Military Mountain Training

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Federal Ministry of Defence and Sports S92011/27-Vor/2014 Supply No. 7610-10147-0714 Manual No. 1002.09

Austrian Armed Forces Field Manual (For Trial)

Vienna, July 2014

Approval and Publishing

Austrian Armed Forces Field Manual (for trial)

Military Mountain Training

Effective as of 1st December 2014

This Field Manual replaces the “Mountain Operations” Field Manual, parts I – IV, Supply number 7610-10133-0808

Approved: Vienna, 8th July 2014 For the Minister of Defence and Sports

(COMMENDA, General)

2 Approval and Publication

Austrian Armed Forces Field Manual (For Trial)

Military Mountain Training

Responsible for the Contents: SALZBURG, 27th June 2014 Chief, Air Staff, Austrian Joint Forces Command

(GRUBER, BG)

SAALFELDEN, 27th June 2014 Cdr (acting), Mountain Warfare Centre:

(RODEWALD, Colonel)

3 PREFACE

This Field Manual (FM) for trial (f.t.) serves as a basis for the training and application of mountaineering techniques within the Austrian Armed Forces (AAF) and will be distributed to the units in need of it. It is to be seen as the predecessor of the final version of the same-titled AAF FM, which will be published after the testing phase of this manual. The present FM (f.t.) was developed in cooperation with the German Bundeswehr (Bw) in order to ensure standardized training. In the Bw it is called C2-227/0-0-1550 “Gebirgsausbildung”. This FM (f.t.) is meant to provide knowledge and skills on: - geographical, geological, meteorological, and common basics for military operations in mountainous terrain, - safe and secure movements and survival in mountainous and high mountain regions, – mountain rescue, and – mountaineering equipment, which are preconditions for the accomplishment of military tasks. Beyond that, this FM (f.t.) will also cover terrain which, due to restricted movement possibilities or climate conditions, is showing a mountain-like character, but also urban terrain with big differences in altitude or risks of falling. The user of this manual should, besides sufficient knowledge on his basic stock of FMs and folders received, be familiar with the contents of the following FMs: – The Infantry Rifle Squad – The Infantry Rifle Platoon – Military Air Transportation – Military Skiing

4 Due to the differences in military equipment within the AAF and the Bw, this FM (f.t.) may explain various mountaineering techniques. In order to improve visual perception, some equipment will be shown in colour. For simplicity reasons, graphics will only show the seat harness as the standard harness system. The actual system in use may vary from chapter to chapter. NATO STANAG ATP-49, Ed02, has been integrated into this FM (f.t.) to the extent it was taken over by the AAF for operations within enhanced PfP. It is the duty of each military leader to prevent his soldiers from avoidable harm. This does not only relate to physical, psychological, financial, economic, social or other types of avoidable harm, but also to e.g. criminal aspects that might arise when executing an order. This aspect has to be considered during each issuance of order, independently of the fact that soldiers are not only mere recipients of orders but also have to assume their personal share of responsibility when executing them. Problems, misunderstandings, and unregulated activities/measures originated by the use of this FM (f.t.) have to be - immediately submitted in writing via channels to the Training and Doctrine (TRADOC) Division of the AUT MOD (depending on the urgency and importance of clarification), and – to be documented and submitted through channels to AUT MOD/TRADOC in the form of an experience report NLT 30th June 2016

After this deadline, all experience reports available will be analysed in a first reading and integrated into the FM (f.t.), which will later on be issued as the AUT AAF Field Manual on “Military Mountain Training”.

5 FMs issued prior to this FM (f.t.) and showing differences with this FM (f.t.) shall, for economic reasons, only be adapted in case of an overall revision or a new issue. Therefore, the directives quoted in this FM (f.t) shall supersede the directives of FMs published prior to it.

Equal Treatment in Language Unless stated otherwise in this FM (f.t.), masculine nouns and pronouns do not refer exclusively to men.

6 CHANGES AND AMENDMENTS

No. Reference Document Date

7 Table of Contents A. GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY ...... 18 I. Geography ...... 18 1. General ...... 18 2. The Creation of Mountain Ranges ...... 20 3. Geography, at the Example of the Alps ...... 23 II. Geology ...... 32 1. General ...... 32 2. Types of Rock ...... 33 3. The Features and Characteristics of Rocks and their Effects on Mountain Operations ...... 36 B. GLACIOLOGY ...... 39 I. Glaciers ...... 40 1. General ...... 40 2. The Development and Structure of Glaciers ...... 40 3. Types of Glaciers ...... 43 4. Moraines ...... 46 5. Crevasses ...... 46 6. Icefall ...... 48 7. Further Glacier-related Terrain Features ...... 48 II. Ice ...... 50 1. General ...... 50 2. Ice Coating and Ice Quality ...... 50 3. Factors Influencing the Quality of the Ice ...... 52 4. Form and Stability of a Frozen Waterfall...... 54 C. SYNOPSIS...... 56 I. General ...... 56 II. Climatology ...... 57 1. General ...... 57 2. Climatic Factors ...... 58 3. Climate Zones ...... 60 III. Meteorology ...... 68

8 1. General ...... 68 2. Weather-determining Factors ...... 71 3. Manifestations of Weather ...... 71 4. Typical Weather Conditions of the Alps ...... 86 5. Weather Rules ...... 87 D. SNOW AND AVALANCHE THEORY ...... 90 I. Snow Theory ...... 90 1. General ...... 90 2. The Development of Snow ...... 91 3. Types and Characteristics of Snow ...... 95 4. The Metamorphosis of Snow ...... 98 5. Movements and Types of Stability within the Snow Cover ...... 106 II. Avalanche Theory ...... 111 1. General ...... 111 2. Types of Avalanches and their Characteristics ...... 113 E. MOUNTAIN HAZARDS ...... 120 I. General ...... 120 II. Objective Hazards ...... 121 1. Terrain Conditions ...... 121 2. Rockfall ...... 122 3. Risk of Falling ...... 124 4. Dolines ...... 125 5. Water ...... 125 6. Mudslides ...... 125 7. Snowfields ...... 126 8. Avalanches ...... 126 9. Cornices ...... 127 10. Crevasses ...... 128 11. Fractured Glaciers and Falling Ice ...... 129 12. Changes of Weather ...... 130 III. Subjective Hazards ...... 135 1. Physical Factors ...... 135

