A MAGAZINE OF THE AMERICAS VOLUME 28 • SUMMER 2019 • LACC.FIU.EDU

Society and Climate Change in Latin America and the Caribbean DIALOGUE ACADEMIA DISSEMINATE LINKAGES BUSINESS MEDIA TOPICS Hemisphere LEARN INDUSTRYDEBATEETHICS VOLUME 28 • SUMMER 2019 • LACC.FIU.EDU INFORMATION CONTENT DEPTH

CULTURE INVESTIGATION STATISTICS UNRAVEL LOCATION IN THIS ISSUE CULTIVATE TRAINING EXCHANGE POLICY REVEAL SPARK NEWS ANALYSIS INSIGHT LETTER FROM THE EDITOR INTERPRET INTERNATIONAL REALITY EDUCATION FREEDOM Frank O. Mora...... 3 FINANCE TEACH BEATS NETWORKS ILLUMINATE DECIPHER LETTER FROM THE GUEST EDITORS INTERPRETATION GOVERNMENT Javier Francisco-Ortega & David Barton Bray...... 4 EXPLAIN ILLUMINATE

EXAMINATION PUBLISHING RELIABLE FORUM LEADERSHIP ARTICLES INTERACTIVE South Florida-Caribbean Connections SOURCES RESEARCH Partnerships between Botanic Gardens and Universities in a Changing Caribbean World by Javier Francisco-Ortega, Brett Jestrow & M. Patrick Griffith...... 6

TRUTH The Shared Natural Heritage of Southern Florida and Cuba: Orchid Conservation across Borders

EXPOSE by Haydee Borrero, Matt Richards, Dennis Giardina, Julio C. Álvarez, Ramona Oviedo Prieto, Emily E. D. Coffey & Hong Liu ...... 11 Coral Reefs under Threat LACC: by Cindy Lewis & Mauricio Rodríguez-Lanetty...... 14 Conservation and Climate Change in the Caribbean Celebrating Forty Years of Excellence Saving Dominica’s Parrots in a Changed World by Paul Reillo...... 19 Working hard to ensure that people following Latin America and the Caribbean have access to dependable, accurate and current information about the issues Algal Blooms in the Caribbean: Unpredictable Responses to Climate Change that matter most. by Ligia Collado-Vides, Marta García-Sánchez, Hazel A. Oxenford, Rosa Rodríguez-Martínez & Brigitta I. van Tussenbroek...... 22 LACC supports enhanced understanding of hemispheric politics, business, In Situ Conservation Efforts in the Commonwealth of the Bahamas society and culture through: by Ethan Freid, Lindy Knowles & Shelley Woodside-Cant...... 25 n Academic research and teaching by more than 200 LACC faculty experts Rivers, Forests and Soils n High-quality analysis available as events unfold Rivers of Latin America and the Caribbean: Centers of Biological n Interdisciplinary projects that reach audiences across the globe and Cultural Diversity at Risk from Climate Change n Critical training programs to educate a new generation of leaders by Elizabeth P. Anderson...... 29 Mexican Community Forests: A Global Model for Mitigating and Adapting to Climate Change by David Barton Bray...... 32 A New Opportunity for Slowing Climate Change: Soil Management in Agriculture in the Americas by Deborah Barry...... 36

Urban Ecology and Reducing Climate Change Risk Disaster Risk Reduction and Climate Adaptation in Latin America’s Informal Urban Settlements: Forging linkages across the Americas through education, research, outreach, and dialogue. An Ecological Approach by Juan Pablo Sarmiento & Meenakshi Jerath...... 39 lacc.fiu.edu @FIULACC /FIULACC Hemisphere FROM THE EDITOR Dear Hemisphere readers: EDITORIAL STAFF This issue on the social, economic and environmental consequences of climate change in the Americas is long Founding Editor Anthony P. Maingot overdue. At a time when even the science of climate change is on trial, the editors and authors of this issue go Editor Frank O. Mora beyond its destructive effects on the environment to highlight its impact on cultural diversity, disaster mitigation, agricultural production and tourism. I am grateful that Professors Javier Francisco-Ortega and David Bray of Guest Editors Javier Francisco-Ortega & David Barton Bray Florida International University’s Departments of Biological Sciences and Earth and Environment, respectively, Associate Editor Liesl Picard enthusiastically agreed to be guest editors of this important interdisciplinary issue. Copy Editor Alisa Newman

Graphic Designer Aileen Solá-Trautmann The guest editors have brought together an outstanding collection of authors from FIU and external institutions to not only examine the impacts of climate change but also provide solutions that national and local governments, Production Manager Genesis Cajina as well as communities, can implement to address the threat to Latin American ecosystems. The interdisciplinary approach of this issue underscores the multifaceted effects of rapid climate change on economic and cultural EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD development, agriculture and urban settlements in vulnerable societies facing poverty, inequality, political Uva de Aragón Ana María Bidegain uncertainty, citizen insecurity and limited access to quality social services. José Miguel Cruz Jorge Duany Eduardo A. Gamarra A. Douglas Kincaid Sarah J. Mahler Andrea Mantell Seidel The convergence of structural political and socioeconomic challenges in Latin America and the Caribbean, and Félix E. Martín Bianca Premo the multidimensional effects of climate change on the flora, fauna and overall livelihood of the region, generate a Allan Rosenbaum Mark B. Rosenberg Richard Tardanico Victor M. Uribe-Uran mix of reinforcing threats that are difficult to measure and understand. The stability and sustainability of political, social, economic and environmental ecosystems depend not only on understanding the effects of climate change but also on adopting appropriate interdisciplinary policy solutions today. Hemisphere (ISSN 08983038) is published once a year by the Kimberly Green Latin American and Caribbean Center, Steven J. Green School of International and Public Affairs, Florida International University. Copyright © 2019 by the Kimberly Green Latin American and Caribbean Center, Florida International University. All rights reserved. Printed in the The Kimberly Green Latin America and Caribbean Center (LACC) remains committed to supporting its faculty United States of America. and students in their interdisciplinary research and will use Hemisphere as a platform to explore and promote Hemisphere is dedicated to provoking debate on the problems, initiatives, and achievements of the Americas. Responsibility theoretical and public policy issues facing the Americas. Given the impact climate change and global warming for the views expressed lies solely with the authors. Editorial, Circulation and Advertising Offices: Kimberly Green Latin American and Caribbean Center, Florida International University, Modesto A. Maidique Campus, DM 353, Miami, are expected to have on virtually all aspects of life in the region and around the world, they are sure to remain the Florida, 33199, Tel.: 305-348-2894, Fax: 305-348-3953, E-mail: [email protected], http://lacc.fiu.edu, @fiulacc themes of future LACC programs and publications.

Frank O. Mora

COVER IMAGE: Sargassum algae and tourists choke Playa Ruinas at Tulum, Quintana Roo, Mexico, 2018. Director & Professor MARIA KUZKINA/iStock by Getty Images. Kimberly Green Latin American and Caribbean Center Florida International University

Hemisphere Volume 28 3 FROM THE GUEST EDITORS

Climate change is upon us. It is estimated that human-induced warming reached approximately 1.8°F from pre- industrial levels by 2017 and is likely to increase an average of around 0.4°F per decade in the coming years. This would quickly put us well beyond the 2.7°F that the Paris Accords set as the aspirational limit for warming. The consequences for Latin America and the Caribbean include decreased plant and animal species diversity, coral bleaching, changes in ecosystem composition and biome distribution, the melting of most tropical glaciers in the near future (2020-2030), and severe impacts on coastal and riverine areas. This special issue of Hemisphere examines some of the steps that are being taken to conserve marine, terrestrial and urban ecosystems for the biodiversity they contain and the human communities that depend upon them for sustainable livelihoods.

The invited contributors to this issue work at NGOs, botanic gardens and universities in The Bahamas, Barbados, Cuba, Mexico, El Salvador and the United States. The ten articles we present not only raise concerns for the social, economic and environmental consequences of climate change in the region, but also explore avenues for facing these challenges. They aim to increase public awareness of climate change and effective conservation measures targeting species threatened by global warming. Within this context, inter-institutional partnerships across national boundaries are clearly necessary. These partnerships include biological conservation research, community involvement, outreach for environmental ethics, and educational initiatives. The conservation steps they take go beyond the urgent need to preserve ecosystems in natural reserves to encompass plants and animals in recognized and certified botanic gardens, bird conservation centers and ‘coral arks.’

The articles in this issue offer clear case examples in which imperative actions are needed. For example, climate change and nutrient enrichment are causing enormous blooms of brown algae that threaten the tourism industry of the Mexican Caribbean coast and other regions. In the Bahamas chain, entire islands and ecosystems are becoming inundated and altered. The consequences of climate change are also having detrimental effects inland, affecting the flow of rivers, forest composition and soil dynamics. These changes in turn affect socioeconomic realities, cultural diversity and environmental dynamics. Sustainable agriculture and community forest management can provide an alternative for populations in these areas, particularly within fast-changing environments.

One common theme of the articles presented in this issue of Hemisphere is the importance of finding solutions involving all stakeholders. All voices are necessary to address the multiple effects of the greatest threat to Latin American ecosystems, and the nations and communities that depend on them. The consequences of climate change go beyond the unique flora and fauna that these ecosystems harbor, posing direct challenges to regional livelihoods.

Javier Francisco-Ortega David Barton Bray Professor Professor Department of Biological Sciences Department of Earth and Environment Idyllic Playa Ruinas without sargassum in 2011, Tulum, Quintana Roo, Mexico. Florida International University Florida International University LUNAMARINA/iStock by Getty Images.

4 Hemisphere Volume 28 Hemisphere Volume 28 5 SOUTH FLORIDA-CARIBBEAN CONNECTIONS South Florida-Caribbean Connections

education for both Caribbean and US students. An official Memorandum of Understanding Partnerships between Botanic between FIU and the University of the West Indies (UWI) facilitates joint supervision of students by Gardens and Universities in a faculty at the two universities.

