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Military Mountain Training Federal Ministry of Defence and Sports S92011/27-Vor/2014 Supply No. 7610-10147-0714 Manual No. 1002.09 Austrian Armed Forces Field Manual (For Trial) Military Mountain Training Vienna, July 2014 Approval and Publishing Austrian Armed Forces Field Manual (for trial) Military Mountain Training Effective as of 1st December 2014 This Field Manual replaces the “Mountain Operations” Field Manual, parts I – IV, Supply number 7610-10133-0808 Approved: Vienna, 8th July 2014 For the Minister of Defence and Sports (COMMENDA, General) 2 Approval and Publication Austrian Armed Forces Field Manual (For Trial) Military Mountain Training Responsible for the Contents: SALZBURG, 27th June 2014 Chief, Air Staff, Austrian Joint Forces Command (GRUBER, BG) SAALFELDEN, 27th June 2014 Cdr (acting), Mountain Warfare Centre: (RODEWALD, Colonel) 3 PREFACE This Field Manual (FM) for trial (f.t.) serves as a basis for the training and application of mountaineering techniques within the Austrian Armed Forces (AAF) and will be distributed to the units in need of it. It is to be seen as the predecessor of the final version of the same-titled AAF FM, which will be published after the testing phase of this manual. The present FM (f.t.) was developed in cooperation with the German Bundeswehr (Bw) in order to ensure standardized training. In the Bw it is called C2-227/0-0-1550 “Gebirgsausbildung”. This FM (f.t.) is meant to provide knowledge and skills on: - geographical, geological, meteorological, and common basics for military operations in mountainous terrain, - safe and secure movements and survival in mountainous and high mountain regions, – mountain rescue, and – mountaineering equipment, which are preconditions for the accomplishment of military tasks. Beyond that, this FM (f.t.) will also cover terrain which, due to restricted movement possibilities or climate conditions, is showing a mountain-like character, but also urban terrain with big differences in altitude or risks of falling. The user of this manual should, besides sufficient knowledge on his basic stock of FMs and folders received, be familiar with the contents of the following FMs: – The Infantry Rifle Squad – The Infantry Rifle Platoon – Military Air Transportation – Military Skiing 4 Due to the differences in military equipment within the AAF and the Bw, this FM (f.t.) may explain various mountaineering techniques. In order to improve visual perception, some equipment will be shown in colour. For simplicity reasons, graphics will only show the seat harness as the standard harness system. The actual system in use may vary from chapter to chapter. NATO STANAG ATP-49, Ed02, has been integrated into this FM (f.t.) to the extent it was taken over by the AAF for operations within enhanced PfP. It is the duty of each military leader to prevent his soldiers from avoidable harm. This does not only relate to physical, psychological, financial, economic, social or other types of avoidable harm, but also to e.g. criminal aspects that might arise when executing an order. This aspect has to be considered during each issuance of order, independently of the fact that soldiers are not only mere recipients of orders but also have to assume their personal share of responsibility when executing them. Problems, misunderstandings, and unregulated activities/measures originated by the use of this FM (f.t.) have to be - immediately submitted in writing via channels to the Training and Doctrine (TRADOC) Division of the AUT MOD (depending on the urgency and importance of clarification), and – to be documented and submitted through channels to AUT MOD/TRADOC in the form of an experience report NLT 30th June 2016 After this deadline, all experience reports available will be analysed in a first reading and integrated into the FM (f.t.), which will later on be issued as the AUT AAF Field Manual on “Military Mountain Training”. 5 FMs issued prior to this FM (f.t.) and showing differences with this FM (f.t.) shall, for economic reasons, only be adapted in case of an overall revision or a new issue. Therefore, the directives quoted in this FM (f.t) shall supersede the directives of FMs published prior to it. Equal Treatment in Language Unless stated otherwise in this FM (f.t.), masculine nouns and pronouns do not refer exclusively to men. 6 CHANGES AND AMENDMENTS No. Reference Document Date 7 Table of Contents A. GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY ................................................ 18 I. Geography ................................................................................. 18 1. General ........................................................................... 18 2. The Creation of Mountain Ranges ................................. 20 3. Geography, at the Example of the Alps ......................... 23 II. Geology ................................................................................... 32 1. General ........................................................................... 32 2. Types of Rock ................................................................ 33 3. The Features and Characteristics of Rocks and their Effects on Mountain Operations ......................... 36 B. GLACIOLOGY ............................................................................ 39 I. Glaciers ..................................................................................... 40 1. General ........................................................................... 40 2. The Development and Structure of Glaciers .................. 40 3. Types of Glaciers ........................................................... 43 4. Moraines ......................................................................... 46 5. Crevasses ........................................................................ 46 6. Icefall ............................................................................. 48 7. Further Glacier-related Terrain Features ........................ 48 II. Ice ............................................................................................ 50 1. General ........................................................................... 50 2. Ice Coating and Ice Quality ............................................ 50 3. Factors Influencing the Quality of the Ice ...................... 52 4. Form and Stability of a Frozen Waterfall....................... 54 C. SYNOPSIS.................................................................................... 56 I. General ...................................................................................... 56 II. Climatology ............................................................................. 57 1. General ........................................................................... 57 2. Climatic Factors ............................................................. 58 3. Climate Zones ................................................................ 60 III. Meteorology ........................................................................... 68 8 1. General ........................................................................... 68 2. Weather-determining Factors ......................................... 71 3. Manifestations of Weather ............................................. 71 4. Typical Weather Conditions of the Alps ........................ 86 5. Weather Rules ................................................................ 87 D. SNOW AND AVALANCHE THEORY ...................................... 90 I. Snow Theory ............................................................................. 90 1. General ........................................................................... 90 2. The Development of Snow ............................................. 91 3. Types and Characteristics of Snow ................................ 95 4. The Metamorphosis of Snow ......................................... 98 5. Movements and Types of Stability within the Snow Cover ............................................................... 106 II. Avalanche Theory ................................................................... 111 1. General ......................................................................... 111 2. Types of Avalanches and their Characteristics ............ 113 E. MOUNTAIN HAZARDS ........................................................... 120 I. General .................................................................................... 120 II. Objective Hazards .................................................................. 121 1. Terrain Conditions ....................................................... 121 2. Rockfall ........................................................................ 122 3. Risk of Falling .............................................................. 124 4. Dolines ......................................................................... 125 5. Water ............................................................................ 125 6. Mudslides ..................................................................... 125 7. Snowfields .................................................................... 126 8. Avalanches ................................................................... 126 9. Cornices ....................................................................... 127 10. Crevasses .................................................................... 128 11. Fractured Glaciers and Falling Ice ............................. 129 12. Changes of Weather ................................................... 130 III.
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