9 2. Psychological Factors...... 135 3. Preparation and Planning ...... 136 4. Equipment ...... 136 5. Knowledge, Experience, and Skills...... 136 IV. Alpine Signal of Distress...... 137 F. NAVIGATION IN MOUNTAINOUS TERRAIN ...... 138 I. General ...... 138 II. Navigation Assets and How They are Used ...... 139 1. General ...... 139 2. Maps ...... 139 3. Strip Map and Movement Table ...... 142 4. Altimeter (barometric) ...... 145 5. Compass ...... 152 6. Satellite-based Positioning ...... 153 7. Route Sketch ...... 154 G. MILITARY MOUNTAINEERING ...... 157 I. Command and Control (C2) ...... 157 II. C2 Tactics and Techniques ...... 158 III. C2 Measures ...... 160 IV. Avalanche Emergency Equipment ...... 163 V. Walking on Steep Paths and on Pathless Terrain ...... 165 1. General ...... 165 2. Walking on Difficult Paths and Trails...... 167 3. Walking on Pathless Terrain ...... 168 4. Walking in Snow ...... 173 H. ROCK CLIMBING ...... 179 I. General ...... 179 II. Climbing Techniques ...... 179 1. General ...... 180 2. Stepping Technique ...... 180 3. Gripping ...... 182 4. Spreading and Supporting ...... 184

10 5. Friction Climbing ...... 186 6. Counterpressure Technique ...... 186 7. Stemming Technique ...... 189 8. Jamming and Crack Techniques ...... 191 9. Transverse Support Technique ...... 192 J. PROTECTION TECHNIQUES ...... 193 I. General ...... 193 II. Protection Theory ...... 194 III. Roping Up ...... 203 1. General ...... 203 2. Standard Harness Systems ...... 203 Standard harness systems may be ...... 203 IV. Ways of Roping Up ...... 210 1. General ...... 210 2. Roping Up as a Team ...... 210 V. Anchors ...... 220 1. General ...... 220 2. Natural Anchors ...... 220 3. Artificial Anchors: ...... 224 VI. Constructing a Belay Station on a Rocky Surface ...... 232 1. General ...... 232 2. Belay Station with Fixed Equalisation ...... 242 3. Attaching the Belay Station to an Anchor ...... 245 4. Belay Station Constructed for a Single Direction ...... 246 VII. Climbing as a Member of a Roped Party ...... 252 1. Rope Party Procedures ...... 252 2. Leading on the Short-fixed Rope ...... 261 VIII. Aid Climbing ...... 272 1. General ...... 272 2. Rope Hoist Technique ...... 273 3. Rope Climbing by Means of Ascenders ...... 277 4. Hoisting of Soldiers and Material...... 279

11 IX. Abseiling and Lowering ...... 280 1. Abseiling ...... 280 2. Lowering ...... 289 X. Climbing on Artificial Climbing Structures and in Climbing Crags ...... 294 1. General ...... 294 2. Climbing Crags ...... 295 3. Artificial Climbing Structures ...... 299 XI. Improvised Procedures and Techniques ...... 304 1. General ...... 304 2. Improvised Chest/Seat Harness ...... 304 3. Improvised Abseiling ...... 306 K. WALKING ON GLACIERS/ CLIMBING ON ICE AND SNOW ...... 309 I. General/ Command and Control (C2) Measures ...... 309 II. Techniques ...... 311 1. Walking and Climbing with Crampons ...... 311 2. Handling of an Ice Axe/Steep Ice Gear ...... 313 3. How to Cut Single Steps and Rows of Steps ...... 317 4. Arresting Techniques ...... 318 5. Techniques Used in Steep Ice ...... 323 III. Rope-up Techniques on Glaciers ...... 332 1. General ...... 332 2. Several Persons on One Rope ...... 333 3. Two Man Roped Party ...... 335 IV. Anchors in Ice and Snow ...... 337 V. Building a Belay Station in Ice and Snow ...... 343 1. General ...... 343 2. Belay Station with Series Construction ...... 343 3. Belay Station with Fixed Equalisation ...... 345 4. Top Rope Station in Ice ...... 346 5. Belay Stations Fixed to an Anchor ...... 346 6. Removable Anchors in Snow and Ice ...... 349

12 L. SKI MOUNTAINEERING ...... 353 I. General/Command and Control (C2) ...... 353 II. Ascending on Skis ...... 354 1. Walking with Skis and Climbing Skins ...... 354 2. Changing the Direction ...... 355 3. Traverse Movements ...... 363 4. Ascending and Descending without Skis ...... 364 III. Downhill Skiing ...... 365 1. General/Command and Control Measures ...... 365 2. Methods of Downhill Skiing ...... 366 3. Downhill Skiing on the Rope ...... 368 M. SNOWSHOEING ...... 369 I. General ...... 369 II. Walking Techniques ...... 369 1. General ...... 369 2. Basic Technique ...... 370 3. Ascending techniques along the fall line...... 372 4. Crossings ...... 374 5. Descending techniques ...... 376 N. AVALANCHE RISK ASSESSMENT ...... 379 I. General ...... 379 II. Human Influences ...... 380 III. Influence of Weather ...... 381 IV. Influence of the Terrain ...... 387 1. Inclination of the Slope ...... 387 2. Forms of terrain ...... 389 3. Exposition ...... 390 4. Altitude ...... 390 V. Observation of the Terrain ...... 392 VI. Civilian Avalanche Report ...... 398 VII. Snow Cover Analyses ...... 405 1. General ...... 405 2. Snow Profile ...... 406

13 3. The Rutschblock Test ...... 407 4. Extended Column Test ...... 410 5. Systematic Snow Cover Diagnosis (SSD) ...... 413 6. The Five SSD Questions ...... 421 VIII. Military Avalanche Situation Report ...... 427 O. LIVING/BIVOUACKING IN THE MOUNTAINS ...... 436 I. Bivouacking ...... 436 1. General ...... 436 2. Improvised Accommodations ...... 436 3. Accommodations Made of Snow ...... 440 4. Tents ...... 448 II. Keeping the Soldiers Physically Fit...... 449 1. General ...... 449 2. Food ...... 450 3. Clothing and Equipment ...... 450 P. MOUNTAIN RESCUE ...... 452 I. General ...... 452 II. Improvised Mountain Rescue ...... 454 1. Improvised Mountain Rescue in Snow and Ice ...... 454 2. Downward Rescuing ...... 459 3. Upward Rescuing ...... 469 4. Improvised Means of Transport for Rocky and Icy Terrain ...... 481 III. Improvised Mountain Rescue in Winter ...... 486 1. General ...... 486 2. Searching Avalanche-buried People ...... 489 3. Digging out and rescuing an avalanche-buried person ...... 494 4. Improvised Means of Transport for the Wintery Season ...... 496 IV. Systematic Mountain Rescue ...... 498 1. General ...... 498

