, how- of studies in an upper ever, will take effect in stages, Upper secondary education is . with the full legislation com- not compulsory, but anyone pletely implemented by the be- who has completed compulsory ginning of the school year 2000- education has the right to enter 2001. The law primarily defines a course of studies in an upper the framework for education at secondary school. All schools at that level, its aims, the role and that level, like other schools in responsibility of the state and lo- Iceland, are co-educational. Ed- cal municipalities, as well as oth- ucation at upper secondary level er parties involved in providing is free of charge but pupils pay education at this level. More de- an enrolment fee and must pur- tailed provisions regarding the chase their textbooks. Pupils in implementation of upper sec- vocational training pay a part of ondary education are to be the cost of materials they use. found in regulations which the Ministry of Education, Science Pupils may enter upper sec- and Culture issues on the basis ondary schools at the end of of the law in effect. In addition, compulsory schooling in the the Ministry issues National Cur- year they turn sixteen. In recent riculum Guidelines which, years, 87-89% of the pupils who

4 The main types of completed compulsory educa- generally attend 32 to 40 lessons upper secondary tion have entered upper sec- per week, with each lesson last- schools are: grammar ondary education directly there- ing 40 minutes. schools, industrial after; the dropout rate during vocational schools, upper secondary schooling is, There are around 40 upper sec- comprehensive however, considerable. ondary schools, of varying size. schools and The largest schools have around specialized vocational The law concerning upper sec- 1,500 pupils and the smallest schools. ondary education allows for var- fewer than 50. ied admission requirements to different programmes of study at The main types of upper secondary the upper secondary level ac- schools are as follows: cording to what demands are • Grammar schools that offer made by the programme of four-year academic programmes study in question. However, all of study which conclude with pupils have the right to educa- matriculation examinations. tion at this level. Those students who fail to meet minimum re- • Industrial-vocational schools, quirements at the end of com- which offer theoretical and prac- pulsory school may take remedi- tical programmes of study in al courses in core subjects in an skilled and some non-skilled upper secondary school or go trades. into a special department. • Comprehensive schools that The school year, which lasts for provide academic programmes nine months, is divided into au- comparable to those of the tumn and spring terms. Pupils grammar schools and vocational

5 short general programme. Ac- cording to the law, all pro- grammes of study are to lead to further education either directly or through defined additional studies.

Upper secondary schools either have traditional classes or forms where all the pupils of a class follow a particular programme of study, or they operate accord- ing to a unit-credit system. In a unit-credit system the education- al content of each subject is di- The unit-credit system programmes similar to those of- vided into a number of defined is the most common fered by the industrial-vocation- course units which last for one form of upper al schools, as well as other spe- semester. Pupils in a given secondary education. cialised vocational training pro- course form a group for that grammes. course unit and they are given a certain number of credits for • Specialised vocational schools each course unit they complete. which offer programmes of The unit-credit system allows study in preparation for spe- pupils to regulate the speed at cialised employment. which they complete their edu- cation, i.e. to accelerate their Generally speaking, courses of studies or take more time be- study at the upper secondary cause of personal circumstances. level can be divided into aca- The unit-credit system is now demically and vocationally ori- the most common form of upper ented courses. However, this di- secondary education, both in vision is by no means without general academic studies and in exceptions, as these two fields vocational training. often overlap. Upper secondary schools gener- The law concerning upper sec- ally offer educational coun- ondary education stipulates that selling which, among other there should be four types of things, includes assistance in programmes of study: vocational choosing a programme of study, programmes, fine arts pro- in organising studies and mak- grammes, academic programmes ing a study plan and assistance leading to matriculation and a with study-related problems. Ed-