Two students from UWI at Changing Caribbean World Mona (Tracy Commock and Keron by Javier Francisco-Ortega, Brett Jestrow & M. Patrick Griffith Campbell) are currently enrolled in this program, with major advisor Dr. Phil Rose of UWI and the first two authors as co-major advisor and uman activities the subsequent risk of introducing direct resources to them. Additional committee member, respectively. A have had a major non-native invasive species into partners are the USDA Subtropical project led by Commock concerns impact on the flora their environments. Horticulture Research Station of plant genera only found in Jamaica, and fauna of our Miami, led by Dr. Alan Meerow, for while Campbell’s research focuses on planet. Human- Regarding climate change, molecular genetic projects; and the the conservation status of Jamaican driven climate change and the Caribbean countries are facing two International Center for Tropical endemics. The baseline information immediate challenges. The first generated by these two studies will Hcurrent move to a global economy Botany (ICTB), a collaboration is sea-level rise, which is having between FIU, the National Tropical be critical to our understanding of are among the main factors an immediate impact on seashore Botanic Garden (NTBG) and the how climate change can affect the contributing to the current path habitats. Territories like the Bahamas population dynamics of individual William Cinea, Director of the Botanic Garden of Les Cayes in Haiti, provides Kampong Gardens, led by FIU’s a training at a plant systematics workshop at the Garden. towards species extinction, and the archipelago and several of the Lesser Dr. Chris Baraloto. plant species. resulting “biodiversity crisis” has Antilles and Virgin Islands sit at low had a particularly strong effect on elevations, and their very existence Florida International University has US graduate students are also Over the years, the authors have Haitian plants and animals are high island ecosystems. as political entities is threatened. A higher education and research in its a relevant part of these activities. been conducting fieldwork in the priorities for conservation. Jestrow second concern is how the species mission, and the two botanic gardens Michael Calonje, the cycad biologist Greater Antilles and Bahamas. has led two expeditions to northern The Caribbean Islands are composition of these islands will be have research as a key component at MBC, is currently pursuing Most recently, Dr. Jestrow has led Haiti, including the island of Tortue no exception to the extinction modified as global temperatures rise of their programs. In addition, a PhD in systematics and the studies of the Bahamian endemic and Môle-Saint-Nicolas, in the Coccothrinax inaguensis trend. Major concerns have arisen and species are forced to migrate to they have extensive experience in evolutionary history of the cycad palm (in northwestern corner of the country. genus Zamia through an agreement partnership with Dr. Ethan Freid During these trips, FIU botanist regarding the impact that a global higher elevations. conservation horticulture and have between FIU and MBC. Part of from the Bahamas National Trust, Dr. Alan Franck discovered a new economy and warmer temperatures established a large network of garden A botanical consortium in Miami his research involved extensive see article in this issue) and on species of cactus, and the existence will have on these insular systems. members and volunteers. The living Florida International University fieldwork in the Greater Antilles and the flora of northern Haiti (in of the enigmatic genus Tortuella was plant collections of these two gardens Historically, the islands have been (FIU) and Miami’s two largest the Bahamas under the guidance of partnership with William Cinea of confirmed. This genus, a member of a major center for trading because botanic gardens (Fairchild Tropical are unbeatable. FTBG has a large Dr. Meerow. Three students advised the Botanic Garden of Les Cayes the coffee family, is extremely rare of their central location in the Botanic Garden, or FTBG, and array of tropical plants, whereas by FIU faculty hosted at FTBG and Brígido Peguero of the National and known to exist only on Tortue. hemisphere and the development Montgomery Botanical Center, MBC has one of the most significant are working on the taxonomy of Botanic Garden of the Dominican of sugarcane as the region’s main MBC), are developing partnerships programs for cycad and palm Frangipanis and guava relatives Republic). The collected material Ex situ conservation cash crop, although the latter is to contribute to plant species conservation worldwide, based on the and on the conservation ecology of is being cultivated at FTBG and This term refers to the practice now in decline. Since the expansion conservation in the islands and to cultivation of multiple populations of Caribbean orchids (See article by MBC, with duplicates at Caribbean of preserving threatened species of of the Panama Canal, West Indies mitigate the effects of globalization endangered species. FTBG also has Haydee Borrero in this issue). botanic gardens. Similar initiatives plants in botanic gardens or seed ports have become particularly and climate change on the flora of the most extensive herbarium in the target the Critically Endangered banks. A recent ex situ conservation attractive as hubs for global trading, the West Indies. Currently, two FIU Miami metro area and a repository of Plant exploration palm Attalea crassispatha, a relative initiative, led by Dr. Griffith in and their tourist resorts are among faculty members (the first author material collected in the field. Plant exploration activities of the oil palm restricted to a few partnership with colleagues from the the most popular destinations for and Dr. Hong Liu) have formal are the basis for subsequent scattered populations in southern Bahamas National Trust, targeted holidaymakers from North America assignments and appointments at The Caribbean partners: training laboratory research, understanding Haiti. Extensive field surveys have Caribbean plants threatened by sea and Europe. One of the main results FTBG. All of our plant initiatives and capacity building conservation challenges, developing collected seeds for conservation level rise, especially the Critically of this massive movement of people are conducted in close partnership Our efforts to contribute to horticulture practices, and off site at FTBG, MBC and the Endangered Zamia lucayana. Seeds and cargo is an increase of urban with in-country botanists and botanical knowledge in the region eventually establishing living botanic gardens of Hispaniola. Plant were collected, and their progeny and agricultural development, and institutions and prioritize channeling have concentrated on graduate collections in botanic gardens. conservation biologists agree that (101 plants) are currently part of

6 Hemisphere Volume 28 Hemisphere Volume 28 7 Palm collection at the lowlands of Montgomery Botanical Center in Miami, Florida. Photo by M. Patrick Griffith.

the living collections of MBC. The Feddea, restricted to the nickel- activities with the broad community identification skills among local Climate change will have that besiege them, preserving them authors have also led six plant- rich soils of regions of eastern of plant enthusiasts from the professionals and students in the an impact on us all, but it has for future generations of the peoples hunting expeditions to the Bahamas, Cuba. Extensive fieldwork led region. A great proportion of their forestry and conservation fields. potentially dire consequences for of the Caribbean and the world. Haiti, Dominican Republic, the by collaborator Ramona Oviedo findings have also been published Miami’s botanic gardens. They are island of Mona (Puerto Rico) (Instituto de Ecología y Sistemática, in the brochures and magazines of The synergy from our located close to the shoreline, and Javier Francisco-Ortega is a Professor and Dominica to further in situ Cuba) located a single population Caribbean partners. Building on partnerships has led to the training it is uncertain to what extent their in the Department of Biological Sciences conservation of the Caribbean in the province of Guantanamo. the gardens’ partnership with the of nine FIU graduate students living collections can tolerate massive at Florida International University palm genus Pseudophoenix, the Subsequent DNA research showed Bahamas National Trust and the working on plant conservation saline intrusion of their aquifers. and a researcher at Fairchild Tropical research subject of FIU master’s Feddea to be a relict component of College of the Bahamas (currently and the taxonomy of West Indian Other Caribbean island gardens face Botanic Garden. student Rosa Rodríguez of the the sunflower family. University of the Bahamas), the first plants. Our team has conducted similar environmental challenges. Dominican Republic. symposium on plant conservation more than 30 plant exploration The ultimate aim of our initiatives is Brett Jestrow is Director of Collections Environmental education and biodiversity of the Bahamas expeditions across the Caribbean to contribute to the urgent need for of Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden in Our research involves a battery and outreach was organized in October 2012. Islands and produced more than conservation of the plant heritage Miami, Florida. of tools, including DNA protocols, Botanic gardens find their In January 2017, Dr. Jestrow, in 68 publications, 19 of them aimed of the Caribbean islands. The scanning electron microscopy, identity through the connection collaboration with Dr. A. Franck at the general public. Thanks to education, research and conservation M. Patrick Griffith is Director of the anatomy and histology, morphology, of their mission with the general and colleagues from the Botanic our efforts, the living collections of missions of botanical gardens are Montgomery Botanical Center in and horticulture propagation public. Both FTBG and MBC have Garden of Cayes, led a one-week FTBG and MBC have added more crucial for assuring that endemic Miami, Florida. procedures. Among the groups popular magazines or newsletters workshop on plant systematics than 100 accessions of palms, cycads and endangered plant species survive studied are the Cuban genus that regularly share their Caribbean that aimed to increase plant and several other seed plants. climate change and the other threats

8 Hemisphere Volume 28 Hemisphere Volume 28 9 South Florida-Caribbean Connections

The Shared Natural Heritage of Southern Florida and Cuba: Orchid Conservation across Borders by Haydee Borrero, Matt Richards, Dennis Giardina, Julio C. Álvarez, Ramona Oviedo Prieto, Emily E. D. Coffey & Hong Liu

elations between particularly climate change, in only be found in Cuba. From Cuba and the United different parts of its range. charismatic flowering varieties such States have morphed as the ghost orchid (Dendrophylax and changed over The study of existing populations lindenii), which has captivated the time. Whatever the and their ecology helps researchers attention of authors, collectors and sociopolitical climate, one group understand how species persist in filmmakers, to drabber species like Rremains blissfully unaware: the one place, a factor that becomes the rat-tail orchid (Bulbophylum pachyrachis), all play a role in their region’s shared flora and fauna. more significant given the inevitability of global change. ecosystems and are valuable to Species do not adhere to the Throughout a species’ range, society. The challenge is to establish anthropogenic borders humans different adaptations provide methods and programs for successful create to separate our cultures a buffer against environmental species management, restoration and peoples. The movements of changes such as cold snaps, of declining populations, and large mammals across swaths of droughts, and shifts in localized conservation to buffer extinctions in land and the migrations of birds species assemblages and interactions. a changing climate. To succeed, such across oceans make our efforts Preservation of adaptations through efforts will require the exchange at artificially demarcating the conservation projects across a of information, the creation of landscape ineffectual. Similarly, the species’ range will play a prominent relationships, and the fostering of spread of orchids throughout the role in future global biological conservation programs between the conservation projects. If a species two countries. Caribbean and Florida by wind must move, either with human dispersal of small, lightweight assistance or on its own, diversity The importance of monitoring seeds shows that while political in adaptations will preserve its The establishment of baseline systems may differ drastically, we evolutionary potential. data by comparing observations have much to gain by cooperating of healthy, intact populations through ecosystem management and Southern Florida is the with declining or threatened conservation. When considering a northernmost distribution for 56 ones throughout a species’ changing climate, the ability to pick species of orchids that can also be distribution is a critical component up and move might be a species’ found in Cuba. The majority are in conservation and restoration only option to avoid extinction, a threatened, endangered or locally projects. Currently, Dr. Hong Liu’s tropical plant conservation reality that poses a greater challenge extinct in southern Florida, but still plentiful in Cuba. The regrettable laboratory at Florida International to plants than it does to animals. loss of habitat due to urbanization, University (FIU) is studying the Understanding a species’ movements The flower of the mule-ear or oreja de burro historical extraction and poaching significant damage done to an orchid (Trichocentrum undulatum). This is critical to its conservation, in the United States has created a endangered local species, the orchid species can be found throughout Cuba but just as important is how it need for baseline ecological data for mule-ear or oreja de burro orchid and as far north as Everglades National Park reproduces and survives under the remaining orchid populations (Trichocentrum undulatum), in in Florida, where it is on the state list of varied environmental challenges, in Florida and those that can now Everglades National Park. Only one endangered species. Photo by Mario Cisneros. 10 Hemisphere Volume 28 Hemisphere Volume 28 11 South Florida-Caribbean Connections South Florida-Caribbean Connections

the FIU tropical plant conservation laboratory and Fakahatchee Strand Preserve State Park, advocates the reintroduction of four orchid species not seen in the United States since the early 1980s, using seeds sourced from Cuba.

The LOP aims to gather baseline population data for focal species from their remaining localities in Cuba and to collect seeds for propagation at partner institutions in Cuba and ABG. The project’s success is tied to the education and training of local garden staff and community groups through workshops on how to propagate orchids using standard methodologies developed by ABG.