14 2. Belay Stations as Part of a Systematic Mountain Rescue Operation ...... 500 3. Releasable Systems ...... 507 4. Standard Means of Transport ...... 509 5. Fibre Rope Hoist ...... 521 6. Rescue Procedures, Adapted to the Terrain ...... 526 V. Cooperation with Helicopters ...... 534 1. General ...... 534 2. Tactics ...... 540 3. Emergency Procedures ...... 553 4. Standard Arm-and-Hand Signals ...... 554 VI. Organized Avalanche Rescue...... 559 1. General ...... 559 2. Equipment and Material ...... 559 3. Deployment of the Rescue Personnel...... 559 4. Organized Search on an Avalanche Cone ...... 562 5. Performing a Probe Search ...... 563 6. Cooperation with Civilian Rescue Organisations ...... 567 Q. PROTECTED ROUTES ...... 569 I. General ...... 569 1. General ...... 569 2. Reconnaissance ...... 571 3. Safety Regulations ...... 572 4. How to Tie in for Moving Along a Protected Route ...... 575 II. Protected Routes Built for Ascent/Descent ...... 580 1. Rope Railing ...... 580 2. Anchor Point Route ...... 585 3. Fixed Rope ...... 586 4. Viae Ferratae (Klettersteigs) ...... 587 5. Additional Aids ...... 587 III. Protected Routes, Used for the Crossing of Terrain Cuts and Escarpments ...... 590

15 1. Ropeways ...... 590 2. Rope Footbridges ...... 603 3. Rope Bridges ...... 605 R. THE MILITARY MOUNTAIN GUIDE TEAM (MMGT) - SPECIAL TECHNIQUES ...... 609 ANNEX I ...... 610 The Avalanche Rescue Platoon (ARP) Table of Organisation and Equipment (TOE) -Draft Version ...... 610 ANNEX II ...... 612 KNOT TECHNIQUES...... 612 ANNEX III ...... 634 Mountaineering Gear ...... 634 I. General ...... 634 II. Storage ...... 636 IV. Period of Use ...... 641 ANNEX IV ...... 649 Technical Data of Helicopters ...... 649 I. Agusta Bell UH-1D ...... 649 II. Sikorsky CH-53 ...... 651 III. NH-90 ...... 652 IV. SA-316 “Alouette III” (Al 3) ...... 654 V. Agusta Bell 212 (AB-212) ...... 656 VI. Sikorsky S-70A-42 „Black Hawk“(S-70) ...... 658 ANNEX V ...... 660 Difficulty Rating ...... 660 I. Rock ...... 660 II. ICE ...... 664 III. Viae Ferratae (Klettersteigs)...... 666 IV. The Seriousness of a Climbing Route ...... 668 ANNEX VI ...... 669 Forms ...... 669 I. Snow Profile ...... 669

16 II. Rutschblock Test- Report Form ...... 672 Fig. 368: Auxiliary Matrix for the Preparation of a Situation Report ...... 674 IV. Weather Protocol ...... 675

A. GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

I. Geography

1. General

1 Geography is a science dealing with the three-dimensional structure and development of the Earth’s surface and its relations to and influences of mankind, as well as the influence of the climate and the weather on the Earth’s surface. Thus, geography acts in close coordination with other fields like climatology, geology and cartography.

2 Higher regions of the Earth’s surface, often standing out from their flatter surroundings by a clearly defined basement, are called mountain ranges. Mountain ranges are divided into mountains, valleys and plateaus.

We distinguish between low mountain and high mountain ranges. 3 In areas with moderate climate, their separation line is at approx. 2,000 meters, in tropical areas maybe higher.

4 Low mountain ranges are characterized by: - moderate differences in altitude, - rounded, undulating, crest-shaped mountains and hills, - deep-cut valleys, - narrow gorges and transitions, - vegetation (e.g. deciduous and coniferous forests, creeping pines, rhododendrons), - urbanisation (e.g. hamlet’s, villages, industrial plants), and - road nets of different quality

Low mountain ranges can contain lowland-like areas (e.g. on high 5 plateaus). Sometimes, however, you may also find rugged rock faces and other steep rock formations of alpine character, especially in deep- cut valleys.

High mountain ranges are characterized by: 6 - bleak terrain, extending above 2,000 m (Mount Everest: 8,848 m); rocky, stony or glacier regions, most of the time located above the treeline (see margin no. Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.) - steep mountains and valleys with high differences in altitude - difficult terrain with poor or no infrastructure - narrow roads and paths

In other regions of the Earth, the line between high and low 7 mountain areas runs at various altitudes. Thus, high mountain character is located at lower altitudes in the Arctic, whereas low mountain character can be found at higher altitudes in South America and in Asia.

The characteristic differences of the mountain areas have an 8 influence on: - all military operations (e.g. movements), - the degree of objective hazards in mountain areas, and - technical challenges

The differences refer to: - the type, composition, and quality of the rock layers, - specifications of the various shapes of mountains and valleys, - special phenomena of the mountain climate, - glaciation, - the river system, - the vegetation,

19 - the settlement, and - the accessibility of an area by means of roadways.

The treeline is a border region of changing width. Its altitude 9 depends on factors such as – temperature – quantity of precipitations, – wind – nature of the soil, and – orientation of the slope.

2. The Creation of Mountain Ranges

10 Our planet consists of: - the Earth’s crust, - the Earth’s mantle, and - the Earth’s core

11 The Earth’s crust – which is divided into a continental and an oceanic crust, forms the outer shell of our planet.

12 The Continental crust, which is some 30 to 80 km thick, is composed of magmatic rocks with high quartz content, but also of mighty sediment layers and metamorphically overprinted rocks. It does not only contain the land masses (continents), but also parts of the flat shelf sea areas located at their edges. The Oceanic crust, which is some 5 to 10 km thick, is composed of low-quartz basaltic rocks forming the bottom of the oceans.

13 Together with the rocks of the upper Earth’s mantle (lithospheric mantle), the two crusts form the so-called “lithospheric plates”. These less dense plates “swim”, so to say, on the asthenosphere, a thick liquid which is denser than the plates. The asthenosphere is part of the outer

20 mantle. A complicated mosaic of these plates forms the solid outer skin of our Earth.

