From Chicano/A to Xicana/O: Chicano/A

Home , Chicanismo, Cholo (subculture), Homies (toy), Rini Templeton

from Chicano/a to Xicana/o: Chicano/a

Francisco Rios

and because many Xicana/o educators see as noteworthy counter examples. In fact, their identity and ideology both similar to I see these two identities/ideologies and but different from Chicano/a educators of historical moments as falling upon lines an earlier generation, pedagogical pursuits of differential possibilities and variations for activism are equally likely to be differ- (Sandoval, 2000). ent. In sum, this article intends to move Take, for example, the question of from the politics of identity to the politics of identity. There are many kinds of Chi- critical thinking, from a distinctly Mexican cano/a identities evident in these terms: American version of (“old school”) Chican- American, Americano, Mexican American, ismo to a more contemporary (“la nueva Hispanic, Latino, vato, cholo, lowrider, onda”) Xicanismo. gangsta, gran vato, etc. In fact, the Chi- In this article—a combination of I wish to acknowledge that most of cano/a “homies” series1 (while needing to be personal narrative mixed with concep- these ideas are inspired by the lessons I troubled out) provide a broad perspective tual ponderings—I seek to explore the have been taught by the many people who on all the ways one can “be” a Chicano/a. development of a continuum of identities, have influenced my ways of looking at the And these identities shift. As Guillermo which range from Chicano/a to Xicana/o. world as I seek to make sense of my own Gómez-Peña (Mendieta & Gómez-Peña, The former is rooted in the Civil Rights experiences. These include the consejos de 2001) relates, ethnic identification is both Movement of the 1960s and 1970s, while las mujeres (my mother, my grandmothers, strategic and contextual. the latter has its roots in the transnational, and my sisters, angeles todas). It’s rooted For example, sometimes when I’m globalized, and neoliberal policies of the in the confianza of my father and those, arguing the democratic imperative to st early years of the 21 Century. too many to mention, who’ve mentored me schooling for social justice, I call on my I wish to highlight how these two throughout my life. It’s fostered by the re- “American” identity to create disequilibri- identity movements came out of (and, in a speto of my children, my students, and my um among those who have narrow-minded reciprocal way, influenced) the particular colleagues/peers but also the respeto I have notions of what it means to be American. social and political moments of their times for them. It’s inspired by the buen ejemplos In my time on a Fulbright in Chile, I called but also how each has implications for I have for those teachers and community upon my Americano identity to highlight identity, ideology and issues, and imagina- activists and scholars (most notably, for my desire for alliances with all the Latin- tion toward the development of a critical this essay, the work of Franquiz, Gomez- American people that I was privileged consciousness. I also intend to extend the Peña, and Urrietta) whose work I admire to encounter. I’m Latino in the mid-west argument to how these identities, ideologies from both close in and from a distance. where intercultural collaborations with and issues, and imaginations serve as a As mentioned, I intend to juxtapose Cubanos, Puertoriquenos, y Dominicanos frame for the kinds of praxis one can engage the birth of the Chicano/a movement with are essential for political empowerment. in when one is committed to social justice. the contemporary rise of a new Xicanismo. I’m Chicano when I want to highlight Because identity and positionality In doing so, I wish to highlight important my political otherness. And each of these profoundly impact how one teaches for differences and similarities of these two identities, indeed, are very complex. multicultural education (Bennett, 2001), historical moments, looking all the while To reiterate, my intention here is to at what we learn about a critical pedagogy offer some broad generalizations which Francisco Rios is a professor toward praxis. I acknowledge at the outset are more conceptual then real but which in the Department of Educational Studies that some of the comments made herein have instructive value nonetheless. The of the College of Education are generalities about these two identi- many ways one can be Chicano/a-Xicana/o at the University of Wyoming, ties and socio-political moments. Thus, it abound; we would do well to affirm these Laramie, Wyoming. is important to also recognize differences variations.

MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION from Chicano/a to Xicana/o: Critical Activist Teaching Revisited Xicana/o

I begin with each moment, the Chi- cano/a movement and then the nuevo Xicanismo, discuss (for each) their broader social, political, and economic context, and then identify central issues relative to identity, ideology, issues, and imagina- workers’ struggles and Cesar Chavez’s this marginalization) in the pursuit of a tion, and finally detail the critical think- non-violent activism were important to the broader Chicano identity. ing during each period (see Figure 1). I rise of the Chicano/a movement. intend to bring these two movements to But it was also a time where political Ideology & Issues life by sharing two narratives, two stories, movement, while slow, was at least lean- which highlight much of the conceptual Chicano/a cultural nationalism was ing progressive (pushed as it was by the the ideology of the day. That is, there was arguments that I’m advancing. In doing Civil Rights Movement and the protests so, I hope to illuminate where the Mexican explicit rhetoric around the desire to retake in communities of color). Voting rights acts the southwestern part of the United States, American community has come, where it’s and affirmative action legislation were going, what “works,” and what productive pointing back to the historical land mass being passed and enacted, and court case called Atzlan. Connected with this nation- perspectives will carry us forward through victories around bilingual education and the struggle for self-determination. alism was the idea that Mexican Ameri- against discrimination in housing were cans were neither Mexican nor American changing the racist “business as usual” Chicano/a but were, instead, a unique sociocultural discrimination that marked the day. group/citizenry with a specific and unique The Chicano/a movement had its There was an overture made toward history, culture, and language; hence, the inception before the 1960s but its birth an agenda of equity to counteract past term Chicano/a came to be affiliated with is often traced back to the Chicano Youth discrimination and oppression. Equity this unique social-cultural grouping as well Conference held in Denver in 1969 (Acu- means a recognition that people who were as the political (nationalist) ideology that ña, 2003). The 1960s and 1970s was a time down needed a hand up: affirmative action was being forged. of outright and undeniable oppression: in employment and education, bilingual The Chicano/a community had many signs read, “Mexicans and dogs not wel- education, and other civil rights initiatives issues it had to confront. In education, comed” while discrimination in housing, came to life (not without challenges from these issues included the need for a more employment, education, and voting was the mainstream, to be sure). culturally and linguistically responsive explicit and rampant. Chicanos/as and This then sets the backdrop for both approach to schooling (both Chicano/a their organizations, rooted as they were the birth of the Chicano/a movement but Studies and bilingual education served as within the nest of the local community, also the ways in which the Chicano/a move- two specific programmatic demands). The operated largely on the outside of, and in ment was able to influence the context. desire for political self-determination was opposition to, institutional systems and made manifest most by the advance of the the dominant society. Identity La Raza Unida party (Garcia, 1990). There Politically, the focus was on the For Chicanos/as, there was a keen was activism centered around addressing national economy and national security focus on the development of a distinctly the rights of farmworkers and asserting spurred by international tensions and the political identity. Its focus, however, was historical land rights (most notably in Cold War. The hot war, Vietnam, was in full limited: identity was centered in race and New Mexico). All of this was on top of the action, as was the impact of an oil boycott ethnicity with strong male overtones.2 Vietnam War, with its significant numbers and rise of inflation. The broader Civil Importantly, women were playing a criti- of Chicano/a soldiers who fought for this Rights Movement had been going on for a cal role within the movimiento but their nation only to return to a homeland char- little over a decade; importantly, the farm role was marginalized (while contesting acterized by racial discrimination.

SUMMER 2008 Imagination3 A Chicano Narrative the line, marched downtown, shouted “We want Chicano studies now,” went to the Critical thinking was marked by I went to a high school which had a identifying and honoring as positive all capital to listen to political speeches, ate student composition that was 80% Chi- beans and tortillas, and went home. things Chicano/a—historically, socially, cano/a (interestingly, today, it is nearly 95% and culturally—with little public critique The school’s funding drops. Soon, we Chicano/a—so much for the integration of have Chicano/a studies classes being of- by Chicanos/as of other Chicanos/as and schools with “all deliberate speed”). And things “Chicano/a.” It included critiquing fered. there were very few Chicano teachers and What’s next? the master narrative upon which much of no Chicano studies classes. We learned the nation was built and offering a coun- The school had just repainted the that the district used the student atten- lunchroom. On the back wall of the lunch- ter-narrative, a counter story, one where dance rates of third period to determine Chicanos/as were present, visible, and room, they put up a picture of a big hotdog school funding levels. We figured that if and hamburger. important. It was marked by a narrow