6 Some upper secondary ucational counselling also often upper secondary school are fur- schools have evening involves helping pupils with ther developed, the objectives of classes with their personal problems. individual programmes of study programmes and subjects are defined and the comparable to those Some upper secondary schools conclusion of study prescribed. of the day school. have evening classes with pro- The National Curriculum Guide- grammes comparable to those of lines prescribe the structure of the day school. These classes are individual programmes of study, intended in particular for adults coherence of study programmes who are not in a position to at- and the normal length of study tend school in the daytime be- for each programme. The guide- cause of their jobs or work in lines determine the minimum the home. number of instructional periods in individual subjects and their Curriculum general content. The law defines the objectives of up- per secondary education as follows: The National Curriculum Guide- • to encourage the overall de- lines are to make provision for velopment of pupils in order to assessment. They stipulate what prepare them as well as possible requirements pupils must fulfil for active participation in a to be considered to have com- democratic society. pleted individual courses in a study programme satisfactorily • to prepare pupils for employ- and the minimum pass require- ment and further study. ments for specific final examina- tions. • to strive to develop responsi- bility, broad-mindedness, initia- On the basis of the National Cur- tive, self-confidence and toler- riculum Guidelines, upper sec- ance in its pupils, train them in ondary schools are to write their disciplined and independent own school working guides. work practices and critical School working guides are re- thought, instruct them in appre- quired, among other things, to ciation of cultural values and en- specify what areas individual courage them to seek knowl- schools have chosen to empha- edge continuously. sise, define the education they offer, their teaching methods The National Curriculum Guide- and administration. lines issued by the Minister of Education, Science and Culture General Academic is the main guide on school op- Education erations. Here, the objectives of General academic education is

7 ucation or need further prepara- tion for academic or vocational studies.

Vocational Education takes place in comprehensive schools, in- dustrial-vocational schools and specialised vocational schools. The length of the courses they offer varies but the most preva- lent are four-year courses. Many forms of vocational training give the pupils legal certification for certain types of employment. Many forms of primarily organised as a four- This applies to studies in the vocational training year course leading to a matricu- skilled trades, and also, for ex- give the pupils legal lation examination. Subjects to ample, in the training of nurses’ certification for be studied are divided into three aides and in the course that certain types of groups: general subjects that all qualifies sea-captains. employment. pupils are required to take, spe- cialised subjects according to the Within vocational education, aims of a particular programme pupils can choose between of study and electives. About training for a skilled trade or vo- two-thirds of the course leading cational training in other areas, to matriculation has been of a for example in the field of agri- general nature and common to culture, in the travel industry, all programmes. fisheries, the food production in- dustry, or health and commerce. According to legislation on up- per secondary education, there Training for a skilled trade takes are to be three academic pro- three to four years. It is com- grammes of study leading to ma- prised of a vocational pro- triculation: foreign languages, gramme of study at an upper natural sciences and social sci- secondary school and a study ences. However, there are possi- contract with a master craftsman bilities for specialisation within or an industrial firm. each programme of study. Fur- thermore there is a shorter gen- The pupil has the choice of one of the eral programme of study for following avenues: pupils who are undecided as to • an apprenticeship agreement what to do after compulsory ed- with a master craftsman The journeyman’s • a one-year programme of ba- provides the qualifications re- examination provides sic academic and practical stud- quired to pursue the trade con- the apprentice with ies at an industrial-vocational cerned. During the training peri- qualifications to school or a comprehensive od, apprentices receive payment pursue the trade school, followed by an appren- from the employer according to concerned. ticeship agreement with a master wage agreements. craftsman. An apprentice who has complet- • an initial one-year programme ed the journeyman’s examina- of basic academic and practical tion can become a master crafts- studies, followed by a one-year man after a certain period of programme of specialised aca- work experience and advanced demic and practical studies at an studies at a . A industrial-vocational school or a master craftsman has the right to , and fi- supervise work in his field. nally an apprenticeship agree- ment with a master craftsman or The law on upper secondary ed- an industrial firm. ucation stipulates that pupils in vocational programmes are to be Both industrial-vocational schools given the possibility of doing ad- and comprehensive schools offer ditional studies in preparation education with programmes or for study at the higher education models of the same length and level. structure according to a common curriculum. On completion of The law of 1996 concerning up- studies, the apprentice takes the per secondary education stipu- journeyman’s examination, that lates that a vocational council stream education and do, for the most part, attend a regular class and follow the same subjects as other students, but with special assistance.