21 14 Because of the difference in temperature between the hot Earth’s interior and the chilled-off Earth’s crust, the so-called mantle convection takes place, i.e. the transport of material and heat across a few cm per year. These convection flows cause the movement of the solid lithospheric plates they are covered with. The plates can move towards, glide past or drift away from each other (see Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.).

Subduction Continent-Continent Subduction Foreland Zone Collision Mid-ocean Volcanic Mid-ocean Zone Ridge Island Chains Basin Ridge Deep Sea Deep Sea Deep Sea Trench Trench Trench Sea Level

Convection Cells Convection Cells

Sediments Plutonism and Oceanic Continental Earth’s Earth’s Crust Lithosphere Volcanism Crust Crust Mantle Astenosphere Fig. 1: Mantle convection and movements of the Lithospheric Plates

15 Rocks coming from the Earth’s surface are added to the Earth’s mantle via the destructive plate boundaries. Plates moving towards each other can collide or form a subduction zone. In case of a collision of two plates (of the same density), these plates (or one of them) are heavily folded within the collision area, thus creating mountains. As an example, the Himalayan mountain range was formed by the collision of the Indian and the Eurasian plates. In case of a subduction, the denser plate submerges under lighter one, thus adding material of the oceanic crust to the mantle and creating a deep sea trench in the area of the contact of the two plates. At the same time, the surface of the upper plate bulges out because of increased volcanism, thus forming a mountain range.

22 When plates move past each other, we speak of a transform fault, like 16 for example the San Andreas Fault.

Rocks that come from the Earth’s mantle and are added to the upper 17 parts of the Earth’s crust in the area of the constructive plate boundaries, form a new oceanic crust. In the Ocean, this process leads to the development of so-called mid-ocean ridges, such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, while, on dry land, deep trench systems (so-called rift valleys) are formed, such as the East African Rift. As the plates drift away from each other, they form large ocean basins over millions of years. These are areas where strong volcanism and earthquakes can be expected.

Figures 2, 3, and 4 show the plate tectonic situation of the Earth 18 during the last 200 million years.

Fig. 2: The current plate tectonic situation of the Earth By courtesy of: © Geologische Bundesanstalt, Vienna, Austria

Fig. 3: The plate tectonic situation of the Earth, some 24 million years ago

Fig. 4: The plate tectonic situation of the Earth, some 200 million years ago

3. Geography, at the Example of the Alps

24 The Alps are the highest inner-European mountain range. They extend over a distance of 1,200 km, in the form of an arc, across France, Italy, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Germany, Austria, and Slovenia (see Fig. 5).

The Alps act as a climatic and weather divide between Central 20 Europe and the Central Mediterranean Region. Due to their strong relief, the Alps have very small-scale climate and weather activities. The most important climatic influences are: - Westerly winds with mild, humid masses of coming from the Atlantic, - cold polar air from the north, - dry, continental air from the east (cold in winter and hot in summer), and - warm, Mediterranean air from the south.

Large parts of the Alps are influenced by central European 21 climate. In the northern part, apart from low temperatures, the climate is similar to that of the adjoining flatland. There are little differences between winter and summer, with maximum precipitations in summer. The southern part is influenced by Mediterranean climate causing mild winters and hot summers, with maximum precipitations in spring and early summer. The inner Alpine regions are located in the rain shadow and therefore dry. Due to the low density of the atmosphere, solar radiation is more intense at high altitudes than in low-lying regions.

The development of the Alps started about 100 million years ago 22 with Africa drifting in the direction of the European continent and, thus, pushing oceanic crust material of the former Tethys Sea into the

25 depth. As a consequence, the African and the Eurasian Plates collided, pushing and wedging masses of rock into each other. The geological uplifting of the Alps to a nappe and folded mountain range took place some 35 to 30 million years ago. This movement has nearly stopped now. The current horizontal drift of approximately 1 cm per year causes an average lift of 1 mm.

23 The current form of the Alps is a product of erosion, especially the eroding activities of glaciers during the ice age. Winds and weather are still changing the surface and are currently somehow equalizing the tectonic uplift.

24 The Alps are divided into Western Alps and Eastern Alps. They are separated by an imaginary line connecting the Lake of Constance, the Rhine, the Splügenpass, the Lake Como, and the Lago Maggiore (see Fig. 5). The Eastern Alps are lower than the Western Alps, and also smoother. Their mountain passages are located at lower altitudes.

25 The Western Alps (see Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.a) are divided into the - Northern and the - Southern Western Alps.

The Eastern Alps (see Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.b and Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.c) are divided into the - Northern Alps, - Central Alps, and the - Southern Alps

Fig. 5: A schematic illustration of the geographical division of the Alps

27 70 Appenzell Alps 82 Adula Alps und Tamina Mountains 71 Swiss Mittelland (Plateau) 83 Ticino Alps and Misox Alps 72 French and Swiss Jura 84 Bernese Alps 73 Central Swiss Pre-Alps 85 Diablerets Group 74 Bernese Pre- Alps 86 Valais Alps 75 Fribourg Pre-Alps 87 Mont Blanc Group 76 Chablais Alps 88 Graian Alps 77 Savoy Alps 89 Dauphiné Alps 78 French Limestone Alps 90 Cottian Alps 79 Provencal Alps 91 Maritime Alps 80 Glarner Alps 92 Ligurian Alps 81 Uri’s Alps

Fig. 6a: Mountain Ranges of the Western Alps By courtesy of: © Bergverlag Rother, München/Freytag&Berndt, Vienna, Austria

1 Bregenzerwald Mountains 25 Rätikon 48a Ortler Group 2 Allgäu Alps 26 Silvretta 48b Sobretta-Gavia Group 3a Lechquellen Mountains 27 Samnaun Group 48c Nonsberg Group 3b Lechtal Alps 28 Verwall Group 49 Adamello-Presanella Alps

29 4 Wetterstein and 29 Sevenna Group 50 Gardasee- Mountains Mieminger Alps 30 Ötztal Alps 51 Brenta Group 5 Karwendel 31 Stubai Alps 52 Dolomites 6 Rofan Mountains and 32 Sarntal Alps 53 Fleimstal Alps Brandenberg Alps 33 Tux Alps 54 Vizentin Alps 7a Ammergau Alps 34 Kitzbühel Alps 57b Carnic Prealps 7b Bavarian Alps 35 Zillertal Alps 63 Plessur Alps 8 Kaiser Mountains 36 Venediger Group 64 Platta Group or 9 Lofer and Leogang 37 Rieserferner Group Oberhalbstein Alps Mountain Ranges 38 Villgratn Mountains 65 Albula Alps 10 Berchtesgaden Alps 39 Granatspitz Group 66 Bernina Alps 11 Chiemgau Alps 40 Glockner Group 67 Livigno Alps 12 Salzburg Schieferalpen 41 Schober Group 68 Bergamask Alps