un- we weren’t in school at that moment, the derstanding of Chicanismo, best described Blow out! school received less money. So we decided We got up, walked past policemen, as Chicano-centric. to “blow out” (that is, walk out of the school) Advocacy and action were set against marched downtown, shouted “We want at the beginning of third period until the taco now” (that little Taco Bell Chihuahua “the system” and all it represented. This school hired a teacher who could teach us was possible because there were very had nothing on us!), went to the capital, Chicano studies. listened to political speeches, ate beans few Chicanos/as who worked within the As third period came around, we heard system. Therefore, much of the activity and tortillas, and went home. “blow out” in the halls. Almost all of 80% of Within days, a big taco appears along- happened outside of the system, in its oppo- the students walked out of school, marched sition. Protests as general acts of civil dis- side the hotdog and hamburger and they down town, shouted “We want Chicano even gave us another wall to produce a obedience were met with physical violence teachers now,” went to the park in front of (the great whitewashing of the civil Rights student-designed mural in keeping with the capital, listened to political speeches, the mural wall art movement that was Movement is that it was not understood went to another park to eat beans and as a violent time: resistance was met with sweeping across the Southwest. tortillas (these were, after all, organized Against this was the backdrop of al- violence and people were being murdered protests), and then went home. and losing their lives) (Murray & Menkart, ternative, community-based projects and All of a sudden, a new Chicano teacher activities aimed at creating a more vibrant 2003). But these protests were critical for appears. the political gains that were being made community. This included educational pro- So we have a new Chicano teacher gramming. My first two “education” jobs (as described earlier). but no Chicano/a studies classes being of- As I mentioned at the beginning of this as teaching assistants were instructive fered. of what was happening in the community article, I want to detail personal experi- So, again, third period, “blow out” is ences, different moments within my own relative to schooling. The first was at the being shouted in the halls. This time as West Side Youth Center which enacted an life, to breath life into how this actually I walked out of school, I see in front of looked for me. In this first moment, I was alternative middle-school program for early us police cars, police dogs, and a line of adolescent youth who had been kicked out a young Chicanito growing up on Denver’s policemen on bull horns telling us to stop. Westside in the late 1960s. of the Denver Public Schools. This was, to I walked slowly past them, joined the be sure, a very challenging experience, but throngs of activists on the other side of we went at the work with a great sense of purpose, hope, and commitment. The second was La Academia del Figure 1 Barrio. It was a K-6 summer education A Conceptual Model of Chicana/o and Xicano/a Identity program where Chicano/a history was taught, math was taught using the Mayan counting system, and where Chicano/a art Critical Consciousness and Chicano/a folklore dancing were part of this alternative school’s attempt as seek- ing a more cultural-connectedness. All the Context Context teachers and their aides were Chicano/a. It was Chicano-riffic! From these, I learned how schools were both sites of assimilation and oppression but also possible sites of affirmation Imagination and liberation. Xicana/o Ideology The context for the new Xicanismo is situated in a historical moment of the dawn of the 21st Century. The political economy is Identity marked by globalization and the push for the virtual unrestraint of ideas, products, and cultures (with conditions, of course, Chicanismo Xicanismo such that North Americans can go anywhere

MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION but those wishing to come to North America nonetheless (Zamudio & Rios, 2007). Bo- Ideology and Issues will soon have to scale a massive—real and nilla-Silva (2003) describes this as “racism A much broader vision of social justice symbolic—border fence). This globalization lite.” It has gone underground and lives in and human rights best captures the new is happening in the context of unequal re- White people’s more private worlds (Myers Xicanismo. It is marked by a framework lations of power so that we have to extend & Williamson, 2002). where multiculturalism, alliance and co- our language (and thereby our thinking) alition building, and unity and justice are to acknowledge that there are those in the Identity guiding principles. The issues this new privileged position of globalizers and those Xicana/o,5 as described by Urrieta group face rest largely around language who are being globalized. (2004), marks important differences from and immigration, which have become prox- Free market neoliberalism (what Chicano/a identity. The new Xicanismo ies for race. Edelsky [2006] calls “capitalism with the works to recognize the multidimensional We know they’re proxies with the fol- gloves off”) is running rampant with its and intersecting nature of identities. lowing questions: when most people think assumption that all that results of unre- Gender, class, and sexual orientation are of “immigrants” what ethnic/racial group strained capitalism is good, despite its role recognized as salient differences that must comes to mind? And, when most people in producing greater economic inequal- be understood, addressed, and affirmed think of bilingual education, do they imag- ity. Private enterprise and corporatist within the