The law concerning upper-sec- ondary schools contains provi- sions in respect to special teach- ing in Icelandic for those stu- dents whose first language is not Icelandic. It also provides for special instruction in Icelandic for Icelandic students who have lived abroad for long periods of Icelandic upper with representatives from em- time and for deaf students. secondary schools ployers and employees, in the generally have vocations in question, in addi- Assessment examinations at the tion to one representative from Icelandic upper secondary end of every semester. the Ministry of Education, Sci- schools generally have examina- ence and Culture is to define the tions at the end of every needs of the vocations in ques- semester regardless of the type tion in respect to knowledge of school. Assignments complet- and ability of the employees and ed during the semester often to define the aims of that partic- count towards the final mark. ular course of study. Vocational Certain courses have no final ex- councils are also to make sug- amination at the end of the gestions concerning the struc- semester and the grade is based ture of vocational education and on continuous assessment and curriculum guidelines for special on the assignments set. subjects that pertain to the voca- tion in question. For the skilled trades, there- are journeyman’s examinations Special Teaching which are the responsibility of According to the law on upper the trade in question. According secondary education, handi- to the law, vocational councils capped pupils are to be provid- make proposals concerning as- ed with instruction and training sessment in vocational training, according to their needs and to including the journeyman’s ex- be given special support in their amination. studies. Where possible, they are to be integrated into main-

3 According to a recent Apart from the journeyman’s ex- subjects shall have completed at law on upper amination, nationally co-ordinat- least four full years of university secondary education, ed examinations in upper sec- education. At least two of these there are to be ondary education have not been should be in a major subject and nationally co- practised. Examinations have one year should be devoted to ordinated final exami- been the responsibility of each the study of education and in- nations in certain school. According to the law of structional methodology. A com- subjects. 1996 on upper-secondary educa- parable programme of study tion, there are to be nationally completed at a university abroad co-ordinated final examinations is also accepted as fulfilling this in certain subjects. This provi- requirement. Teachers of voca- sion will not come into effect tional subjects or other technical completely until the school year subjects at a vocational school 2000-2001. must be qualified in the field in which they teach or be a master The law on upper secondary ed- craftsman in the trade in ques- ucation stipulates that upper tion and have, in addition, a secondary schools are to evalu- minimum of two years experi- ate their educational work. This ence working in the trade. They evaluation includes, among oth- also are required to have com- er things, teaching, administra- pleted a one-year programme of tion and communication within study in education and instruc- the school. Each school´s meth- tional methodology. ods of self-evaluation are to be assessed externally every five Teachers are paid by the state al- years. though they are hired by indi- vidual schools to teach the sub- Teachers ject(s) in which they have spe- Legislation stipulates that upper cialised. In-service training secondary teachers of academic courses are held annually. HIGHER EDUCATION

New legislation on General description search responsibilities. Accord- higher education The modern Icelandic system of ing to the law the Minister of Ed- institutions establish- higher education dates back to ucation, Science and Culture de- es the general frame- the foundation of the University termines whether and to what work for the activities of Iceland in 1911. The Universi- extent institutions shall engage of these institutions. ty of Iceland remains the princi- in research. State higher educa- pal institution of higher learning tion institutions will receive sep- in Iceland, but over the last arate appropriations from the three decades new institutions state budget, but the Minister of higher education have may contract with state and pri- emerged with a more special- vate institutions to undertake ized focus, creating greater di- specific projects and provide versity on the higher education specific services. The lines of ad- level. ministrative authority are laid out in the law and external influ- New legislation on higher edu- ence on institutions of higher cation institutions enacted in De- education is ensured by reserv- cember 1997 establishes the ing two seats on their governing general framework for the activi- councils for outside members. ties of these institutions. Under According to the legislation the the new Act, the Icelandic term Minister of Education, Science „háskóli“ is used to refer both to and Culture is responsible for traditional universities and insti- establishing rules on quality tutions which do not have re- evaluation and recognition of all