30 Fig. 7b: Mountain Ranges of the Eastern Alps Part 1 By courtesy of: © Bergverlag Rother, München/Freytag&Berndt, Wien

10 Berchtesgaden Alps 16 Ennstal Alps 20 Rax-Schneeberg Group 11 Chiemgau Alps 17a Salzkammergut Mountains 21 Ybbstal Alps 12 Salzburg Schieferalps 17b Upper Austrian Prealps 22 Türnitz Alps 13 Tennengebirge 23 Gutenstein Alps 14 Dachstein Mountain 18 Hochschwab Group 24 Wienerwald 15 Totes Gebirge 19 Mürzsteg Alps

40 Glockner Group 45c Rottenmanner- und 57a Carnic Alps

31 41 Schober Group Wölzer Tauern 57b Carnic Prealps 42 Goldberg Group 45d Seckauer Tauern 58 Julische Alps 43 Kreuzeck Group 46a Nockberge 59 Karawanken and 44 Ankogel Group 46b Lavanttal Alps Bacher Mountains 45a Radstädter Tauern 47 Peripheral Areas east of the Mur River 60 Steiner Alps 45b Schladminger Tauern 56 Gailtal Alps Fig. 6c: Mountain Ranges of the Eastern Alps – Part 2 By courtesy of: © Bergverlag Rother, München/Freytag&Berndt, Vienna, Austria

32 II. Geology

1. General

Geology 26 is the science of the composition and structure of the Earth, its physical characteristics and its evolution as well as of the processes that has formed it until today.

The Earth’s surface consists of various types of rocks, 27 which are a mixture of minerals, stone fragments, and remnants of organisms. Minerals are naturally existing solids (only mercury is a “liquid exception”) with a uniform physical and chemical consistence and a steady structure. Minerals whose atomic components have a regular geometric structure (crystal lattice) are called crystals.

These various types of rocks can have sustained effects on 28 military operations. They can restrict movements on foot or by car. They can also influence the effects of weapons or the use of explosives in various ways. Besides that, they can restrict the setting of anchors and require alternative methods.

33 NOTE: For detailed information on the geology of an area of operations (AOO) contact the Institute for Military Topography (IMT) or the Office for Topographical Information (OTI) of the German Bundeswehr.

2. Types of Rock

29 Rocks (see Fig. 8) are named according to their kind of emergence. Thus, we know - magmatic rocks - metamorphous rocks, and - sedimentary rocks.

34 Sedimentary Rocks

Magmatic Metamorphic Rocks Rocks

Fig. 8: The cycle of rocks

35 30 Magmatic rocks/magmatites (igneous rocks) were formed during the cooling phase of molten rock, which either solidified - within the Earth’s crust (plutonic rocks = plutonites, e.g. granite), - on the Earth’s surface or on the bottom of the sea (volcanic rocks or vulcanites, e.g. basalt), or - on its way to the Earth’s surface in fissures and cracks (dyke rocks, e.g. porphyry)

31 Metamorphic rocks/metamorphites evolved from various types of older rocks as a result of increased pressure and temperature. Depending on the type of rock, the temperature and the pressure - granite changed to orthogneiss - basalt to green schistose, amphibolite, eclogite (depending on the degree of the metamorphosis) - mudstone to argillaceous schist, phyllite or mica schist - limestone to crystalline marble, and - quartz sandstone to quartzite.

32 Sedimentary rocks were formed on dry land, in lakes, flowing waters, and oceans as a result of the deposition of rocks eroded by weathering. In fact, they are hardened, unconsolidated sediments (which were formed by a geological process called “diagenesis”). Often, sedimentary rocks are layered, and may contain fossils. We know - clastic (debris rocks) - chemical, and

36 - biogenic sediments. Clastic sediments (e.g. conglomerates, breccia, sand stone 33 and mud stone) are formed by erosion. During their subsequent transport (e.g. by flowing waters, wind, etc.) they get more and more shattered. Thus, a block of stone turns into debris, then into gravel, sand, slit, and finally becomes clay.

Chemical sediments are the result of precipitations from 34 solutions like e.g. evaporites (among others rock salt) or the chemical transformation of existing rocks, like e.g. lime mud.

Biogenic, biochemical and organic sediments result 35 from the shells or skeletal remains of dead organisms and microorganisms like e.g. ridge limestone (coral reefs), siliceous rocks (shells of diatoms and siliceous sponges), coal and oil shale.

Other types of sedimentary rocks: 36 - dolomite (produced by enriching lime with magnesium, which is a chemical process), and - marl (composed of line and fine gran fractionation like silt/clay).

3. The Features and Characteristics of Rocks and their Effects on Mountain Operations

Limestone often forms light and steep walls of rock with 37 poor vegetation, fissures and faults. It has a varied surface structure offering good handholds and footholds. Sometimes, limestone can also be banked, which allows you to use it as an

37 alpine path. Below the rock face you should expect hillside debris – in case of massive limestone also rubble – which, below the treeline, may be covered with vegetation. Due to the high solubility of lime in water, we have an increased number of karst formations (e.g. sinter formations, weathering fissures, dolines, caves, karst springs) in limestone areas. Karstified limestone mountain ranges may have a surface poor of water, as the rainwater immediately trickles away through fissures and cracks. However, beneath the surface you may find lots of stored water. Already thin layers of debris can store sufficient quantities of water, but not over longer dry periods. Spring outflows can especially be expected along layer boundaries with non-water-carrying layers (e.g. morainic deposits, marl, slate, fine-grained sedimentary rocks) but also in hollows, hill moors or on the edge of a valley. It should be noted that due to the often relatively short period of time the water remains under the ground (a few days only), its quality may be reduced already by small quantities of pollutants (ranching, waste dumps etc.).

38 A dolomite’s characteristics are similar to those of limestone; it is difficult to differentiate them visually. However, the decrease of volume during the formation process causes little shrinkage cracks which make limestone very crisp and fragile. Handholds and footholds can therefore break off without warning. Protection against fall is more difficult than on limestone.

38 Granite is very hard, weatherproof, and forms massive 39 walls without steps. It has a smooth, sometimes rough surface. It is twice as hard as limestone. You can only move on it along ridges, ledges or linear fissures such as horizontal terraces and rock ledges located on ridges and dihedrals. Protection is difficult and often requires mobile protection devices. It is not easy to fix bolts. Beneath granite walls, you may often find scree.