Xicana/o community. But the ine the eight million students who speak responses are sought to cure the social new Xicanismo demands that their inter- Chinese who attend schools in the U.S. or challenges of the day. This is evident in secting elements are equally important do they think of Latinos? privatizing and corporatizing schools and (race/ethnicity AND gender, class and their related services (curriculum, pedago- sexual orientation). The new Xicanismo also Imagination gies, programs, etc.) (Sleeter, 2007). indicates the growth of a transnational di- We have come to a point where we It’s also a moment absent a broader, mension of what it means to be Xicana/o. can finally honor the social, cultural, and linguistic history of communities of color, .... because many Xicana/o educators see their identity seeing these as assets (funds of knowledge; see for example Yosso, 2005) especially as and ideology both similar to but different from Chicano/a we have come to see how these commu- educators of an earlier generation, pedagogical pursuits nity values help Xicanas/os to persist. For Xicanas/os, these have been identified by for activism are equally likely to be different ... Franquiz and Salazar (2004) as the consejos, confianza, respeto and buen ejemplo which provide guidance and nurturance in circles sustained social movement of significance While the Chicano/a movement was of familial and communal mentors. in the U.S. (stronger elsewhere in the world fixed on Mexican Americans, the new But there is also a willingness to cri- where people are especially challenging Xicanismo is elastic enough so that many tique our positions: to raise questions of the globalization). Rather, it is a time where can be considered Xicana/o, including role of class and homophobia and to ques- the climate is marked by intimidation and newcomers from Mexico as well as those tion machismo’s often-negative impact on fear with the wearing away of constitu- with roots centered in Central and South the treatment of women. And, indeed, we tional rights making critique and protest America. It also indicates that the new learn that the mere presence of a Latina/o all the more difficult. Xicanismo wishes to recognize its connec- in a position of power does not indicate Politically, we have witnessed a very tions and concerns for indigenous move- that the person has developed a cultural powerful conservativism and policies which ments everywhere. enlightenment or a political advocacy that are as regressive as this nation has seen in Finally, the perspective that many serves the community well. some time. This conservatism is frequently within the new Xicanismo bring is holistic For many Xicanas/os, advocacy and in opposition to public opinion. Consider, and organic. That is, there is a greater action, nonetheless, does take place. It is for example, that while the vast majority of tendency to see things as being intercon- more complicated and difficult, however, Americans believe that a “path to citizen- nected (the political with the cultural, since it must happen both within and ship” should be part of a comprehensive im- the social with the economic, as but two outside the system. Thus, Xicanas/os have migration reform package, the Congress in examples). the difficult task of “negotiating” their 2006 only passed the building of 700 miles In an interesting change from dual roles as insider and outsider of the of fence along the US-Mexican border.4 the Chicano/a period, Xicanas/os find system as they move to transform their The equity agenda of the 1980s has themselves both outside and inside “the microworlds towards greater justice. The been replaced by an equality agenda— system” including their organizations. result is various degrees of commitment to treating everyone the same—evident Consider, for example, that on many col- this transformation. But the possibility of in anti-affirmative action propositions lege campuses the student group MEChA “resistance” to hegemony is always there. which have been passed by the electorate (Moviemiento Estudiantil Chicanos de As mentioned earlier, I wanted to de- in California and Michigan. But equality Atzlan) is considered a “Recognized Stu- scribe personal events to bring to life these among equals just reproduces the existing dent Organizations.” There are presidents two historical moments in the Mexican inequality; recall Oliver Wendell Holmes’ of universities, faculty, staff, program American community. The first was in the adage: “there is no greater inequality than directors, principals, teachers, and school 1970s on Denver’s West Side. This second the equal treatment of unequals.” staff who are Xicana/o within educational centers around the May 1st (2006) protests More specially, with respect to diversity, institutions (as but one example of insti- in support of immigration rights. Now, I oppression, and the “isms” (racism, sexism, tutional incorporation). find myself in Laramie, Wyoming. homophobia, classism, etc.) have taken on a more chameleon character which is present