3 Icelandic students degrees offered. The role of research and in the number of have a long tradition each higher education institution programmes of study they offer. of travelling abroad for is further defined in separate Most colleges do not have re- their higher education. legislation on their activities. search obligations and specialize in a single field of study, techni- Icelandic students have a long cal, vocational or the arts. tradition of travelling abroad for their higher education. In recent The is years twenty percent of Ice- comprised of nine faculties with landic students in higher educa- research and teaching responsi- tion have been studying abroad bilities. The faculties are: arts, at any given time, most of them economics and business admin- in post-graduate studies. istration, engineering, law, , natural sciences, Types of higher odontology, social sciences and education institutions theology. Most faculties are fur- Presently there are ten institu- ther divided into departments. tions of higher education in the Most of the faculties offer post- country. Six offer university de- graduate studies. grees, while others, mainly art colleges, offer diplomas. Most of The University of Akureyri has the institutions of higher educa- four departments: Health- tion are run by the state, but two sciences, management study, are run by private parties with fishery studies and teacher edu- state support. Institutions of cation. higher education differ in the extent to which they engage in

33 civil and electrical engineering technology, laboratory and radi- ology technology.

The Co-operative College at Bifröst and the Hvanneyri Col- lege of Agriculture offer pro- grammes in management and agricultural science respectively.

The following colleges offer diploma courses only: The Icelandic College of Drama, the Icelandic College of Music and the Icelandic College of Art In general, the admis- The University College of Educa- and Crafts in drama, music, fine sion to institutions at tion is responsible for education and applied arts and design, and the higher education of teachers at the pre-school and the Commercial College of Ice- level requires students compulsory school levels as well land, School of Computer Sci- to have passed the as physical education and social ence. matriculation exami- . It also offers a Master nation. of Education (MEd) programme Admission with specialization in curriculum In general, the admission to insti- studies, special education, edu- tutions at the higher education cational administration and edu- level requires students to have cational theory and provides passed the matriculation exami- continuing education for teach- nation or its equivalent. In some ers. As of 1 January 1998 three cases applicants with substantial colleges were merged with the work experience who have not University College of Education: completed their matriculation ex- a college for pre-school teach- amination may be admitted. For ers, a college of physical educa- the vocational and technical tion and a college of social ped- courses in colleges, practical ex- agogy. The new University Col- perience in an appropriate field lege of Education is divided into of study is usually required. All three departments: undergradu- the institutions except the Univer- ate studies, post-graduate stud- sity of Iceland can restrict their in- ies and continuing education. take of students. The art colleges hold entrance examinations. The Icelandic College of Engi- neering and Technology offers As stated above, the University programmes in management, of Iceland, which admits two

34 In the Faculty of thirds of higher education stu- stitutions to set their own admis- Medicine, Depart- dents in Iceland, does not have sion criteria. Admission to high- ments of Medicine, general restrictions on admission er education programmes may Pharmacy, Nursing for those who have passed the also be granted to students who and Physiotherapy and matriculation examination. have completed studies abroad in the Faculty of However, in the Faculty of which ensure sufficient prepara- Odontology of the Medicine, Departments of tion for university studies and University of Iceland, Medicine, Pharmacy, Nursing are equivalent to the Icelandic a system of numerus and Physiotherapy, and in the matriculation examination. Insti- clausus is in effect. Faculty of Odontology a system tutions of higher education may of numerus clausus is in effect also grant admission to students and the number of students who who have completed other stud- are allowed to continue follow- ies in Iceland, which the facul- ing a competitive examination at ties in question regard as suffi- the end of the first semester is cient preparation for studies at limited. Also, for the Department the institution. of Pharmacy and the Faculty of Science, students are required to Registration of first year students have matriculated from a mathe- usually takes place from late matics, physics, or natural sci- May until mid June. The applica- ences branch of study of an up- tion deadline for foreign stu- per secondary school in order to dents, other than students from qualify for admission. the , is 15 April of the year in which they wish to The legislation on higher educa- commence their studies. The tion institutions of 1997 includes University of Iceland and some new provisions that allow all in- other institutions also admit new