Collaborative projects such as the LOP can have a significant impact on local biodiversity restoration through the reintroduction of extirpated species and play an important role in the overall success of global biodiversity conservation. In the cases of species with broad A visit to the coastal forests near Yaguajay, Cuba, in the spring of 2018. From left to right: Dr. Emily Coffey (ABG), Dr. Hong Liu (FIU), Armando Méndez (Parque Nacional Caguanes), field technician (Parque Nacional Caguanes) and Haydee Borrero (FIU). ranges and distributions spanning multiple borders, each partisan side may understand only a piece reproductively viable population Cuba, where the mule-ear orchid be dependent on the knowledge of the whole. An exchange of of this species is left in the United grows in every province in a variety yet to be gained by studying the research, ideas and knowledge States and it has been observed of habitats. healthier populations in Cuba. is necessary to protect and A Cuban stamp of Encyclia fucata from the 1980 “Cuban Orchids” series. to be severely affected by a fly With a changing climate and rising improve the health of threatened ALEXANDERZAM/iStock by Getty Images. (Melanagromyza miamensis) that Preliminary work by the tropical seas, Cuban orchid populations species. Establishing cross-border consumes the flowering stalks, plant conservation laboratory may be key to avoiding the species’ partnerships not only has a Haydee Borrero is a PhD candidate in the Ramona Oviedo Prieto is honorary hindering the production of at FIU and Cuba’s Instituto de extinction in the United States. positive effect on the resilience Department of Earth and Environment at researcher at the Herbarium of Instituto fruits and seeds. The Everglades Ecología y Sistemática has shown of wild orchid populations in the Florida International University. de Ecología y Sistemática de Cuba. population has been relatively that mule-ear orchids on the Perseverance and shared ideals Caribbean region but also upon well studied over the last decade, island are being attacked by the Some of South Florida’s orchids the survival of flora and fauna Matt Richards is Conservation Horticulture Emily E. D. Coffey is Vice President of but how are populations faring same species of fly that inhibits have gone extinct locally due to globally. Biodiversity conservation Manager at the Atlanta Botanical Garden. Conservation & Research at the Atlanta elsewhere in the species’ range? reproductive ability in Florida. The large-scale changes to the region’s actions can range from small- Botanical Garden. How are management decisions to attack rates observed in Cuba are natural areas in the twentieth scale local projects to larger-scale Dennis Giardina is Everglades Region be made if we do not know whether less than those documented in the century. The culprits include international collaborations that Biologist at the Florida Fish and Wildlife Hong Liu is Associate Professor in the a biological interaction seen in one Everglades, however, leading us logging and development, as well begin with an exchange of ideas Conservation Commission. Department of Earth and Environment population is an anomaly or within to believe that habitat conditions as extraction and poaching from and end with actions that may at Florida International University the normal spectrum of interspecies may be quite different in Cuba. the wild. The Lost Orchid Project ultimately ensure the continued Julio C. Álvarez is Conservation Biologist and a researcher at Fairchild Tropical interactions? Some of the answers This suggests that the future of (LOP), led by the Atlanta Botanical survival of rare, threatened and at the Herbarium of Instituto de Ecología Botanic Garden. to these questions can be found in the population in Florida may Garden (ABG) in collaboration with endangered species. y Sistemática de Cuba.

12 Hemisphere Volume 28 Hemisphere Volume 28 13 South Florida-Caribbean Connections Dr. CynthiaSouth Lewis Florida-Caribbean monitoring a large colony Connections of healthy pillar coral (Dendrogyra cylindrus) at Sombrero Reef, January 2014. Photo by Dr. Karen Neely. Coral Reefs under Threat by Cynthia Lewis & Mauricio Rodríguez-Lanetty

oral reefs, frequently defense, absorbing wave energy from referred as “the storms. Additionally, these reefs also rainforest of the sea,” are provide essential habitat for diverse the most diverse marine marine life which, in turn, are a ecosystems on the significant food source. Despite the planet. Comprising about 0.1% of importance of these reef ecosystems Cthe Earth’s surface, coral reefs provide to human societies worldwide, habitats for more than 90,000 they have experienced dramatic known species, including 800 species declines in recent decades due to a of hard coral worldwide. Beyond variety of natural and anthropogenic their biodiversity value, coral reefs disturbances occurring both at the also provide nearly US$9.9 trillion local (e.g. overfishing, nutrient a year in economic and ecosystem loading and diseases) and global services that directly benefit about (e.g. climate change and ocean 500 million people. The high acidification) levels. An apparent biodiversity and productivity of major driver of coral mortality, these ecosystems is, at first glance, and thus coral reef decline, is coral perplexing, considering that coral bleaching, the massive loss of reef organisms grow in nutrient-poor photosynthetic algae living within waters at subtropical and tropical the coral tissue caused by abnormal latitudes. Corals have thrived in increases in seawater temperatures these environments due to highly —a phenomenon linked to climate efficient nutrient cycling provided change and exacerbated by high by their symbiotic relationship with light intensities. photosynthetic, single-cell microalgae that live inside the cells of the An estimated 20% of the world’s actual coral host. In this system, the reefs have been lost in the last 50 coral animal captures and ingests years, and scientists anticipate zooplankton and dissolved organic that more than 60% may be nutrients from the surrounding water gone by 2030. These projections to maintain its own metabolism. have accelerated following the Chemical byproducts of the coral 2014-2016 El Niño Southern metabolism, such as ammonium and Oscillation (ENSO), one of the carbon dioxide, are made available to strongest warming phases on the associated microalgae, which use record in this cyclical shift in the them as a nutrient source for their ocean and atmosphere, and the own cellular growth. Astonishingly, cause of staggering losses to coral during this process these microalgae reefs worldwide. In the Caribbean, can provide the coral with up to 95% declines in live coral cover since the of their carbohydrate needs produced 1970s are estimated at more than through photosynthesis. 80%, leaving less than 5% live coral cover on many reefs. In addition to The rugged structure of coral coral bleaching, more frequent and reefs often provides the first line of intense hurricanes and new disease

14 Hemisphere Volume 28 Hemisphere Volume 28 15 South Florida-Caribbean Connections South Florida-Caribbean Connections

outbreaks affecting more than half stress, they may also reduce the ancient monarchs of the reefs were of the 61 endemic Caribbean coral productivity of the coral animal, and listed as Vulnerable in 2008 based species have further degraded these not all corals are able to shift and/or on the International Union for reefs. The Florida Reef Tract (FRT), re-shuffle their association with the Conservation of Nature Red List stretching nearly 320 km from algae that they host. criteria for species conservation, Biscayne Bay to the Dry Tortugas due to disease and declining water and the only living barrier reef in Several studies have shown that quality. In 2014, the pillar coral was the continental United States, has some corals may have adaptive federally listed as Threatened under experienced alarming declines in potential to adjust to the current the US Endangered Species Act live coral cover and diversity. Like environmental threats linked to because of population declines in US the orchid populations that occur in climate change, offering some waters. These listings initiated studies both Cuba and the US (see the article degree of hope for these species. At to more clearly define the situation of by Haydee Borrero in this issue), the same time, recent large-scale Florida’s population and gain a better this reef links South Florida and the investigations in the Great Barrier understanding of the environmental Caribbean. Efforts to conserve it have Reef using data collected over factors causing the decline. strong implications for both regions. the last 20 years suggest that past exposure does not lessen the severity Since the 2014 and 2015 mass Is there still hope for coral to adapt of current bleaching. This indicates bleaching events associated with to climate change? that the continued worsening of the ENSO, Florida’s pillar coral In geological terms, coral reef environmental changes seems to be population has experienced ecosystems have experienced a outpacing the ability of the corals and catastrophic collapse, declining from remarkable period of long-term their symbionts to adapt to climate approximately 745 known colonies stability. In recent years, however, change. Consequently, scientists have to fewer than 75. Fortunately, first increasing environmental threats called for immediate global action author Dr. Cynthia Lewis (Florida Dr. Cynthia Lewis monitoring and sampling a severely bleached pillar coral colony at Tennessee Reef, September 2014. Photo by Dr. Karen Neely. associated with climate change are to curb future warming to secure a International University) and Dr. affecting these ecosystems at a rate future for coral reefs. The question Karen Neely (Nova Southeastern North Carolina to explore antibiotic be rescued. The pillar coral living from land-based genetic arks, not observed previously. now is, how do we buy time and University) sounded the alarm treatments and protocols to arrest the genetic ark could provide the disease treatments and restoration save those resilient organisms still in December 2015 and began a disease under controlled aquarium foundation for future restoration techniques can be applied to other When faced with new selection alive within these ecosystems given coordinated effort, through the conditions. With approval from the efforts of this species if and when vulnerable pillar coral populations pressures imposed by increasingly the US government’s failure to take National Oceanic and Atmospheric US Food & Drug Administration’s reef conditions improve and throughout the Caribbean, as well rapid climate change, coral aggressive action to slow and reverse Administration’s (NOAA) Protected Center for Veterinary Medicine/ divers can return the samples to as to other threatened coral species populations can respond in three the progression of climate change? Resources Coral Division, to rescue Minor Use Minor Species Division, the reef. Meanwhile, scientists around the world. basic ways. First, they can evade Florida’s remaining pillar coral. application of antibiotic treatments are excited about successful land- damage by dispersing to suitable What we can we do to save They harvested pillar fragments was further tested in the field on based pillar coral reproduction There is growing consensus habitats elsewhere. Second, they the corals and transferred them to land-based wild diseased pillar coral with some within the genetic arks in August among scientists that aggressive can stay and adjust to the changed One immediate solution is to facilities at Keys Marine Laboratory, success, using a targeted, time-release 2017 and 2018. Such experiments intervention actions are needed to conditions by means of phenotypic create living genetic banks, or “coral Florida Aquarium’s Center for paste to stop the advance of disease. are especially challenging for this save and preserve coral diversity. For plasticity without altering their arks,” to protect and preserve rapidly Conservation, and Mote Marine predominantly gonochoric (separate the time being, however, reducing genetic constitution. Third, they can dwindling coral diversity on our Laboratory. Many colonies were Since the beginning of this rescue male and female colonies) species. greenhouse gas emissions remains adapt to the changed conditions by reefs. Land-based, temperature- already ravaged by white plague effort in January 2016, nearly 400 Not only does pillar coral, like the priority as the only way to means of genetic changes through the controlled systems can provide a (now termed stony coral tissue fragments representing 89 distinct many other corals, require genetic restore stability to the oceans and process of evolution. A combination safe haven for some of the most loss disease), an aggressive, fast- genetic groups, identified by Dr. diversity for reproductive success, climate, giving coral reefs a chance of these responses is also possible, threatened species. The iconic and moving disease capable of killing Andie Chan and Dr. Iliana Baums but it also depends on the presence to regenerate. perhaps even likely. For instance, morphologically unique pillar coral, an entire large colony in a matter of (Pennsylvania State University), of male and female colonies to some genetic change has been Dendrogyra cylindrus, occurring months. While a specific pathogen have been successfully stabilized create the next generation of baby Cynthia Lewis is Deputy Director accomplished through the appearance in historically low abundance or suite of pathogens has not yet in the already established “pillar corals. Within these new coral of the Keys Marine Laboratory in of new symbiotic algae species living throughout its Caribbean range, is been identified, it is likely bacterial coral genetic ark.” More than half recruits may be individuals that Long Key, Florida. within the coral that can provide more currently faced with local extinction and possibly viral in nature. Badly of these rescued genetic groups are are more resistant and resilient to resistance to the detrimental effect on the Florida Reef Tract. This diseased fragments of rare individuals now extinct on the Florida Reef thermal stress and disease and better Mauricio Rodríguez-Lanetty is of ocean warming. But while these could happen within the next five were transported to NOAA’s Tract. Unfortunately, an additional adapted to reef conditions in the Associate Professor in the Department new microalgae can impart increased years, meaning the species is in National Ocean Science Hollings 60 unique genetic groups were current human-dominated age of of Biological Sciences at Florida survival to corals under thermal dire need of intervention. These Marine Laboratory in Charleston, lost to disease before they could the Anthropocene. Lessons learned International University.