SUMMER 2008 A Xicano Narrative complicated issue, including those whose founded. Perhaps, some day, you will see perspectives you share, but to recognize this as your patriotic duty as well. Earlier in the semester, the MEChA that it is but one point of view. The belief is —Dr. Francisco Rios student organization (yes, officially that understanding the multiple perspec- recognized) had planned a community tives on this issue is the foundation for I signed it Dr. Rios purposely. But critical thinking, a bedrock of the purposes rally. It was attended by about 70 stu- the student, using all the privileges of dents/faculty/staff and a few community of education and the establishment of a robust democracy. I’ll see you there! superiority that are granted to her via her activists. We walked downtown on the PS: Let us agree, at minimum, that Whiteness to “name,” responded: sidewalk, chanted some slogans back from humans cannot be illegal (they can act in the movimiento,and chanted some new Mr. Rios, ways that are illegal) and that no person Thank you for your concern. I am having slogans as well. We stood on the central is an alien (they are brothers and sisters as much of an open mind to this issue as corner of the downtown of Laramie on a in the human race). I invite you to visit possible, but again, I find it to really be Saturday and waved posters and flags. with me to discuss this and other issues quite straightforward. I’ve been to rallies At one point, we stood for 15 minutes in if you wish. such as this before, and have found there’s complete silence in respect to those who Atentamente. no “teach” involved, nor is a conservative have lost their lives crossing the border. —Francisco Rios, Ph.D. view represented at all. In respect to past It was an eerie silence. We then marched experience, I’m not willing to sit through back to the University where there were The student is quick to reply: another session where people choose to express views just to feel important, re- speakers, music, and pizza. Mr. Rios, gardless of the effects/implications/facts. Some of the high school students, led Please do not try to twist words... while I also recognize that people may have by my son, approached a group of Chicano I agree with you that “illegal aliens” when contrary views, that’s one of the beauties professors and community activists and broken down is not a way to generalize of this country =). I would like to be able asked to allow them to organize the march humans as a whole, that is what we have to hold mine without being attacked and to work with right now. These people are on May 1, a day when protests nationally constantly bombarded by others trying acting in a way that is illegal and as such, to change my mind in disrespectful and were to take place. They asked that the day are aliens to this nation (These are facts, be marked by “active teaching.” unnecessary means (such as the original Mr. Rios). e-mail and countless others sent by list An email announcement went out on I am very much a patriot of America, serves to attempt to desensitize people to a university diversity listserve informing and do not look at the grey area to issues... the facts). people of the event: We have become, after they are either right or wrong. This issue I do appreciate your concern, and your all, as Guillermo Gomez-Peña describes it, is right to discuss, but wrong to advocate. willingness to discuss the situation. Un- this nation’s first web-backs (Mendieta & The facts are the “immigrants” referred to fortunately, there’s nothing to discuss. in this meeting are not immigrants... Im- Gómez-Peña, 2001). Over this very public I’ve already done the research, and this migrants are not illegal, and deserve our entire situation is just headed down the email, we get a response from a student. support and help, the people you choose She writes: same path as the abortion debate... ( i.e., to offer solidarity to are illegal, and we let’s change pro-abortion to pro-choice so are not in solidarity with them anymore The people who this event is going to people don’t feel so badly about what’s ac- than saying we all belong to the human support are not immigrants... they are tually going on)... I realize that is another race. I don’t really know how to say it ILLEGAL ALIENS! Do the research, and issue entirely, and I’m sure we’ll probably more simply...That is all the further that please do not be ignorant to the issues disagree on that one as well. critical thinking needs to go... is it right at hand when trying to force political Again, thanks for your openness, I hope or wrong? issues at others! Immigration is wonder- your rally is more productive and repre- Regards, ful, but as a country, Americans cannot sentative of all citizens than past rallies. support illegal alien rights... it defiles —Student —Student the principles our country was founded on, decreases the job market, and has I responded in a way I thought would I have to admit that there was much in hundreds of other effects. end the conversation: this exchange of emails to lament. Evident Most vividly seen right now is the mis- interpretation of affirmative action. For Hello: is a mixing of issues (immigration with example: In school districts across the The invitation for you to attend the abortion and patriotism, in this exchange) country, the American Flag has been taken teach in is a genuine one Alison, as is the which speak to the tangled web of ideolo- down, and replaced with the Mexican invitation to come to my office to discuss gies (Weiner, 2000) that often inform racist Flag. The only statements that were made this more. But if you do attend (either), thinking. Evident is the ability, the privi- please do so with a good heart and an open were that Americans need to be sensitive lege, to ignore and minimize any status mind. Without both, it will not be much of to other cultures. a “teach” in and rather fall into a politi- achieved by a person of color within the We are Americans, let us remember that cal diatribe...that will get us (as citizens academy by a student. Evident is her self- as we discern the impact this legislation and as a nation) no where. Trust that you perceived right to call forth one’s axiologi- will have on us all. can talk with me, a person who considers cal position and to name it as “truth.” —Student himself more “AMERICAN” than most This email exchange raised lots of ques- everyone else (my family was on U.S. soil tions for me about my sense of place: How is I write back to the student, again on before it was the U.S.; my father fought it that a Chicano barrio boy from Denver’s in Vietnam; I’ve raised to the ranks of this public email: Westside (y puro rasquachi), who saw the full professor in U.S. schools). But please Hi: recognize that well-meaning Americans fine line between juvenile delinquency and I hope that you will attend the ses- can disagree on these critical issues. a college education, was acting the role of sion...it’s a teach in and, indeed, there At end, my patriotic duty is to question, profe in an academic research university is much that I hope you will be open to to learn, to teach, to speak out, and to work in rural Wyoming—and which could be learning. We intend the teach-in to raise in honor of the principles of equality and completely discounted by students? the multiple points of view around this social justice upon which this nation was How was it that I sailed through the

MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION tenure and promotion process with very lit- context of the 1960s and 1970s gave raise u Critical consciousness is essential tle critique (was I not doing enough to raise of the Chicano/a movement, influenced as for each; people’s ire)? How did I go from my lower, it was by the Civil Rights Movement and u working class roots to a middle, collar class the Farmworkers’ organization already There’s an awareness of the role of position with all the concomitant family underway. But the Chicano/a movement unequal relations of power; aspirations (sending children to Europe was instrumental in forging some of the u They result from various forms of upon graduation, college as expectation, gains in bilingual education, integration oppression; white collar expectations for my children)? in schooling and housing, and a more open How was it that I, an advocate for bilingual job market thereby influencing the very u Social justice lays at the heart of education, was now project investigator social-political context which gave rise to imaginations; and, of the state’s ESL program? What have the movement. u They rely on individuals and small I become comfortable with? What am I As another example, consider the groups working in local settings to forgetting? Am I doing enough? degree to which one moves toward critical make positive change. Wondering about this locura, and won- consciousness which is dependent upon the dering how many people would actually identity, ideology and imagination of pos- Movement toward praxis begins with attend, I dutifully moved ahead working sibilities one takes. But equally important, personal action associated with doing the with the two Chicana professors and I who critical consciousness calls one to question critical work around identity and ideology were assigned the teach-in portion of the continually one’s identity, ideology and and imagining one’s actions in pursuit of event. Organized by the youth, we were worlds of imagination. As but one more ex- social justice (see Figure 2). This movement met at noon by a small group of community ample, the old school Chicano/a movement then moves to the professional, communal, activists. We still had no idea how many has influenced la nueva onda Xicanismo; and social. But education is at the heart of youth would actually show up. and new Xicanas/os are influencing old positive change. Thus we move, as seen from Over 200 high school students walked school Chicanos. the Figure 2, from the narrowest form of ac- out. Standing there, in front of the school, it While heretofore I’ve identified the tion, but the one upon which all others rest. was a beautiful sight to see these students differences between these two historical As can be surmised, each level is broader streaming out. This time, we walked down moments and identities, I also want to since it has a broader impact. These two the middle of the street, to the middle of the acknowledge their similarities. Both of dimensions of critical thinking and action, campus where we were joined by another these moments (Chicano/a and Xicana/o) which Freire called praxis, come together. 150 community members, university stu- rely on the following: My own pedagogical work has focused dents/faculty, and where we held the teach- on classroom-based practices where we u Identity is a central construct; in. This time, there were fewer speeches but bring the personal level of action together instead we engaged in role-play activities and shared a series of readings. At various moments, high school youth, Figure 2 community members, and university folks Movement toward Praxis spontaneously spoke. We felt that we had created space for a collective imagination both troubling out assumptions about immigration but also imagining more human, humane, and socially just responses to the issue.

Toward a Critical Thinking Orientation I hope that evident in these stories is the importance of confianza in our youth and in the possibilities of imagination. Evident is the outright resistance to equity and the political ideology of the conservative class (Fredrick Douglas was right: power concedes nothing). Evident is both the need to question and critique our very own life positions. Evident is the multiple shifting identities that our work demands and negotiating these through our work within the system while being respetoso y un buen ejemplo. Heretofore, I have shared concepts— Chicanismo with new Xicanismo, critical thinking with identity, ideology and imagination—but I wish to acknowledge that there are mutually influencing dimensions (refer again to Figure 1; note the arrows in the figure). For example, the