35 the EEA-EFTA countries (Ice- land, Norway and Liechten- stein), individuals who have worked in Iceland at their trade or profession for at least one year are entitled to apply for a loan. Students from the Nordic countries who are permanent residents in Iceland and are reg- istered at an Icelandic institution of higher education, are also eli- gible for loans if they are not supported financially by their own country. The govern- ing board of the Student Loan There are no tuition students for the spring semester, Fund may grant loans to other fees at state-run insti- with applications accepted dur- foreign students if reciprocity tutions of higher ing the first week of January. agreements have been conclud- education. ed between their countries and Fees/student finance Iceland. There are no tuition fees at state- run Icelandic institutions of The Ministry of Education, Sci- higher education, only registra- ence and Culture annually offers tion fees. Privately run colleges a limited number of charge tuition fees. to foreign students to pursue studies in Icelandic students attending in- and literature at the University of stitutions of higher education are Iceland. eligible for student loans from the Icelandic Student Loan Fund. Grants are available for post- The total loan received per an- graduate, research-oriented num depends upon the income studies at universities in Iceland. of the student (and his/her The grants are awarded on the spouse, as appropriate). Repay- basis of a research proposal sub- ments commence two years after mitted jointly by a student and completion or discontinuation of professor. The research proposal studies. must also be approved by the respective university depart- In accordance with provisions of ment. the EEA agreement governing the treatment of migrant workers from the and

36 In most institutions of Academic Year course in the fields of humani- higher education the In most institutions of higher ed- ties, theology or social sciences academic year lasts ucation the academic year lasts and who have satisfactorily com- from September to from September to May and is pleted the required final thesis May. divided into two semesters, au- or research project. tumn and spring. The autumn semester starts at the beginning A BS degree is awarded to stu- of September and lasts until late dents who have completed 3 to December. The spring semester 4 years of study on a degree lasts from the beginning of Jan- course in the fields of eco- uary until the end of May. nomics, business administration, natural sciences, health subjects, Courses / Qualifications fishery studies, agricultural sci- ence and engineering. Diploma Courses A diploma or certificate is A BEd degree is awarded to stu- awarded after 2-3 years of post- dents who have completed 3 secondary study in drama, fine years of study in a degree course and applied arts and design, mu- for pre-school teachers, compul- sic, computer studies, manage- sory school teachers and in so- ment and civil and electrical en- cial pedagogy. The BEd degree gineering. represents professional teacher certification at the respective First University Degrees school level. A BA degree is awarded to stu- dents who have completed 3 to BPhilIsl degree (Baccalaureatus 4 years of study in a degree Philologiae Islandicae) is award-

37 nomics and business administra- tion, engineering and natural sciences at the University of Ice- land and the successful comple- tion of a major thesis research project. The MA degree is awarded after two years of post- graduate study in the humanities and the social sciences at the University of Iceland and the successful completion of a major thesis research project. The MEd degree is awarded after two years of post-graduate study at the University College of Educa- The Candidatus ed after completion of the pro- tion and the successful comple- degree is an gramme in Icelandic for foreign tion of a major thesis research academic/professional students offered at the Universi- project. degree in the fields of ty of Iceland. This degree is on theology, medicine, the same level as the BA degree. There are two types of doctoral pharmacy, law, programmes and they are only business administra- The Candidatus degree is of- offered at the University of Ice- tion, engineering and fered only at the University of land. One is a program of study dentistry. Iceland and qualifies the holder in , Icelandic for a special office or profession. language and Icelandic history It is an academic/professional leading to a dr. phil. degree degree in the fields of theology, awarded by the Faculty of Arts. medicine, pharmacy, law, busi- The admission prerequisite for ness administration, engineering this program is a first class MA and dentistry. degree from the Faculty of Arts at the University of Iceland. Stu- Postgraduate Degrees dents who have completed a The University of Iceland offers first class MA degree from an- one-year programs of study (af- other faculty at the University of ter the bachelor degree) leading Iceland or from another univer- to postgraduate certificates in sity recognized by the Faculty of education, social work, journal- Arts may apply for admission to ism and mass communication. the doctoral programme. In such a case the student must pass a The MS degree is awarded after special entrance examination two years of post-graduate study before being accepted. in the faculties of medicine, eco-