16 Hemisphere Volume 28 Hemisphere Volume 28 17 CONSERVATION AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN THE CARIBBEAN

The Imperial Parrot or Sisserou, Dominica’s national bird, is the largest and oldest of the Amazon parrots. Photo by Paul Reillo. Saving Dominica’s Parrots in a Changed World by Paul Reillo

ominica, the again green and lush with emerging Wildlife Conservation Partnership resplendent, vegetation, but the parrots’ small with FWD in 1996. Our collective mountainous world has been irrevocably changed. goal was to provide tangible Nature Island of Maria will not be the island’s last benefits to Dominica’s endangered the Caribbean, was hurricane, and critical species there parrots and other endemic species forever changed on September 18, face an increasingly uncertain future. through on-site research, habitat D2017 by Hurricane Maria, which protection, material and technical struck as a Category 5 cyclone. Nature’s previous major assault support, educational outreach (e.g., Having lived in South Florida for on the island was from Hurricane the annual Caribbean Endemic nearly 30 years, and working closely David in 1979, just a year after Birds Festival) and FWD capacity with Dominica’s Forestry, Wildlife Dominica achieved independence building. Over the past 20+ years, and Parks Division (FWD) for the from England. That storm, which and millions of dollars later, the past 20, I can personally attest to hit as a Category 4, reduced the program has achieved numerous the fury of hurricanes, but also Imperial Parrot population to conservation milestones, highlighted to nature’s resilience afterward. perhaps 50 individuals, prompting by the creation of Morne Diablotin Although Dominica’s post-Maria international NGOs and the National Park, the Sisserou’s story has been eclipsed by the Dominican government to initiate stronghold. This joint program is media’s intense focus on Puerto Rico recovery and protection measures responsible for virtually everything and her many tragedies, the Nature for the bird and its oceanic we know about the parrots’ Island’s saga is noteworthy in its rainforest habitat. Dominica’s ecologies, behavior, reproduction own right. parrots survived Maria thanks to and recovery potential. progressive, continuous conservation For decades, scientists considered investments by the FWD and its As the strongest cyclone to hit Dominica to be a Caribbean model NGO partners over the past 30+ Dominica in the island’s recorded for homegrown wildlife conservation years. FWD has governing authority history, Maria caused catastrophic and sustainability. In particular, the over all wildlife matters, as specified damage to its infrastructure and iconic, endemic national bird, the in Dominica’s Wildlife Act, and forests, and significant loss of Imperial Parrot (a.k.a. Sisserou, or serves as a Scientific Authority for human life. Yet, thanks to its Amazona imperialis), the largest and the international Convention on healthy pre-hurricane population oldest of the Amazon parrots, has International Trade in Endangered size (>1200 individuals), the Jaco long been a conservation flagship Species of Wild Fauna and Flora parrot is now sighted throughout for biodiversity protection. After (also known as CITES). Its efforts, Dominica, including villages and Maria, many conservationists feared in addition to national pride, have settlements, foraging on natural and the shy, beautiful Sisserou might be largely protected the parrots from agricultural foodstuffs. This species gone for good. Amazingly, despite hunting and exploitation for the pet is social and gregarious. With a Maria’s wrath, this majestic parrot trade, which has undermined many clutch size of 2-3 and an early survived the storm along with its parrot conservation efforts in the age of sexual maturity (~5 years), more common endemic congener Caribbean and American tropics. it exhibits a high reproductive (member of the same genus), the rate. Even after heavy losses from Jaco parrot (A. arausiaca). A year The Rare Species Conservatory David, the Jaco rebounded steadily, after Maria, Dominica is once Foundation (RSCF) initiated the and we are witnessing a similar

18 Hemisphere Volume 28 Hemisphere Volume 28 19 Conservation and Climate Change in the Caribbean Conservation and Climate Change in the Caribbean

trend following Maria. Like the 12 of 18 parrots kept at Dominica’s When safety net captive retain species in the country of Sisserou, the Jaco is fully protected government-run aviary—including populations for Caribbean Amazon origin where they belong. The by Dominican law and is listed as two Sisserous—were secretly parrots are warranted, they can and Parrot Conservation and Research CITES Appendix I. exported to a private parrot-breeding should be accomplished in their Centre, established in 1999 in facility in Germany known as the natural ecosystems within a network Dominica’s Botanical Gardens, has The secretive and cryptic Sisserou Association for the Conservation of officially protected areas. One long served as a protected home likely numbered ~350-450 birds of Threatened Parrots (ACTP), such successful effort was the US for non-releasable parrots and as a prior to Maria. Over the past year, contradicting decades of scientifically Fish and Wildlife Service’s recovery rehabilitation center for birds to be occasional sightings have been sound, on-island parrot-conservation program for A. vittata on Puerto returned to the forest. confirmed in the Northern and measures. Eleven of the birds were Rico, initiated in parallel with Central Forest Reserves, and in being rehabilitated for release back Dominica’s FWD program more Dominica’s experienced parrot patches of forest habitat within to the forest. Disguised as a need to than 30 years ago. In contrast, no team is now conducting GPS- and adjacent to the Morne Trois “rescue” the parrots from a post- ex situ captive population of any based surveys to quantify parrots Pitons and Morne Diablotin Maria Dominica, this export was Caribbean parrot species—at zoos, across challenging terrain strewn National Parks. FWD’s parrot arguably as damaging to the parrots’ aviaries, or research facilities—has with forest debris. Much outside team, championed by a forester futures as the hurricane itself. successfully recovered a native wild support is needed to ensure long- recruited into Dominica’s first population. In practice, ex situ term wildlife and habitat health. parrot research project in 1981, has Given the Sisserou’s biology, captive populations of Caribbean As a resilient and proud nation, sighted multiple Sisserous, with initiating a captive breeding parrot species have long been Dominica will forge a path to others revealed by their haunting program under any conservation associated with private collectors recovery as new and progressive vocalizations. This large parrot pretext would require collecting and the wildlife trade, and they energy, communications, water reaches sexual maturity at ~10 years most or all of the wild population. do not provide for the sustainable and transportation systems are and reproduces slowly, typically Such an aggressive action is widely preservation of these birds in their developed. Dominica’s government fledging one chick every other year. considered unethical, scientifically West Indian habitats. has launched an unprecedented Even with Dominica’s strong forest indefensible and unnecessary—a campaign to make the island protection ethic and comprehensive view expressed in two published Real parrot conservation on the first climate change-resilient post-David conservation measures, letters signed by numerous Dominica starts with recognizing country—a tall order for a speck of nearly 25 years were required for the international conservation NGOs the island’s amazing conservation an island in the Atlantic hurricane Sisserou to reestablish its pre-David and credentialed scientists following history following the devastating belt. Her wildlife must be given range. While most of Dominica’s the birds’ export to Germany. effects of hurricane David, the fullest opportunity to recover primary parrot habitat is protected, Dominica’s parrots have survived opportunities post-Maria, and on its own and within Dominica’s much of the mature forest is now hurricanes for millennia, and the many holistic, practical and sovereign borders. devastated. The Sisserou’s recovery wild populations have rebounded landscape-level protective measures post-Maria will be markedly slower thanks to broad-based, on-island that enable parrots to recover Paul Reillo is a field-oriented than the Jaco’s, likely requiring conservation measures. It bears naturally without export for conservation zoologist, founding director several generations. emphasizing that all of the captive breeding or captivity. Responsible of the Rare Species Conservatory birds on Dominica survived Maria. NGOs should unconditionally Foundation, and co-director of the Today, Dominica is a fragile support the country’s conservation Tropical Conservation Institute (TCI), country and its wildlife is After a seven-month investigation, needs, including enhancing FWD’s an innovative collaboration between vulnerable to exploitation. The Guardian newspaper revealed professional capacity and physical RSCF and Florida International Immediately post-Maria, surviving that, in addition to glaring financial, infrastructure. Exporting wild birds University. TCI focuses on hands- parrots were weak and food- governance and scientific transparency to distant foreign aviaries under a on, practical conservation solutions limited, foraging in exposed areas issues at ACTP, its principal officers pretense of “saving species” paralyzes for Earth’s most endangered wildlife for anything they could find to are convicted criminals, with offenses ongoing conservation successes that while training the next generation of eat. While life is now better for ranging from kidnapping and take generations to achieve. conservation practitioners. those left, their recovery hinges on extortion to illegal wildlife trade. As habitat protection and reducing investigations into ACTP’s activities Resources and funds used to threats for the foreseeable future. and parrot transfers continue, an create ex situ parrot populations international petition to demand can establish sustainable captive Dominica’s parrots have survived hurricanes The world of parrot conservation corrective actions by Germany’s populations for reintroduction for millennia, and wild populations have in Dominica was recently shaken by CITES authority is under way, with into nature programs—again, as rebounded thanks to broad-based, on-island a major controversy. In March 2018, more than 55,000 signatures. needed—that bolster pride and conservation measures. Photo by Paul Reillo.

20 Hemisphere Volume 28 Hemisphere Volume 28 21 Co-author Hazel A. Oxenford stands amid mountains Conservation and Climate Change in the Caribbean of sargassum on a beach in Barbados, 2015. Photo by Jehroum Wood.

been declining since the 1970s, as mammals and humans. Examples In 2011, massive influxes of detected by long-term monitoring include the well-known “red tides” floating sargassum started entering programs. These negative impacts on Florida’s coastlines caused by the the Caribbean Sea and washing up are being met with significant microalgal dinoflagellate Karenia along windward beaches, reaching efforts to recover and protect brevis, capable of massive blooms monumental build-ups in some areas. coastal and marine ecosystems. when temperatures, nutrients and The rapidly accumulating seaweed For example, governments have dissolved organic matter increase. soon became a major environmental increased the number and extent As global warming trends continue, management problem, one that of marine protected areas (MPAs) we can expect more frequent and unprepared stakeholders were ill since the 1990s. These ecosystem- more extensive microalgal blooms, equipped to handle. Huge piles of based management efforts are with their associated costs to the algae covered white sand beaches playing an important role in the environment, economy and society. and stained turquoise waters with conservation and sustainable use a muddy brown color, ruining the of marine resources in the region Around the world, we are also signature aesthetics of the tourism by regulating the local impacts witnessing a large increase in industry and preventing visitors of tourism development and blooms of macroalgae (seaweed), and locals from enjoying beaches or fishing pressures while increasing again associated with increasing accessing the sea. Left unattended stakeholder knowledge and temperatures and ocean enrichment. and trapped in the nearshore water, participation. However, these A good example is the “green the seaweeds experienced anaerobic efforts are not enough to combat tide” formed by the seaweed decomposition and released a the impacts of global stressors such Ulva prolifera, which cost China foul-smelling hydrogen sulphide as climate change and ocean-wide approximately US$100 million in gas to add to the misery. Nesting nutrient enrichment. Some MPAs damages in 2008. Right here in sea turtles and emerging hatchlings have succeeded in increasing local the Caribbean, massive influxes were also negatively affected. At fish populations and supporting of sargassum seaweed pose one of night, the oxygen was sucked out Algal Blooms in the Caribbean: the recovery of coral reef areas (e.g. the most serious challenges to the of nearshore water by the rotting Hol Chan in Belize), but many seashore ecosystem. sargassum and resulted in fish kills; other sites, such as the Florida Keys, the death of many invertebrates, Unpredictable Responses to have lost more than 50% of their The new sargassum tide including corals, and the smothering coral cover since 1970, despite their Floating sargassum seaweeds and suffocation of protective seagrass protected status and significant (comprising two species of brown meadows. Furthermore, rotting Climate Change management efforts. macroalgae, Sargassum natans sargassum released high levels of by Ligia Collado-Vides, Marta García-Sánchez, Hazel A. Oxenford, Rosa Rodríguez-Martínez and S. fluitans) are native to the nutrients, suspended organic matter & Brigitta I. van Tussenbroek Algal blooms are here to stay North Atlantic Ocean. They are and brown stain (phlorotannins), Linked to climate change and well known and treasured in the further contributing to the region-wide eutrophication, Sargasso Sea, and also present environmental degradation. microalgal blooms are increasing in seasonally in the Gulf of Mexico. he world’s scientists are the dynamics of ecosystem functions The Caribbean feels the heat frequency and persistence all around However, what we are witnessing Once the winter season came, the calling for immediate and services that ensure sustainable Like all regions of the world, the world. These single-celled aquatic now are unprecedented influxes sargassum was gone, but it returned action to curb the development for our civilization. the Caribbean Sea is suffering the organisms can multiply rapidly in of floating sargassum from a new in 2013, and in 2014-2015 it causes of climate For example, we do not know how effects of climate change. Massive high-nutrient, warm conditions and source region, stretching across the reached massive proportions. The change, based on many species are becoming extinct die-offs of keystone species, at night. During decomposition, entire North Atlantic equatorial worst influx seen to date occurred unequivocal data and models. The or fully understand the impacts of widespread coral bleaching and they take up so much oxygen from recirculation region from Brazil to in the summer of 2018, leaving a T the water that many other species, the Gulf of Guinea. Washing up severe negative signature across the current sequence of natural disasters nutrient enrichment of our oceans, associated mortality, and shifts around the globe (wildfires, coral so it is difficult to predict with from coral- to algal-dominated especially fish, actually suffocate, along the shorelines of West Africa, entire Caribbean region. Scientists in resulting in massive fish kills. Some Brazil, the Caribbean and Central Mexico have now demonstrated that bleaching, algal blooms, floods, any certainty what effects these reefs are becoming commonplace in microalgae species release toxic America, unprecedented beach the impact on seagrasses was similar droughts) is clear evidence that we alterations will have. Exacerbating the region. With slightly different compounds, forming harmful strandings of seaweed are causing to or greater than that caused by the are living with the consequences the situation is the recent rise in local trends, the general health algal blooms (HABs) that result in great difficulties for small-scale category-five Hurricane Wilma on of increased temperatures at the micro and macroalgal blooms, status of the major coastal marine massive die-offs of fish, shellfish fishermen and enormous damage the same ecosystem in 2005. Hotels global level. Further, there is ample among the most disturbing of the ecosystems (mangroves, seagrass and other invertebrates, as well as to nearshore ecosystems and the in Cancun removed a monthly evidence that humans have altered new phenomena. meadows and coral reefs) has being toxic to air-breathing marine tourism industry. average of ~5,600 m3 of sargassum