Gneiss is metamorphic and, in contrary to granite, it has a 40 linear, flat structure. Along the graded bedding, it is less stable than granite, but it offers more holds. Protection possibilities correspond to those of granite.

Sandstone mainly consists of small quartz grains. The 41 degree of consolidation may differ. Sandstone can easily erode during rain. Movements are only possible along fissures and dihedrals. Protection is difficult and most of the time requires deep, drilled anchors.

Conglomerate and breccia are sedimentary rocks 42 consisting of at least 50% rounded (conglomerate) and 50% cubic (breccia) components. They are formed of river gravel and talus deposits. Concerning their evolution, they are closely related to sandstone. Quartz, dolomite and calcite are the main binders between the single components. They are of different consolidation and very rare, compared with other types of rocks. They offer movement possibilities through their uneven

39 surface and holes in it. Protection by means of mobile devices is most of the time limited.

43 Marl is a soft rock composed of flaky layers of limestone and argillite/slit. During rain, it gets smeary and slippery. Most of its north-facing steep walls do not offer convenient movement and protection possibilities. Away from that, we find softer landscapes which can be used for movement. Marl located beneath steep rocky steps and terraces is often used as cattle herding. Marl zones offer good possibilities for bivouacking. However, in draws and on steep slopes, landslides or mudslides can be caused by heavy rain. Trees may grow in these regions, at least in the form of mountain pines. Often, springs emerge from the transition zone to the non-water-bearing marl layers.

44 Schistose is a relatively soft, metamorphic rock which can break very easily. It consists of thin, flaky layers. Apart from most of the time north-facing steep walls, it can also form softer landscapes that favour movement. Schistose does not offer good movement and protection possibilities in steep, rocky terrain. Draws and slopes, most of the time covered with slate rubble, make movement difficult. Clay slates are non- water-bearing layers.

B. GLACIOLOGY

40 I. Glaciers

1. General

Glaciers (in the Eastern Alpine Region also called “Ferner” or 45 “Kees”) are streams of ice that cover the Polar Regions and parts of high mountain regions. 96% of the ice covering the Earth belongs to the continental ice sheet of the Polar Regions.

Military operations may also take place on glaciers or in 46 regions that where covered with glaciers in earlier times, still containing rests of them (e.g. moraines). Knowledge about the formation and the structure of glaciers is therefore a precondition to conduct military operations in such regions.

2. The Development and Structure of Glaciers

Glaciers develop from snow which, in mountainous 47 regions above a certain altitude, does not completely melt due to low temperatures. Thus, the amount of snow is constantly increasing. Additional snow deposits can be formed in hollows and cirques through snow carried by the wind or moved by avalanches.

The line above which more snow falls than is able to melt 48 away is called the (climatic) snow line. In the Eastern Alps, the snow line runs at an altitude between 2,500 and 3,000 m.

Non-melted, deposited snow changes to coarse-grained firn 49 because of pressure and a constant change of temperatures. Rainfall and melting processes condense firn to firn ice,

41 hereby decreasing its air content and increasing its water permeability. 50 Because of additional pressure, firn ice finally becomes glacial ice – a pasty substance which is impermeable to water. It reacts plastically and elastically and therefore adapts to the inclination and the conditions of the soil. To form one meter of glacial ice, you need a snow depth of about 10 meters. In the Eastern Alps, it takes 10 to 15 years to transform this amount of snow into glacial ice.

51 The boundary between glare ice and the firn cover, located on the surface of the glacier, is called firn line. Above the firn line, we have the accumulation area; this is where precipitations mainly appear in the form of snow which is then converted into ice. Below the firn line, we have the ablation zone; this is where the ice melts.

52 The movement (flow rate) of a glacier depends on the time of the year and the time of the day as well as of its - size - composition and inclination, and - accumulation status.

53 The colour of a glacier depends on the - type and density of the ice - weather conditions, and - lightning and radiation conditions

54 Most of the time, firn ice has a whitish colour, whereas the colour of glacial ice ranges from blue to green. Thus,

42 depending on the weather, glacial ice can e.g. change between blueish green (rainy weather) and white (fair weather).

55 The flow movement of glacial ice leads to the erosion of the surrounding terrain. Abrasion, smoothing and scratching create features like roches moutonnées and glacial drifts. Rock plates and boulders may break away.

Large amounts of ice with enclosed base moraines may 56 furrow the ground, thus creating e.g. (see Fig. 9) - cirques - trough valleys, - through walls - trough shoulders, and - concave slope shapes

Pyramidal Peak

Former Glacier Surface

Concave Slope Cirque Pre-Ice Age Shape V-shaped Valley

Trough Wall mostly wooded Valley Bottom Waterfall

Post-Ice Age Riverbed

Fig. 9: The terrain-shaping effects of glaciers

43 3. Types of Glaciers

57 Depending on their development, location or characteristic features, we distinguish between the following types of glaciers:

- Firn field glaciers: Firn fields that exist throughout the year and make it impossible to distinguish between the accumulation and the ablation zone (e.g. Edelgries/Dachstein). - Cirque glaciers: Glaciers located in cirques and forming only short, plump tongues (e.g. Hornkees/Schobergruppe). – Hanging glaciers: Glaciers that end with an escarpment, most of the time near or in a steep slope (e.g. Rifflkees/Glockergruppe) - Slope glaciers: Broad, more or less large firn fields with short, plump, often lobe-shaped glacial tongues (e.g. Sonnblickkees/Granatspitzgruppe). – Valley glaciers: Glaciers whose accumulation zone is located in several cirques or valleys. The ice masses are flowing into each other, forming a most of the time regular- shaped glacier. You can often find them in the Alps (e.g. Pasterze/Glocknergruppe) – Ravine glaciers, small cirque glaciers, avalanche glaciers: These are glaciers which do not have their own accumulation zone. They are fed by avalanches or broken- off hanging glaciers. They may also be located beneath the snow line. However, they are very rare in the Alps (e.g. Eiskapelle/Watzmann Ostwand). – Plateau glaciers: Large, flat accumulation zones located on plateaus. Most of the time, they form several tongues

44 running over their edge (e.g. Übergossene Alm/Hochkönig). – Karst glacier: Is a term used for glaciers in the Limestone Alps (especially on the Dachstein). Karst glaciers take part in the creation of karst formations. - Dead ice glaciers: We speak of dead ice when a glacier does not have an own accumulation zone, when it performs only minimal movements and is covered with lots of rubble. – Block glaciers: They are no real glaciers but a type of permafrost. In fact, they are stone rubble, mixed with ice and slowly flowing downslope.