3 University degrees are The other doctoral programme Assessment only awarded after is not an instructional or prede- Student assessment is usually students have written fined course of studies but is based on written or oral exami- a final thesis or based on independent research nations and individual assign- completed a research by a candidate. As a general rule ments. University degrees are project. this doctorate degree can only only awarded after students be awarded to individuals who have written a final thesis or have completed a professional completed a research project. degree (candidatus), a master’s degree or the equivalent. Table 1. Central and local government educational expenditure as proportion of GDP

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 Public educational expenditure 4,88 5,09 5,20 5,04 4,88 4,89 5,34 Central government expenditure 1) 3,72 3,78 3,71 3,57 3,39 3,34 3,05 Local government expenditure 1,16 1,31 1,49 1,48 1,49 1,54 2,29

1) Transfers between central and local governments are counted where the actual spending takes place.

Source: National Economic Institute

Table 2. Number of schools at compulsory, upper secondary and higher education level and student proportion by school size 1997/98

Compulsory Upper secondary Higher Number % of all Number % of all Number % of all Size of schools of schools students of schools students of schools students Less than 50 57 3 7 1 2 1 51-100 33 6 4 2 2 2 101-200 29 10 4 4 1 2 201-400 38 27 4 8 1 3 401-600 31 37 6 18 2 8 601-800 10 17 4 17 0 0 801-1000 0 0 5 26 0 0 More than 1000 0 0 3 24 2 84 Total 198 100 37 100 10 100

4 Table 3. Number of students in higher education by year and ISCED level 1994-1996

Year ISCED 5 ISCED 6 ISCED 7 Total 1994 1269 5982 135 7386 1995 1267 6025 191 7483 1996 1248 6388 238 7874

Source: Statistics Iceland

Table 4. Number of school administrators and teachers by sex and school level 1996

Number of individuals % of total Female Male Total Female Male Compulsory school level 2714 975 3689 73,6 26,4 Principal 64 156 220 29,1 70,9 Assist. principal 61 50 111 55,0 45,0 Teacher 2589 769 3358 77,1 22,9

Upper secondary level 574 740 1314 43,7 56,3 Principal 8 33 41 19,5 80,5 Assist. principal 4 22 26 15,4 84,6 Teacher 562 685 1247 45,1 54,9

Universities 1) 133 369 502 26,5 73,5 Vice-chancellor - 4 4 100 Professor 13 140 153 8,5 91,5 Associate professor 34 122 156 21,8 78,2 Lecturer 69 84 153 45,1 54,9 Part-time instructor 17 19 36 47,2 52,8

Note: 1) The University of Iceland, University of Akureyri, University College of Education and Icelandic College of Engineering and Technology. Source: State Salary Office

4 Table 5. Number of school hours per week at compulsory level by age of pupils

Age 1990-91 1994-95 1995-96 1996-97 1997-98 1998-99* 1999-2000* 6 1) 25 26 27 28 29 30 7 22 25 27 27 28 29 30 8 22 25 27 27 28 29 30 9 26 26 27 27 28 29 30 10 29 28 30 30 32 34 35 11 32 30 32 32 33 34 35 12 34 32 34 34 35 35 35 13 35 34 35 35 36 37 37 14 35 34 35 35 36 37 37 15 31-35 34 35 35 36 37 37

1) Education for 6-year-olds not compulsory. * Increase in the number of school hours as determined by law.

Table 6.