22 Hemisphere Volume 28 Hemisphere Volume 28 23 Conservation and Climate Change in the Caribbean Conservation and Climate Change in the Caribbean

N A Current

Seaweed wash up zone, probably coming from the Sargasso Sea Gulf Stream The Azores In Situ Conservation

North Atlantic Canary Current AA EA Ocean Gulf Efforts in the Commonwealth of Tropic of Cancer Mexico Seaweed wash up zone, Deepwater Horizon probably coming from the Small Sargasso Sea Oil Rig S of The Bahamas The Antilles nt rre N by Ethan Freid, Lindy Knowles & Shelley Woodside-Cant Cu rial ato Equ North EA ASSO S Sargassum wash up zone, SMALL SARG Equator he Commonwealth least populated by humans, with precipitation and therefore hold coming from the Small of The Bahamas is a extensive terrestrial areas that have larger freshwater reserves compared Sargasso Sea t Gulf E rren quatorial Counter Cu of Guineas far-flung archipelago experienced little to no disturbance, to the smaller islands to the south. A of low-lying limestone and therefore lower threat levels to With so much biological variation Map of ocean currents and sargassum presence. Courtesy of Ocean Treasures Memorial Library (otlibrary.com). islands spreading the species occurring there. throughout the archipelago, broad over approximately 900 kilometers conservation efforts are needed for per kilometer of beach between clear or consistent quantification clear commitment from governments. T(21-27o N) along a succession The territory covered by the terrestrial and marine species, as January and October 2018, doubling of the ecological, economic and The massive influx of sargassum of shallow banks and deep Bahamas is predominately marine, well as targeted initiatives at specific records set in 2015. Some hotels in social impacts or opportunities. is a response to changes in ocean ocean canyons. The archipelago, with only ~5% of the nation classified locations for individual species that the eastern Caribbean islands were A comprehensive, coordinated conditions related to global warming including the Turks and Caicos as terrestrial. It includes ~2700 islands have highly restricted distributions. even forced to close down completely approach to regional and local and human-induced decrease in Islands, is in the Atlantic Ocean and cays, including large land masses during this period. A virtual collapse forecasting is lacking, and in situ coastal water quality. Living in an north of Hispaniola, northeast such as Andros (ca. 6,000 km2) and In situ conservation refers to the of the flying fish fishery in Barbados monitoring programs and biological uncertain world is the new norm, and of Cuba and east of Florida. many small rocky shoals. They range safeguarding of species and their and the appearance of new fishery study of the species affected are denial of reality is not an alternative. Biological conservation programs in elevation from barely emergent at ecosystems inside a network of species, such as the almaco jack, are urgently needed to develop effective in an island nation so vast have high tide to the highest peak in the protected areas. Two government just a few examples of the unexpected strategic management plans and Ligia Collado-Vides is a Senior Lecturer both their challenges and benefits. archipelago, Mount Alvernia on Cat agencies, the Department of consequences around the region. adequate response. in the Department of Biological Sciences This is particularly evident today, Island (63 meters above sea level), but Marine Resources and the Forestry at Florida International University. as few other Caribbean nations more than 90% of the land is a low- Unit, and a non-governmental Struggling to cope A new reality face the consequences of global elevation coastal environment. organization called the Bahamas Hard lessons are being learned The Caribbean is the most Marta García-Sánchez is a Post- warming and associated sea level National Trust (BNT) are the main as the region struggles to share tourism-dependent region in the Doctoral Fellow at Universidad Nacional rises as directly as The Bahamas The current human population of entities in charge of implementing and coordinate best management world, with a total contribution of Autónoma de México, Instituto de and the Turks and Caicos. the commonwealth is estimated at this conservation strategy. The practices for processing algae US$57.1 billion (15.2% of total Ciencias del Mar Puerto Morelos, ~400,000, with substantial variation BNT has expanded from a single strands along shorelines and to GDP) in 2017, and an estimated Quintana Roo, Mexico. The commonwealth’s islands between islands. The capital park in the central Exuma chain to develop a strategic action plan that rise of 3.3% in 2018. Keeping a differ substantially in terms of size, island, New Providence, is home 32 national parks covering 8,900 recognizes both the challenges and tourism-based economy healthy Hazel A. Oxenford is a Professor at land tenure, history of disturbance, to ~245,000 people (~60% of the square kilometers of land and sea. As opportunities posed by sargassum in this region depends on the the University of the West Indies, Cave distribution of citizenry, and the total). Many other islands have less noted above, 95% of The Bahamas influxes. Regional meetings, protection of the marine and coastal Hill, Barbados. locations and population sizes of than 2500 inhabitants and, in some is a marine environment and guideline booklets, posters and environment. The negative impacts species in need of protection. Land cases, the population numbers only therefore accounts for the majority fact sheets have gone a long way of microalgal blooms on iconic Rosa Rodríguez-Martínez is on the tenure is one of the biggest obstacles in the hundreds. of protected habitat. The largest toward helping to share appropriate Caribbean beaches and critical support staff at Universidad Nacional to creating terrestrial protected national park is West Side National responses, but more action is needed coastal ecosystems are a direct Autónoma de México, Instituto de areas, since some islands have very The dominant vegetation type in Park on Andros, where more than to create financially sustainable economic threat to the region. Ciencias del Mar Puerto Morelos, little Crown (government) land that the southern and central islands is 6.070 km2 of land and sea have solutions and avoid further negative Quintana Roo, Mexico. can be easily set aside for protection. Caribbean Dry Forest/Shrubland been designated a protected area. impacts to beaches and their Climate change and nutrient In the central and southern islands, (locally known as Coppice), and Pine Globally, The Bahamas stands out associated flora and fauna. The enrichment are triggering Brigitta I. van Tussenbroek is a Professor most land is held privately or Woodlands in the northern islands for its strong partnerships between tourism and fishing industries have unpredictable and difficult futures at Universidad Nacional Autónoma de is considered “generational” or and the Turks and Caicos. The larger government and non-governmental already suffered significant impacts, that call for rapid and coordinated México, Instituto de Ciencias del Mar communal. At the same time, the islands are mostly located in the agencies to implement nationwide in but scientists have yet to provide a action from all sectors of society and a Puerto Morelos, Quintana Roo, Mexico. central and southern islands are the north, where they receive greater situ biological conservation.

24 Hemisphere Volume 28 Hemisphere Volume 28 25 Conservation and Climate Change in the Caribbean Conservation and Climate Change in the Caribbean

Primeval Forest National Park in southwestern New Providence, Bahamas. Remarkably undisturbed, it is one of the best preserved plots of The two greatest threats to conservation programs are climate change and invasive species. The Red Lionfish, which originates in the South old-growth woodland in the country. PJOTRAVELER. Pacific, has invaded Marine Protected Areas and degraded the reef systems’ biodiversity in The Bahamas and throughout the Caribbean. BESJUNIOR/iStock by Getty Images.

The parks and what they protect Eighty-nine endemic vascular that more endemic plant species are have greater connectivity to the US functional, and access to many parks protective reef system and most of its Of the 32 national parks, six are plants are known to exist in The already under in situ protection. mainland and have experienced and protected areas for conservation accompanying organisms. entirely marine and another 15 Bahamas. Of these, 50 exist on more ecosystem disturbance from and management purposes will are at least partially so. The parks only one or two islands in the Fortunately, many of the animal development pressures. They are also become increasingly difficult. Little can be done to help the vary in size, ranging from Andros archipelago. Many have small species that need in situ protection more influenced by global economic archipelago adapt to climate change West Side to the smallest, the population sizes and habitats, occur have restricted ranges or breeding trends, as they are major hubs The consequences for The Bahamas given the speed with which the 8,083-square-meter Black Sound on privately owned land, and are grounds. This has allowed for for international trading. Marine and Turks and Caicos Islands are changes are occurring. Organisms Cay National Park. They were unlikely to be protected in situ. the targeted establishment of Protected Areas have been invaded existential in nature. Entire islands that can migrate may survive, while designed to protect representative Unfortunately, little work has been preserves early in the development by the Red Lionfish (Pterois volitans/ and ecosystems will be inundated and those that cannot will likely be lost ecosystems and species, with conducted to establish conservation of protected areas, with parks miles), which originates in the South altered. For terrestrial organisms, the in the wild and exist only in ex situ connectivity between sites to ensure priority categories for plants using dedicated to the protection of Pacific and degrades the reef systems’ greatest consequence of sea level rise conservation situations located on the long-term survival of key marine the Red Listing system of the the natural habitats of iguanas, biodiversity. On land, Australian Pine will be decreased island size, reducing higher ground. More urgent and species. The marine national park International Union for Conservation flamingos, seabirds and parrots. (Casuarina sp.) and White Ink Berry available feeding and breeding theoretically possible is mitigation and protected area system will be of Nature (IUCN). However, the (Scaevola taccada) have aggressively habitats. Areas such as the Pine of climate change by reducing CO2 expanded in the next few years as available IUCN categories show that Threats to biological invaded coastal dune systems. Woodlands, which occur less than a emissions from the burning of fossil The Bahamian government aims to endemic species of cycad (Zamia conservation programs meter above groundwater level, may fuels and deforestation, but for that achieve its goal of 20% of nearshore lucayana), agaves and cacti rank as Two main factors threaten Climate change completely flood, eliminating entire The Bahamas depend on action from protection and management. Vulnerable to Critically Endangered conservation programs in marine Among all of the conservation ecosystems. The potential toll includes the rest of the world. and are the highest priorities for and terrestrial ecosystems, both of challenges, increasing global the ground-nesting Bahamian parrot Ten other national parks are conservation initiatives. them related to global warming and temperatures will have the greatest of the Pine Woodlands on Abaco Ethan Freid is a botanist at Bahamas entirely terrestrial and contain globalization: invasive species and effect. The rising sea levels associated and the iguana populations of small National Trust, Leon Levy Preserve, Eleuthera. freshwater, and another 18 have at Nineteen endemic species are climate change. with global warming will flood offshore cays such as the Exumas, least some portion that is terrestrial. known to be protected within at coastal areas and force the islands’ Nurse Cays and Booby Cay. For Lindy Knowles is a Senior Science Officer Most of the entirely terrestrial parks least one existing park, including Invasive species groundwater up and out of the marine organisms, ocean warming at Bahamas National Trust. are small; seven of them together one single-island and two double- Marine and terrestrial invasive porous limestone. Critical low-lying and acidification (a change in seawater total up to only 0.65 square km. island endemics. As most of the species occur throughout The infrastructure will be inundated chemistry due to uptake of carbon Shelley Woodside-Cant is Director of Regardless of size, they are all largely parks have not had a full Botanical Bahamas but are concentrated in and destroyed. Roads, airports and dioxide) will lead to continued Science and Policy at Bahamas intact natural systems. Assessment of their flora, it is likely the northern islands. These islands many marinas will become non- degradation and decline of the National Trust.