SUMMER 2008 with the imagination level of critical con- and social connections. Rather, it is the de- lenge to address diversity issues generally. sciousness in pursuit of praxis (see Figure velopment of a critical cultural conscious- It’s difficult given the largely conservative 3). These come together for me in social ness which is paramount in bringing the nature of most schools which are reluctant perspective taking and role-playing activi- much needed assets to the teaching-learn- to hire teachers of color (let alone teachers ties. To reiterate, the pursuit of productive ing enterprise (Darder, 1993). of color with a critical thinking orienta- pedagogies, in my thinking, revolves For teachers, these assets include an tion, one which positions the educator, around the initial work of clarifying identi- ability to understand the social-cultural at times, against the system) (Quiocho & ties, broadening ideologies, and engaging realities of their students, high expecta- Rios, 2000). It’s difficult given the general imagination and that this IS praxis. tions, an advocacy for the students’ pri- reluctance of schools to discuss issues of For me, the greatest possibilities lie in mary language(s) and home culture, the race and racism (Foster, 1993). It’s difficult pursuing a range of productive pedagogies implementation of a culturally responsive given that Latino educators are at varying aimed at personal imagination toward fos- pedagogy, and forging robust relationships levels of identity development and critical tering critical and more holistic thinking, with parents and the local community. In consciousness (as described above). honoring students’ cultural capital and addition, Galindo (1996) discusses how In sum, schools would need to be will- developing social network skills, troubling Xicana/o educators can develop a “bridging ing to hire educators who would be critical and affirming identities, and teaching ad- identity.” of the broader society as well as the school vocacy and negotiation skills. But we also know that Latino (and (as a system) itself as well as to advocate any other) educators don’t have the kinds for meaningful change on behalf of his- Concluding Thoughts: of knowledge and skills to be effective torically marginalized students (including Perspectivas Criticas y Consejos teachers of Latino students by virtue of Latinos). their skin color (Berta-Ávila, 2004). Thus, Thus I advance three recommenda- As suggested, identities are a central these assets (connected to the broader tions which might begin to address this factor in the teaching-learning process. But goal of fostering a critical cultural and challenge. The first is the advance of a these identities are dynamic and shifting. professional identity) have to be developed research agenda which details the assets It’s essential that we can create counter- and/or nurtured within both a teacher that Chicano/a and Xicana/o educators, spaces, contexts in our classrooms, schools education program and nurtured within those with a critical political conscious- and communities, for the reframing of the context of meaningful professional ness, bring to the profession. By being these identities. development and among a cadre of critical able to detail these “tangible and concrete” So what do I hope we can learn from friends and allies. assets to school-based professionals, they this essay? To begin, we must acknowledge This is, as one might imagine, a most will be able to see that the resultant advo- that a shared ethnic heritage between difficult challenge. It’s difficult given the cacy orientation will support meaningful teachers and student does not imply that general nature of most teacher education academic school reform in ways that will one is able to make meaningful academic programs which have a hard enough chal- assist in the success of both Latino and non-Latino students alike. It will help school-based professionals to identify the Figure 3 kinds of professional development that Identity as Praxis will nurture the identity, consciousness, and cultural assets these educators bring. And it will allow them to create meaningful structures within schools (teacher evalu- ation systems, for example) that identify and reward those who bring these assets to bear in their professional practices. I assert that one prototype for this kind of research is being done by Berta-Ávila (2004). The second recommendation is the incorporation. in preservice and inser- vice professional development, of critical cultural thinking (see, for example the framework developed by Zamudio, Rios, & Jaime, 2008) as perhaps the most critical skill that teachers can develop. These critical thinking frameworks need to be holistic in orientation. It might include the following: u Organic experiences are teachers’ lived experiences which, when ques- tioned, provides them with insight into positionality and inequality in society where knowledge is construct- ed rather than given in the form of a dominant ideology; u Relational analysis describes teach-

MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION ers’ abilities to make meaningful con- Notes Washington, DC: Teaching for Change. nections between their lives and the Myers, K. A., & Williamson, P. (2002). Race talk: 1 Homies are Chicanos with “…separate lives of others (as members of social The perpetuation of racism through private and distinct personalities and characteristics” groups) as well as to structures of discourse. Race and Society, 4(1), 3-26. which make up a single, composite entity. Made Quiocho, A., & Rios, F. (2000). The power of oppression; manifest in little figurines (more than 100 in their presence Minority group teachers and all), they are an attempt to portray a variety of u Historical analysis entails teachers’ schooling. Review of Educational Research, Chicano characters with the intent which “al- ability to see how the past is a context 70(4), 485-529. lows for laughter and good times as an anecdote Sandoval, C. (2000). Methodology of the op- for the present and