Number of hours per year by student age 1996/97

Age 6 yrs 10 yrs 13-15 yrs 16-19 yrs Number of hours 612 680 793 677

Table 7. Proportion of children in pre-schools by age 1992 and 1996

Year 2 yrs. old 3yrs. old 4 yrs. old 5 yrs. old 1992 42 75 79 74 1996 60 84 87 86

Source: Statistics Iceland 1996

4 Table 8. Enrolment rates of cohorts aged 16-19 years, 1978-1996

Age 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 16 67 65 71 75 77 80 83 85 89 89 17 54 56 61 65 66 68 70 74 77 76 18 49 48 54 56 58 58 63 64 65 67 19 42 47 50 53 55 55 59 61 64 63

Source: Statistics Iceland 1996

Table 9. Proportional distribution of students at upper secondary level by line of study 1980-1996

1980 1990 1996 Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female % % % % % % % % % General programmes 12 12 12 14 14 13 21 21 20 Languages 7 3 12 9 4 15 10 5 15 Fine and applied arts 2 2 3 4 2 5 3 2 5 Teacher training 9 4 15 6 3 10 4 4 5 Social science 4 4 5 8 5 12 13 8 18 Commerce, economics 15 13 18 14 14 15 7 8 7 Natural sciences 14 16 11 15 16 14 17 17 17 Crafts and technical trades 25 44 3 21 36 4 17 30 4 Agriculture and food trades 4 4 4 6 6 6 5 6 5 Health-related programmes 8 0 17 3 0 5 2 0 5 Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Source: Statistics Iceland

43 Table 10. Proportion of girls per 100 boys in general upper secondary and vocational pro- grammes of study 1980-1996

1980 1990 1992 1994 1996 General education 125 129 127 126 127 Vocational education 43 35 34 35 38

Table 11. Proportional distribution of students at the higher education level1) by line of study, 1980-1996.

1980 1990 1996 Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female % % % % % % % % % Languages 23 18 29 20 16 24 18 15 20 Fine and applied arts2) ...... 3 2 3 Teacher training, education 13 5 22 16 9 21 18 7 25 Social sciences, jurisprudence 12 13 12 16 16 16 15 16 15 Economics, bus. administr. 14 19 7 15 21 10 10 15 7 Natural sciences, mathematics 9 11 6 8 13 5 10 16 5 Engineering 9 14 1 7 14 1 9 16 3 Agriculture, food sciences 2 2 1 1 2 1 2 3 1 Medicine, nursing, etc. 19 18 21 16 9 21 16 10 21 Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Notes: 1) Non-university institutions first appear at higher education level in 1995. They were previously in- cluded at upper secondary level. 2) Art education is not included in higher education until 1995.

Source: Statistics Iceland 1992 and 1996

44 Table 12. Unemployment rate in November 1996 by education level and sex.

Men Women Total % % % Compulsory (ISCED 1-2) 9 5,4 6,7 Upper secondary and short post-secondary (ISCED 3-5) 2,3 3,5 2,7 Higher education (ISCED 6-7) 0,6 1,6 1,1 Total 3,4 4,1 3,9

Source: Statistics Iceland

Table 13. Number of students passing matriculation examination 1974/75 to 1995/96 as percentage of 20-years olds

Year Men Women Total 1979-80 21,8 28,6 25,1 1989-90 34,4 55,4 44,7 1991-92 35,9 53,3 44,9 1993-94 42,8 60,4 51,4 1994-95 39,1 59,0 49,0 1995-96 40,8 59,5 49,9

Source: Statistics Iceland

45 Table 14. Enrolment rates in education of age cohorts 20-29 years, 1996

Men Women Total Age % % % 20 45 43 44 21 41 39 40 22 41 39 40 23 36 37 36 24 32 34 33 25 25 28 27 26 22 21 21 27 15 16 16 28 13 11 12 29 11 11 11

Source: Statistics Iceland

46 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 6 7 8 9 Age ➝ Open access 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 School year THE ICELANDICSCHOOLSYSTEMIN1998 Higher educationinstitutions Industrial-vocational schools Compr V Grammar schools ocational schools ehensive schools subject tospecific r Access toaspecific studypr Compulsory schools Pr e-schools equir ements ogramme/school, Specialised schools 47