26 Hemisphere Volume 28 Hemisphere Volume 28 27 RIVERS, FORESTS AND SOILS

Rivers of Latin America and the Caribbean: Centers of Biological and Cultural Diversity at Risk from Climate Change by Elizabeth P. Anderson

ivers are a defining River demarcates Mexico and complete their life cycles. In South feature of the Latin Guatemala. Thanks in part to the America, rivers draining the Andes America and Caribbean water contained in these river carry sediments and nutrients region, used to mark systems, renewable water resources from the mountainous landscape political boundaries, are well above internationally toward lowland environments. This move people and goods, shape accepted thresholds for water stress highland-lowland connection is Rcultures, supply water and food, and or water scarcity in almost all Latin vital for freshwater species, many sustain ecosystems. But they are also American countries. of which migrate from the lowland under threat from climate change. areas of large rivers, such as the Here, I explore the importance Latin America and the Caribbean Amazon, Orinoco and Magdalena, of rivers in the region and discuss is also a region of extraordinary up into the foothills or headwater what’s at stake in an uncertain biological diversity, much of which areas for feeding or spawning. climate future. is linked to rivers. Parts of Central An extraordinary example is the and South America harbor more Goliath catfish (Brachyplatystoma By global standards, the Latin species per unit area of plants, spp.): In its adult stage, it moves America and Caribbean region is birds, amphibians and mammals from the mouth of the Amazon considered water wealthy. In large than any other place on Earth. The near Belém, Brazil, upstream into part, this abundance of water can global center of species richness the Andean Amazon piedmont be attributed to the many rivers, in freshwater fish, for example, is regions of Peru and Bolivia for and particularly the high number the Amazon Basin. Approximately spawning. This fish’s journey of of globally important fluvial 2300 fish species have been more than 7000 miles along river systems that crisscross Central described there, but the real corridors represents the longest and South America. For example, number may be as high as 3000 or freshwater migration of any species the Amazon Basin—the world’s 4000. Nearly 100 new freshwater on Earth. largest river system as measured fish species are documented each by volume of annual water flow— year from the region. One of The Latin America and Caribbean drains roughly 40% of South the explanations for such a high region is also renowned for its America. The Orinoco and the number of freshwater fish species cultural diversity. Again, much of this Paraná-Paraguay River systems also is the abundance and diversity of diversity is closely linked to rivers. rank as major basins, traversing rivers. Those draining Caribbean Rivers have influenced where human northern and southeastern parts islands, Costa Rica and Panama settlements occur, how they spread, of South America, respectively. In tend to be short and steep, rushing and how they are accessed today. For Central America, large rivers form water quickly out of mountainous example, Lima, Peru, located in the borders between countries; the San areas and to coastlines. Many fish country’s arid coastal region, grew Freshwater fishes are a primary source of income and protein across much of Central and South America. Many fish are migratory, moving between different Juan River divides Costa Rica and in these areas move between marine from indigenous settlements along freshwater environments to complete their life cycle. Photo by Alvaro del Campo, The Field Museum. Nicaragua, and the Usumacinta and freshwater environments to the Rimaq River. Many areas of

28 Hemisphere Volume 28 Hemisphere Volume 28 29 Rivers, Forests and Soils Rivers, Forests and Soils

In Caribbean islands like Puerto flows downstream. The river flow of glacier melt at the glacier, its Rico, heavier rainfall increased data typically used for modeling path must be followed along the volume of rivers, causing generation potential and developing rivers to measure the impact on floods that destroyed or damaged mitigation strategies are based on human populations and ecosystems human settlements. The survival historical flow records from the downstream. Finally, any new of aquatic organisms can also past 50-100 years. In many rivers, plans or policies should draw be compromised during these climate change has already led to upon the strengths and assets of extreme events. Changes in rainfall a departure from historical river riverside human populations to patterns across parts of South flow trends as a consequence of protect rivers now and into the America have led to flooding and melting glaciers or altered rainfall future. Examples of local river mudslides that have affected human patterns. Therefore, both expected management and conservation settlements and plant and animal electricity generation—the benefit strategies during changing times species. For example, hundreds of of hydropower—and the ability abound, and they may hold part of people were injured, swept away of mitigation plans to reduce the solution for protecting rivers or buried when heavy rains caused environmental impacts—the cost under future climate scenarios. landslides and flooding around of hydropower—may be inaccurate the city of Mocoa, Colombia, if they do not contemplate climate Elizabeth P. Anderson is Assistant in 2017. Conversely, extreme change scenarios. Similarly, water Professor in the Department of droughts in the Amazon, such as allocation or wastewater discharge Earth and Environment at Florida the one that occurred in 2005, led permits for rivers rely on the International University. to decreased river flows across the availability of water according to basin, stressed Amazonian forests, historical trends. Because of the and reduced quality and availability potential for climate change to of ecosystem services. Droughts alter river flows, existing and future of similar magnitude and impact permits need to include room for in 2010 and 2015 suggest that adjustments and revisions under The Cachiyacu River drains part of the Andean Amazon region of Peru. This and other rivers of the region harbor extraordinary biological diversity and support the lives and livelihoods of riparian human populations. Photo by Alvaro del Campo, The Field Museum. these kinds of events, attributed to new climate scenarios. climate change, may now be part of regular climatic cycles. This could The past, present and future of Latin America are still only or most building; and food from fish and disrupt critical connections have severe consequences for the Latin American and Caribbean easily accessed by river. For example, other organisms. Freshwater fisheries between rivers, people and nature. Amazon and its ability to regulate peoples and ecosystems are Tawaka and Miskito communities are a primary source of food and Melting glaciers in the Andes, a global climate. intimately tied to rivers and their in the lowland wilderness of eastern income for millions of people across direct impact of climatic warming, naturally dynamic character. Honduras communicate primarily via Latin America and the Caribbean, alter the flows of glacier-fed river Despite the evidence, the Protecting them in the face of the Patuca River and its tributaries. particularly along large river systems systems, first causing increased power of climate change to alter climate change presents one of Even some large cities, such as like the Magdalena-Cauca, Orinoco, flows and then severe reductions rivers often goes overlooked. the most important tasks of our Iquitos, Peru, at the confluence of Amazon and Paraná. In addition, once the glaciers are gone. Many Current conversations about river generation. In closing, I offer three the Nanay and Amazon rivers, are rivers provide supporting ecosystem Andean cities—La Paz, Bolivia, conservation and management suggestions for this challenge. only accessible by river or air. Rivers services, such as transportation or Quito, Ecuador—that depend challenges in many Latin American First, building on the success of have shaped culture and identity corridors for movement of goods on glacier-fed rivers for water and Caribbean countries more protected areas as a model for for numerous indigenous groups and people, and regulating for domestic, agricultural and frequently center on immediate conservation, policymakers should and form an important part of the ecosystem services, including waste industrial needs are being forced to threats, such as new dams, envision new kinds of protected cosmovision, identity and daily life of assimilation and climate regulation. rethink the sources of their supply. excessive water withdrawals or areas or designations specific to many Amazonian inhabitants. Many recreational activities, Furthermore, climate change has water pollution. While these are rivers. An early pioneer of this idea especially those related to nature- already been linked to an increase all important issues to address, is Colombia, which introduced Beyond biological and cultural based tourism, are also tightly linked in extreme events, such as storms, the solutions must include the a “protected river” designation richness, rivers provide numerous to rivers. floods and droughts. The intense potential effects of climate change. that recognizes and protects the ecosystem services for people 2017 hurricane season, which Countries need to consider dynamic nature of waterways. throughout the region: water for Increasingly, however, these brought several destructive, record- options for size, placement and Second, climate change assessments domestic, agricultural and industrial traditional uses and services are breaking storms, including Irma operation of new hydropower should increase their consideration purposes; hydropower for electricity under threat from climate change, and Maria, can be explained in part dams and develop mitigation of riverscapes and river corridors. generation; fiber and materials for with the potential to irreversibly by warming ocean temperatures. strategies for compensation of river Instead of stopping discussions

30 Hemisphere Volume 28 Hemisphere Volume 28 31 Rivers, Forests and Soils Rivers, Forests and Soils

Mexican Community Forests: A Global Model for Mitigating and Adapting to Climate Change by David Barton Bray

he 2018 report of the reservoirs, and their conservation Intergovernmental and restoration is a key strategy Panel on Climate for cooling the planet. As the Change (IPCC) could University of Virginia’s Deborah not have been clearer. Lawrence noted recently in The Paris Accords of 2015 set an National Geographic, “Forests Tambitious target for the world to provide a super-important service stop global warming from exceeding to humanity by currently removing 2.7 degrees Fahrenheit (1.5 degrees about 25 percent of our CO2.” Celsius) by 2050, from a baseline of the beginning of the Industrial The forests of Latin America Revolution. According to the IPCC, and the Caribbean have a key however, the impacts and costs of role to play in both mitigating even that goal will be much greater climate change and adapting to than expected. We are currently it. The region’s largest source at just 1.8 degrees Fahrenheit (1.0 of greenhouse gas emissions, degrees Celsius) of global warming, the United Nations Food and and even at that the past decade Agriculture Organization (FAO) has brought a deeply disturbing has noted, is deforestation. Yet series of mega-storms, mega-fires, despite the rapid rate at which mega-droughts and mega-floods forests are being converted to around the world. All of this will other land uses, mostly agriculture only get much worse at 2.7 degrees and livestock, the region still leads Fahrenheit of warming, and far the world in conserved forests worse at the 3.6 degrees Fahrenheit and biodiversity. South America (2 degrees Celsius) that is the Paris is home to the Amazon Basin, the Accords’ fallback goal. world’s largest carbon sink, and the indigenous territories of Latin The carbon emissions that are America and the Caribbean store driving global warming come from more carbon than the forests of both the burning of fossil fuels the Democratic Republic of the and deforestation. The world’s Congo, the world’s second largest Worker measuring logs harvested from community forests serve as massive carbon remaining tropical forest. forests in Vencedores, Durango, Mexico.