how the residu- for reality” (Gonzalez, 2007). pressed. Minneapolis, MN: University of als of past oppression are evident in 2 Note the purposeful placement of the “o” Minnesota Press. contemporary life; and, in front of the “a” in “Chicano/a” to indicate the Sleeter, C. (2007). Neoliberalism, teaching, and primacy of the male figure within the narrative teacher education. Presentation at annual u Power relations asks teachers to of the movimiento during this time period. meeting of the American Educational Re- recognize that power is embedded in 3 Imagination is used here to capture po- search Association, Chicago. all social relationships and that they sitionality, critical thinking and praxis (hence, Solózano, D., & Delgado Bernal, D. (2001). Exam- can be agents better prepared to cri- imagining possibilities) of the specific time. ining transformational resistance through a tique and act against racist and sexist 4 Note that while in the 2006 elections the critical race and LatCrit theory framework: ideologies that serve to subordinate Republicans lost control of the Congress, immi- Chicana and Chicano students in an urban oppressed groups, including Latinos. gration was a wedge issue and many Democrats context. Urban Education, 36(3), 308-342. who won had to demonstrate that they too were Urrieta, L. (2004). Chicana/o activism and edu- The third recommendation is the in favor of stringent immigration restrictions. cation. High School Journal, 87(4), 1-9. importance of teaching advocacy and 5 Note the placement of the “a” in front of Weiner, L. (2000). Research in the 90s: Impli- negotiation skills as a critical teaching the “o” in Xicana/o to acknowledge the power- cations for teacher preparation, Review of ful role women have played in all aspects of the skill for teachers of color. At the forefront Educational Research, 70(3), 369-406. Xicana/o experience. Yosso, T. J. (2005). Critical race counterstories of this is the recognition that resistance along the Chicano/Chicana educational is not inherently transformative and can, References pipeline. New York: Routledge. indeed, be regressive in its overall impact Zamudio, M., & Rios, F. (2007). From traditional (Solórzano & Delgado-Bernal, 2001). Thus, Acuña, R. (2003). Occupied America: A history of to liberal racism: Living racism in the every- sharing with teachers the various ways Chicanos (5th Edition). Longman. day, Sociological Perspectives, 49(4). in which an advocacy orientation can be Bennett, C. (2001). Genres of research in mul- Zamudio, M., Rios, F., & Jaime, A. (2008). Think- meaningfully carried out, in addressing ticultural education. Review of Educational ing critically about difference. Equity and instances of institutional racism, and in Research, 71(2), 171-218. Excellence in Education, 41(2), 215-229. Berta-Ávila, M. (2004). Critical Xicana/Xicano negotiating the needs of the school district educators: Is it enough to be a person of color? to assure high academic success with High School Journal, 87(4), 66-79. the development of their students’ own Bonilla-Silva, E. (2003). Racism without racists: cultural, critical consciousness would all Color-blind racism and the persistence of ra- be part of this professional development. cial inequality in the United States. Lanham, This would tie back to the role of old school MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Artwork by Rini Templeton, teacher/activists who can serve as mentors Darder, A. (1993). How does the culture of the whose spirited and revolutionary images and role models, sharing what they have teacher shape the classroom experience continue to speak for social progress. of Latino students? In S. Rothstein (Ed.), learned in terms of successfully negoti- Handbook of schooling in urban America (pp. Courtesy of Rini Templeton Memorial Fund. ating the system while simultaneously 195-221). New York: Greenwood Press. advancing the needs of the community as Edelsky, C. (2006). With literacy and justice they continually develop their own critical for all. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum consciousness. Associates. The immigration rights protests in Franquiz, M., & Salazar, M. (2004). The trans- 2006 did much to revitalize the Latino formative potential of humanizing pedagogy. community on the broadest level. In these High School Journal, 87(4), 36-53. Foster, M. (1993). Urban African-American protests, old school Chicanos/as came to- teachers’ views of organizational change. gether with la nueva onda Xicanas/os to Equity and Excellence in Education, 26(3), teach, to organize, and to march on behalf 16-25. of an important group of humans whose Galindo, R. (1996). Reframing the past in the blood, sweat and toil provide much to the present: Chicana teacher role identity as nation and to the Latino communities. In a bridging identity. Education and Urban so doing, they were able to learn together, Society, 29(1), 85-102. to work together, and to stand side by side Garcia, I. M. (1990). United we win: The rise and fall of the Raza Unida party. Tucson, in pursuit of advancing the Latino com- AZ: University of Arizona Press. munity and the pursuit of social justice. Gonzalez, D. (2007). Homies-TV: The official site Let us hope that this serves as a of the original Homies. Available at: http:// catalyst for the continual personal and www.homies.tv/homies.htm professional growth of all those Latinos, Mendieta, E., & Gomez-Peña, G. (2001). A Chicanos/as and Xicanas/os alike, for Latino philosopher interviews a Chicano whom a critical, cultural consciousness can performance artist. Nepantla: Views from be made manifest in praxis. the South, 2(3), 539-554. Murray, A. & Menkart, D. (2004). Putting the movement back into the civil rights teaching.

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