The most important terrain features created by glaciers are 58 (see 1 Hanging Glacier 8 Glacial Stream 15 Longitudinal Crevasses 2 Bergschrund 9 End Moraine 16 Lateral Crevasses 3 Icefall 10 Outwash Plain 17 Cross-shaped Crevasses 4 Traverse Crevasses 11 Radial Crevasses 18 Randkluft 5 Side Moraine 12 Lateral Moraine 19 Ice Gully 6 Glacier Snout 13 Valley Glacier 7 Frontal Moraine 14 Medial Moraine Fig. 10): - moraines - crevasses, and - icefalls.

1 Hanging Glacier 8 Glacial Stream 15 Longitudinal Crevasses 2 Bergschrund 9 End Moraine 16 Lateral Crevasses 3 Icefall 10 Outwash Plain 17 Cross-shaped Crevasses 4 Traverse Crevasses 11 Radial Crevasses 18 Randkluft 5 Side Moraine 12 Lateral Moraine 19 Ice Gully 6 Glacier Snout 13 Valley Glacier 7 Frontal Moraine 14 Medial Moraine Fig. 10: Terrain features created by glaciers

46 4. Moraines

A moraine consists of material moved by a glacier and 59 finally deposited, like e.g. rocks, rubble, fine material (see 1 Hanging Glacier 8 Glacial Stream 15 Longitudinal Crevasses 2 Bergschrund 9 End Moraine 16 Lateral Crevasses 3 Icefall 10 Outwash Plain 17 Cross-shaped Crevasses 4 Traverse Crevasses 11 Radial Crevasses 18 Randkluft 5 Side Moraine 12 Lateral Moraine 19 Ice Gully 6 Glacier Snout 13 Valley Glacier 7 Frontal Moraine 14 Medial Moraine Fig. 10)

We differentiate between the following types of moraines:

– Surface moraine: is stony material covering a large part of a glacier - Side moraine: are stones deposited most of the time in the form of a wall on either side of the glacier - Lateral moraine: is an older side moraine - Medial moraine: is formed of stony material of side moraines at the confluence of two glaciers - Inner moraine: is stony material moved by and packed in a glacier – Base moraine: is stony material moved along or deposited in the bed of a glacier - Frontal moraine: is stony material deposited in the form of a wall at a glacier’s tongue - End moraine: is an older frontal moraine - Outwash plain: is a plain beneath a glacier where moraine material is deposited.

47 5. Crevasses

Crevasses (see 60 1 Hanging Glacier 8 Glacial Stream 15 Longitudinal Crevasses 2 Bergschrund 9 End Moraine 16 Lateral Crevasses 3 Icefall 10 Outwash Plain 17 Cross-shaped Crevasses 4 Traverse Crevasses 11 Radial Crevasses 18 Randkluft 5 Side Moraine 12 Lateral Moraine 19 Ice Gully 6 Glacier Snout 13 Valley Glacier 7 Frontal Moraine 14 Medial Moraine Fig. 10) are formed by the shape of a glacier’s bed and by the tensile and compressive stresses of the flowing ice.

This process may result in: - Traverse crevasses – when the glacier flows over a steep slope - Longitudinal crevasses – when a ridge or a steep slope is located parallel to the direction of flow - Cross-shaped crevasses – when a mound of rock forms the base

– Radial crevasses - when a glacier’s tongue has a chance to spread - Lateral crevasses - because of the slower mowing ice at the edge of the glacier

61 The bergschrund and the randkluft (see Fig. 11) are special forms of crevasses:

- A bergschrund is a more or less clearly developed crevasse (breakaway crevice) located between the masses of ice connected to the rock and the flowing ice.

48 - A randkluft (melted crevice) develops between rock and ice because of the heat emitted by the rock.

A bergschrund A randkluft is a breakaway crevice located is a melted gap formed between between frozen-on and flowing rock and ice due to weathering ice and the emission of warmth Ice masses, firmly connected (frozen) to the rock randkluft

side moraine limit of glacial erosion Fig. 11: Bergschrund and Randkluft

6. Icefall

An icefall/ice breakage (see 62 1 Hanging Glacier 8 Glacial Stream 15 Longitudinal Crevasses 2 Bergschrund 9 End Moraine 16 Lateral Crevasses 3 Icefall 10 Outwash Plain 17 Cross-shaped Crevasses 4 Traverse Crevasses 11 Radial Crevasses 18 Randkluft 5 Side Moraine 12 Lateral Moraine 19 Ice Gully 6 Glacier Snout 13 Valley Glacier 7 Frontal Moraine 14 Medial Moraine Fig. 10) forms when the glacier flows over escarpments. In doing so, it breaks apart and creates a net of cracks and vertical ice cliffs (ice towers/seracs).

49 7. Further Glacier-related Terrain Features

63 – Glacial stream (see Fig. 1 Hanging Glacier 8 Glacial Stream 15 Longitudinal Crevasses 2 Bergschrund 9 End Moraine 16 Lateral Crevasses 3 Icefall 10 Outwash Plain 17 Cross-shaped Crevasses 4 Traverse Crevasses 11 Radial Crevasses 18 Randkluft 5 Side Moraine 12 Lateral Moraine 19 Ice Gully 6 Glacier Snout 13 Valley Glacier 7 Frontal Moraine 14 Medial Moraine Fig. 10): is a term for the meltwater and rainwater exiting from a glacier via the glacier mouth. Due to the fine material transported by the water, it becomes milky and cloudy (“glacial milk”). - Meltwater stream: Meltwater running off on the surface of a glacier, often producing cuts in the ice which can be several meters deep. - Glacial mill: A cylindrical tunnel drilled by meltwaters and glacial ice containing stones. - Glacial pothole: A cylindrical, oval to round hollow in a rock, bared in the glacial bed by meltwater and moraine material. - Slump pond: May appear in shallow firn basins located on a glacier’s surface, very often in the form of meltwaters dammed up in the area of the firn line. May often become up to 1 m deep. - Glacial lake: Consists of water accumulated in depressions of the glacial ice. Can be several meters deep. - Glacier table: A boulder resting on an ice foot like a table top. Glacier tables are formed because the sun cannot melt the ice beneath the bolder as quickly as on the surface.