32 Hemisphere Volume 28 Hemisphere Volume 28 33 Rivers, Forests and Soils Rivers, Forests and Soils

The community forests of concern over the possibility with a proposal from Papua New from forest products and services, holding global warming below 2°C. are projected. Climate change models Mexico provide one of the most of catastrophic shifts in forest Guinea and Costa Rica. At the 2007 including REDD+. Managing forests for the sustainable show that the current geographic promising global models for stopping ecosystems. In the Amazon basin, COP in Bali, thanks to further efforts production of timber actually gives distribution of pines could decline deforestation and generating interactions between deforestation, by these two countries, forests were This policy focus was based on the them an enhanced value for carbon anywhere from 0.2-64% depending incomes for local communities fire and climate-driven drought are formally included in what was called fact that Mexican community forests storage. Logging of forests creates a on the species, with major reductions while conserving biodiversity. feared to be leading to a “tipping the Bali Action Plan. It mentioned already were well known as a model cyclical pattern of carbon release and for some important commercial Mexico is globally recognized for its point” of rapid degradation of financial compensation for reduced of sustainable rural development. capture, with intensively managed species. Models also predict a advances in achieving sustainable the Amazon forest. In Mexico, in forest carbon emissions and called Indeed, current outcomes in many, stands storing less carbon than rise in temperatures and reduced forest management while generating contrast, solid evidence suggests for the development of technological but not all, regions of Mexico could unmanaged forests, although this precipitation, which would drive local income. Some 60% of its that community forest enterprises capacity to monitor deforestation. be termed post-REDD+ landscapes, also depends on the extent of the vegetation towards higher elevations national forests are directly owned are resilient to catastrophic tipping It had been hoped that the COP models of what areas elsewhere in forest under study. and likely affect the growth of pines by communities, the second highest points and both mitigate and are meeting in Copenhagen in 2009 the world will look like if REDD+ by 2030. Species at especially low rate of community ownership adapting to climate change. Many would achieve a comprehensive strategies to reduce deforestation and However, the amount of carbon elevations, such as Pinus oocarpa, or in the world. In contrast, 97% community forest regions of Mexico climate agreement and ambitious achieve the co-benefits of sustainable released and captured and the time higher ones, such as Pinus harwegii, are of the forests in India are owned are characterized by stabilizing emissions reduction targets, and livelihoods and biodiversity succeed. period over which it occurs can vary particularly vulnerable. The altitudinal by the government. In Mexico, positive feedback loops from strong that large-scale financing for forests greatly between and within different requirements for Pinus oocarpa, communities are managing community governance, supportive would be part of the agreement. The A number of studies have found silvicultural treatments. The final important for resin, could be as much their forests for the commercial public policy and market incentives collapse of the negotiations and a fig that community forests can make destination of harvested trees needs as 300 meters higher in 2030 than production of timber in forest for collective action around timber leaf of an agreement did, however, substantial contributions to carbon to be taken into account, as well. they are currently. management programs approved management. This provides an include REDD+ as a component of capture, offsetting emissions created “Fast-pool” carbon biomass includes by the country’s environmental important model for global forests, future negotiations and called for by burning fossil fuels. As early as the smaller roots, bark, foliage and Beyond the specific adaptations secretary, making it the global leader and one that has recently emerged the establishment of national forest mid-1990s, conservative estimates branches that decompose quickly, that can be pursued by Mexican in community forest management. onto the world stage in the context of monitoring systems. placed the total economic value of and tree products that are converted community forests, the entire model In any given year, around 1,600 REDD+ (Reduction of Deforestation Mexico’s forests at around US$4 into short-lived paper products. can be considered a pre-adaptation community forest enterprises operate and Degradation, plus conservation, It was in this context that Mexican billion, with nearly 95% of the value “Slow-pool” carbon biomass includes to the impacts of climate change. in Mexico. Dozens of these are highly sustainable forest management and forests officially entered the realm coming from carbon storage. Other stumps or larger pieces of the trunk The political, economic, social and sophisticated, vertically integrated enhancement of carbon stocks). This of the international politics on research projected a policy scenario that may be left behind, and timber ecological features of these forests timber enterprises featuring sawmills international framework incorporates climate change in 2010 with the where the forests of Mexico could that goes into long-term storage make them resilient to climate change, and even furniture factories. They forests into efforts to reduce carbon COP 16 meetings in Cancún. In become a carbon sink by 2025, in furniture and buildings. In the and their support seems firmly employ hundreds of workers from emissions. Negotiated under the UN late 2010, the Mexican government and this has actually happened Mexican case, most of the harvest entrenched in Mexican forest policy the surrounding villages, providing Framework Convention on Climate laid the groundwork for a national in the temperate forests, where goes into the slow pool in long-lived for the foreseeable future. Recessions good wages, health insurance and Change (UNFCCC) beginning in program in the document Mexico’s deforestation is now virtually non- forest products. may drive down the sale of timber, but modest pension plans, unheard of in 2005 and endorsed as part of the Vision on REDD+ and the National existent. More recently, a 2018 study demand for this product will always most of rural Mexico. Paris Accords in 2015, REDD+ REDD+ Strategy, which declared of carbon storage in above- and Delaying annual timber harvests to remain high, maintaining incentives calls for industrialized countries “sustainable rural development” belowground dry woody mass and increase carbon storage is a common for collective action. Many forest Like the rest of the world, however, to provide results-based financial as the central animating REDD+ soil organic matter in 64 countries practice among Mexican community communities have such high forest Mexican forests are experiencing incentives to developing countries strategy. The Cancún meetings in all four major biomes (tropical, forest enterprises. A study in Oaxaca cover that they could easily increase climate change from increased that reduce emissions from forest highlighted Mexico’s community subtropical, temperate and boreal) and Chihuahua documented that food production if necessary without precipitation, higher temperatures loss and degradation. forest program, particularly its found that Mexico ranked fifth in these enterprises often fail to meet harming commercial timber harvest. and extreme storm events, payment for hydrological services. carbon storage globally. Mexico also their complete authorized volume for Around the world, community threatening rural livelihoods and For many years, climate The carbon generated by travel has some of the best-documented a logging year due to such factors as collective action is posited as a biodiversity. Climate change models negotiations did not include to the conference was offset by projects in the voluntary carbon permits that are late to arrive, rain, frontline adaptation to modifying for the forests of Mexico suggest an discussion of forests for a variety of purchasing forest carbon credits market, including a community in planning problems or conservation- the rate and direction of ecosystem expansion of arid ecosystems, such political reasons, including concerns from the Oaxaca-based NGO the Sierra Sur of Oaxaca that has an oriented decisions. When this response to climate change. The as tropical dry deciduous forests about “permanence” (carbon stored Servicios Ambientales de Oaxaca. With agreement to offset the carbon of happens, government regulations Mexican model, therefore, can and Sonoran Desert scrub, that will in forests can easily go up in smoke) funds from the World Bank’s Forest Palo Alto, California. prohibit the unlogged volume from provide important lessons for other progressively replace the conifer and “leakage” (forests conserved and Climate Change (FCC) initiative carrying over to the next logging forest-rich developing countries forests, semi-deciduous forests and in one place could result in others and Forest Investment Program Beyond Mexico, it has been year, lengthening the harvest cycle. working to increase their resilience to cloud forests where most Mexican being cut down nearby). Forests (FIP), Mexico established the goal of calculated that natural climate this challenge. community enterprises operate. finally began to emerge from the administering its forests sustainably, solutions such as improved forest As of the late 2010s, climate international political wilderness at creating social capital around their management can provide 37% of the change does not appear to have had David Barton Bray is a Professor in the Globally, these emerging climate the Conference of Parties (COP) protection and sustainable use, cost-effective CO2 mitigation needed any clearly discernible impacts on Department of Earth and Environment at stressors have driven widespread negotiations in Montreal in 2005 and generating additional income by 2030 to have a >66% chance of Mexican forests, but serious ones Florida International University.

34 Hemisphere Volume 28 Hemisphere Volume 28 35 Rivers, Forests and Soils

In this system, there is no “one size Approaches to Soil Knowledge fits all” recipe. and Management For farmers and ranchers facing TRADITIONAL APPROACH NEW APPROACH the two principal impacts of climate Soil fertility Soil health change—drought and flooding—this Physical restoration of soil Biological restoration of soil is very good news. The adoption of proper management practices Soil forms from below to above Soil forms from above to below translates into increased soil fertility Reduce erosion Increase soil porosity and plant nutrition. It also enhances the soil’s capacity to store more water, Reduce runoff Increase water infiltration keeping plants alive longer during Soil and water conservation Water and soil conservation drought, and provides constant soil Physical works to control runoff Vegetative cover cover to protect from erosion during heavy rains. These same practices Monocrops Crop rotation or multi-cropping simultaneously lower CO2 emissions Source: José R. Benites Jump, Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) of the United Nations. and increase its storage in the soil, turning soils into a potent tool for as seen as a given, immutable. When microorganisms in the soil could combating climate change. soil needed enriching, scientists actually transform its physical and prescribed chemical inputs to bring chemical conditions. The role of Policy acceptance of soils in mitigating climate change Santos Ernesto Casco, 54, a small farmer from the San Antonio community of Madriz, Nicaragua, has implemented various techniques of conservation agriculture its fertility to the level needed for organic material—often removed including the use of stubble as organic soil-cover to conserve water and add organic matter. OSCAR LEIVA/Programa de Agricultura, Suelo y Agua en Mesoamérica. new, improved seeds. Together, the from the soil surface under the Green The potential of soils to mitigate thinking went, these efforts would Revolution agricultural paradigm— greenhouse gas emissions has been increase productivity and production, is now seen as vital to keeping soils overlooked until very recently, and enough to feed the world. For more “alive” and for reactivating productive has thus been absent from the global A New Opportunity for Slowing than 50 years, these predominant capacity. This shift in understanding framework for climate negotiations. prescriptions for managing soils and managing soils is synthesized in This was a major oversight, given emanated from the world’s most the chart above. that soils contain two to three times Climate Change: Soil Management important scientific research centers. more CO2 than the atmosphere. In They fostered global investments Today, we know that when soil 2015, soils were finally recognized —both public and private—to roll organic material is generated through as the “new” most important natural in Agriculture in the Americas out this approach in both large- and improved agricultural and livestock resource for both decreasing CO2 small-scale production units across management practices, productivity emissions and storing more of

by Deborah Barry the globe. The results in yields over increases without destroying the them. At the 21st Climate Summit the medium term were significant. soil over time. This process captures in Paris, the French Minister of and stores more CO2 from the Agriculture introduced soils into the With time, however, two atmosphere. The most effective global framework for greenhouse gas he thrust of combined In the Americas, we have an needle much faster on decreasing important trends emerged. One was practices include minimal or no emissions in what he called the “4 per global efforts to opportunity to implement these greenhouse gas emissions that are the recognition that the tradeoffs for tillage, the use of mulch or cover 1,000” program: address climate management policies soon, and at a accelerating climate change. gaining increased productivity were crops (according to rainfall regimes), change appears to scale that is relevant globally. Until soil degradation and loss. Decades and crop rotation. Together, these “The idea is simple: it is to increase be focused more on recently, soil scientists taught us that The predominant disciplinary of high tillage, mono-cropping and practices are known as conservation the amount of CO captured by the adapting to its impacts rather than soil was formed slowly over time, bases for the assumption that chemical inputs were leading to agriculture. Also crucial is adding soil by four grams per kilo of soil. Tforging collective commitments Hence the concept of ‘4 per 1,000.’ honed from parent materials by soil creation was a slow process a decrease in yields and eventual crop residues such as mulch, straw or for its mitigation by decreasing net weathering. But over the last several were geology, pedology, physics soil “death” in many places. In the compost to the soil, and keeping it If the whole planet managed to do greenhouse emissions. Recently, decades, scientists and farmers have and chemistry. In the late 1960s, 1990s, biology entered the realm covered year round. The introduction this, the world’s carbon dioxide however, breakthroughs in both the discovered that we don’t have to wait concern over global hunger led of soil science, bringing a radical of agroforestry crop systems, such emissions would be cancelled out science and global politics of the a hundred years for new soils to form, to what is known as the Green new interpretation. The result was as coffee, cacao and/or fruit trees, in one year. This is still a long way management of soil carbon have or at least to become “reactivated” as Revolution, giving a major impetus the recognition that soils house is ideal. The solution will vary off, but with changes to farming offered a new window for tackling a living organism that can provide to recommendations for agricultural some of the liveliest ecosystems on according to soil types and climate, practices, agricultural soils could emissions while ensuring the the sustenance we need for growing production based on these purely Earth. The existence of billions of as well as the needs of farmers. Local absorb up to 10% of our current world’s needed food production. food and fiber. This could move the physical assumptions. Soil structure bacteria, nematodes, fungi and other experimentation is crucial for success. CO₂ emissions by 2030.”

36 Hemisphere Volume 28 Hemisphere Volume 28 37 URBAN ECOLOGY AND REDUCING CLIMATE CHANGE RISKS

their environment while still earning a living. Technically, it requires the Disaster Risk Reduction and Climate adaptation of soil management practices to hillsides and poorer soil conditions, and has proven successful Adaptation in Latin America’s in Central America.

Learning via research and Informal Urban Settlements: farmer experimentation has been occurring across the Americas for decades. Literature abounds, An Ecological Approach and the scientific knowledge is by Juan Pablo Sarmiento & Meenakshi Jerath considerable. A critical mass of Juan Hurtado, 65, showing the association (crops sown or interplanted with other temporary or farmers, practitioners and scientific permanent crops) of leguminous Canavalia with coffee on his farm in Las Delicias of San Ramón in leaders have led the way, some Matagalpa, Nicaragua. The roots of Canavalia replenish nitrogen in the soil and when pruned, the focusing on the more technical n 2015, the Peruvian Center available urban demographic data irrigation systems. It also involved cuttings are used as mulch to conserve soil moisture. OSCAR LEIVA/Programa de Agricultura, Suelo y aspects of changing approaches to for Disaster Studies and show that there is still a long way to technical assistance for preparing Agua en Mesoamérica. soil management. Latin America Prevention (PREDES) began go to reduce the wide gap between disaster risk management plans at the is flourishing with potentially an afforestation activity on slum dwellers and urban residents municipal and community levels. the slopes of Independencia, A 4/1000 annual growth rate of the Americas is relevant globally. transformative initiatives, including who live in adequate housing with one of 43 districts in Lima. The soil carbon stock intends to show that Together, North, Central and the agroecology movement, the access to basic services, making The initiative began by planting Iactivity was conceived as part of an informal settlements a persistent 300 native trees resistant to pests even a small increase (from agriculture, South America have to support Brown Revolution, Regenerative grasslands, pastures and forests) is agricultural and particularly livestock Agriculture-Carbon initiative, urban disaster risk reduction (DRR) issue that requires close attention. and water scarcity on the arid and crucial to improving soil fertility and production. This is also the part of Savory Institute, USDA Natural project in informal settlements rugged hills, where no vegetation agricultural production and achieving the world where the adoption of Resources Conservation Services, called the Neighborhood Approach, The PREDES project in grew before. The initial objective the objective of limiting the planet’s environmentally friendly agriculture Conservation Technology with support from the United Independencia was multipurpose: to stabilize the temperature increase to 1.5°C. practices is occurring most rapidly. Information Center, and the FAO/ States Agency for International The city of Lima, with soil against frequent rock falls and According to a recent study, the area LA-Conservation Agriculture Development’s Office of Foreign approximately 10 million integrate native species associated The program will champion the under these alternative practices Network. Other incentives from the Disaster Assistance (USAID/ inhabitants, has experienced an with different use values, such as use of agricultural soils to act as a has grown significantly in South market and policy spheres include OFDA). The concept has evolved alarming expansion of its urban natural medicine and construction major carbon sink while improving America, with Argentina, Brazil, Solidaridad, Slow Food-USA and as an integrated, multi-sectoral limits toward the eroded hillsides materials. The activity was well global food security by enhancing Paraguay and Uruguay using Slow Meat, and the Agroecology analytical framework centered of the city’s periphery. There, received by community members, soil fertility and combating land conservation agriculture on more Fund, to mention a few. Even with on the geographic confines of approximately one million people who participated actively in the degradation. It will help farmers than 70% of their total arable all the known hurdles to overcome, neighborhoods to address disaster live in precarious dwellings exposed planting and maintenance. adapt agriculture to climate change cropland. Together, North and Latin America could become a risks in urban settings through to hazards such as rock falls, on the world’s 570 million farms. The South American cropland under global leader in showing how better community planning. The landslides and earthquakes. Half of Scaling the afforestation project focus is on decreasing deforestation conservation agriculture makes up soil management in agricultural and participatory process and framework Independencia (1456 hectares) is A few months after its inception, while improving agricultural practices nearly 74% of the global total, with livestock can be a crucial tool in flexibility of the Neighborhood located on those hillsides, where a the pilot afforestation project took and livestock management regimes high rates of increase in adoption. reducing emissions and enabling a Approach for DRR ensures population of 100,000 lives in about an unexpected turn. The community that will now count as measurable more sustainable future. adaptation to local contexts and 18,000 vulnerable structures. and PREDES staffers began to contributions to each country’s At the smallholder level, state- incorporation of the priority sectors note that the growing belt of plants targets for climate mitigation. supported programs are urgently Deborah Barry is currently an advisor relevant to community needs. The PREDES project aimed generated a protective area around Proposals have emerged since the needed to promote change in to the Salvadoran NGO Prisma and to to strengthen the capacity of the neighborhood, preventing the Paris accords, and a recent article practices. Here the challenge lies RAICES, a Landscape Restoration program Urban areas of developing community, regional and national otherwise spontaneous growth of in the prestigious scientific journal more in teaching methods and in El Salvador. She previously worked as an countries face enormous challenges stakeholders in disaster risk settlements up the mountain. The Nature laid out an 8-step process in outreach or extension mechanisms, advisor to the Ministry of Environment of from uncontrolled and unplanned management in the vulnerable proliferation of settlements uphill this direction. but Latin America has pre-existing El Salvador, with Catholic Relief Services/ growth. Increasing numbers of peripheral settlements of exposes more and more people to experiences to draw on, such as HG Buffett Foundation, Ford Foundation- urban residents live in slums and Independencia. It was based on disaster risk every year, increasing Opportunities in the Americas Campesino a Campesino, a grassroots Mexico/Central America, Rights and informal settlements, presenting multiple actions, including the the vulnerability of the community The scale of agricultural and movement in which peasant farmers Resources Initiative, and the Center for governments with the challenge of establishment of afforestation areas multifold. Local authorities livestock-producing land in the teach one another how to protect International Research on Forestry. providing urban services for all. The equipped with water tanks and recognized the contribution of the

38 Hemisphere Volume 28 Hemisphere Volume 28 39 Escape to the Tropics EXPERIENCE THE FAIRCHILD/FIU PARTNERSHIP IN Youth volunteers from the Independencia district of Lima planting native species on the surrounding mountainside to mitigate disaster risk and improve environmental conditions, 2017. The urban neighborhood project is part of a USAID/OFDA-funded initiative spearheaded by the NGO, PREDES. Photo EDUCATION, RESEARCH AND OUTREACH courtesy of PREDES.

afforestation area toward keeping mayoral decree No. 005-2016-MDI contexts and needs. The initial this risk at bay for Independencia, had designated the urban forest as purpose, to stabilize the soil against triggering a proposal to not only seek the Sustainable Ecotourism Forest frequent rock falls, grew to become legal protection for the afforestation Park “Boca de Sapo,” an urban an effective measure to control effort but also extend it to informal control measure for disaster risk urban sprawl and enrich urban settlements in the surrounding prevention and climate change ecology, leading to the development hills. PREDES rose to the occasion, adaptation and mitigation. of conservation measures such developing a broad strategy involving as the ecotourism park. Besides stakeholders at national, subnational Based on the Boca de Sapo reducing the clear and present and local institutions. experience, the municipality disaster risk, the urban forest, full of Independencia’s Office of of native species with different use The community, under the Environmental Management is values, has the potential to provide stewardship of PREDES, went on to planning to create seven other forest a wide array of ecological services, create a 14-hectare urban forest on parks, benefiting 86 precarious and including carbon sequestration and the steep slopes of the Independencia crowded settlements. The National storage. These in turn contribute mountains, planting more than Superintendence of State Property, to climate change mitigation, air 3,500 native trees (molle, tara, palo the Province of Lima and district pollution removal and storm water verde, mimosa, tecoma, huaranguillo, governments are working on the runoff reduction. In reporting and tuna) and building trails, scenic necessary legal arrangements. about this project, the Food and outlooks and family recreation spaces. Agriculture Organization of the These efforts included an innovative Greener, happier cities United Nations (FAO) referred irrigation system necessitated by the Unplanned and uncontrolled to urban forests as having “… difficult conditions of the terrain— growth in the developing urban the power to transform cities into high slopes, absence of water and world has exposed a burgeoning greener, healthier and happier thin topsoil. Gray water from the number of people living in slums places in which to live.” community was treated locally and and precarious conditions to a pumped to higher altitude tanks to variety of socio-natural hazards. Juan Pablo Sarmiento is a Research operate a gravity-based irrigation The PREDES afforestation project Professor at the Extreme Events Institute @FairchildGarden @FIULACC system, supplemented by the use in Independencia demonstrates at Florida International University. of hydrogel, a colloid to retain the importance of community water close to plant roots. These participation and an enterprising Meenakshi Jerath is Coordinator measures sought to ensure high rates flexibility in the design and of Research Programs at the of seedling survival and growth in implementation of DRR Extreme Events Institute at Florida the harsh environment. By 2016, interventions adapted to local International University.

40 Hemisphere Volume 28 U.S. Department of State Diplomacy Lab at LACC Reaching Out Together to Bring Americans into the World of Foreign Policy

Where? The Diplomacy Lab at LACC is 1 of the 4 original sites in the U.S.

What? The Diplomacy Lab allows students to engage beyond the classroom, develop new ideas and solutions to the world’s toughest challenges, and contribute directly to the policy-making process.

Why? Helps the U.S. Department of State tap into an underutilized reservoir of intellectual capital and bring American people into the world of foreign policy.

How? Faculty-led teams of students at FIU are focusing on U.S. influence in Latin America and the Caribbean and the U.S. Department of State is channeling those findings directly into policy-making.

state.gov/s/sacsed/diplomacylab 19186_07/19 Forging Linkages across the Americas through education, research, outreach, and dialogue. lacc.fiu.edu