50 - A snow bridge connects the two edges of a crevasse. It results from snowfall, snowdrift or avalanches. Depending on its thickness and stability, it may serve as a footbridge.

51 II. Ice

1. General

64 Beside glaciers located in high mountain areas, we may also be confronted with other forms of ice (e.g. frozen runnels/waterfalls). Rock faces of which large parts are covered with ice frozen to them or with layers of firn are called ice/firn faces. A rut located in a rock, limited by rocks and filled with snow, firn or ice is called ice rut or couloir. Due to its high steepness, it is not able to hold rubble. Besides that, an ice rut is always exposed to the risk of rockfall/icefall (like e.g. the Pallavicini Rinne of the Großglockner).

2. Ice Coating and Ice Quality

65 Ice coating, ice quality and ice form have an influence on the viability of ice. Type and amount of water ingress, topography, and meteorological conditions (e.g. temperature, solar radiation, and wind) have an influence on the coating and the different qualities of ice.

66 The thickness of the ice coating has an essential influence on the viability of icy terrain. Among others, it has an influence on the - stability, - use of ice gear, and - protection possibilities.

52 Frozen waterfalls can additionally form 67 - tubular ice and - cauliflower ice

Glassy ice (water ice) can be formed in two ways: On 68 glaciers by the pressure conversion of firn ice, and at lower altitudes due to wind, deep temperatures (over a longer period of time and/or very low air humidity. Most of the time, such ice is very dry, brittle, and hard.

Soft ice develops when compact ice is overflown by water 69 draining off on the surface, thus loosening its molecular structure. This softening process takes place independently of temperatures and solar radiation. Soft ice is good for climbing, but often it is not possible to set anchors, as such ice has reduced holding forces. The firn ice of high mountain regions has nearly the same characteristics as soft ice.

White ice develops under the influence of solar radiation, 70 which causes cracks and changes the superficial structure. The ice is milky white and most of the time it is less hard than compact ice.

Tubular ice is the result of the incomplete growing 71 together of icicles and ice pillars. This type of ice often makes it impossible to set ice screws or to use steep ice gear. The hollow spaces of tubular ice may fill with water during the winter and, thus, become compact ice structures.

72 Cauliflower ice can be recognized by its vertically growing, independent scales. This type of ice makes it difficult to set ice screws.

3. Factors Influencing the Quality of the Ice

73 - temperature - water ingress - weather, and - solar radiation.

74 The more slowly ice develops the better it is for its quality. In case of sudden drops in temperature, big ice structures may for, but they are very inhomogeneous and full of hollows. A slow decrease in temperature, however, has a positive impact on the quality of ice. A longer period of time with temperatures above plus 2 degrees and below minus 6 degrees Celsius has an unfavourable influence on the quality of ice.

75 Icefalls may be rinsed on their back side and, thus, become instable. The hollows of steep ice (e.g. tubular ice) may be filled due to increased ingress of water and form compact ice structures. This leads to an increased weight and may have a negative influence on their stability (cause unfavourable tensions).

76 Increasing temperatures or solar radiation may lead to an increased draining off of water behind the ice structure. The longer the back side of the ice is rinsed, the thinner it will become. Besides that, it is difficult to assess ice structures that

54 are rinsed or filled with water. You should better not use them, as they can crumble any time due to their thin surface.

55 77 Wind and longer cold periods can form unfavourable ice qualities, i.e. the ice will become glassy, brittle and very hard. This can cause icefall. Changing weather (short fair weather and bad weather periods), however, lead to a continuous development of good- quality ice.

78 Direct solar radiation (also during deep temperatures) develops white ice with many air pockets on its surface. Besides that, running-off meltwater increases the ingress of water. Over a period of several days and in combination with rising temperatures, this may lead to bad ice quality. When ice is exposed to solar radiation for a period of few hours, the quality of the ice will increase.

4. Form and Stability of a Frozen Waterfall

79 Form and stability of a frozen waterfall (icefall) depend on the subsoil and on the mass of ice. Frozen waterfalls are divided into five shape classes (independent of their difficulty level - see ANNEX IV and Fig. 12).

Fig. 12: Shape classes 1 to 5 (from left to right)

Shape Class I: Little inclination (far below 90 degrees) 80 and a compact ice shield extending across a terrace. Most of the weight rests directly on the rocky surface, deflecting occurring forces directly to the subsoil. Spontaneous collapses of such ice formations are very rare.

Shape Class II: Such formations have an inclination of 60 81 to 90° and a compact ice shield. Due to the inclination, most of the occurring forces are first deflected to the interior part of the icefall, and then to the ground. This type of icefall is relatively insensitive towards short-term increases in temperature during longer periods of cold weather. Spontaneous collapses of such icefalls are rare. If they occur, then only in combination with increases temperatures, increased water ingress and melting processes taking part at their base.

Shape Class III: Due to an inclination of sometimes more 82

57 than 90°, the ice loses contact with the rock. Thus, some sections of the icefall may even be free-standing, and will not be able to pass on occurring forces directly to the ground. Icefalls of this type are very sensitive towards atmospheric changes. Due to the lack of the supporting function of the ice shield and the lack of contact with the rock, such icefalls may collapse spontaneously.

83 Shape Class IV: This shape can only develop on overhanging rock. Such formations are very sensitive towards disturbances and have to be assessed critically during rising as well as during falling temperatures. Changes in temperature, meltwater or wind can cause their sudden collapse.

84 Shape Class V: These most of the time very big icicles represent the predecessors of ice pillars. Their stability mainly depends on their mass and contact face with the rock, which has to absorb all occurring forces. Meltwater or wind can cause their sudden collapse. Icicles are very labile and, thus, very risky.

C. SYNOPSIS

I. General

Synopsis (climatology and meteorology) 85 is the overall comparative (worldwide) study of the actual weather conditions and their climatologic evaluation with the support of station networks. The results thereof are entered into maps, thus providing a simultaneous overview of the weather conditions of several locations.

Climatology 86 is the science of climate and its changes in space and time. It is a part of the general geography and meteorology.

Meteorology 87 is the science of physical processes in the Earth’s atmosphere. It is a part of geophysics.

Climate and weather are of special importance for 88 soldiers on operation. It is especially the climate and the different climatic zones that need to be assessed in the course of the long-term planning and preparation of military operations. Extreme climate zones and, thus, extreme weather conditions, will often reduce operational capabilities. Knowledge of various climatic zones in possible areas of operations may provoke the need of special, adapted training and equipment.

II. Climatology

1. General

89 Climate is a term for all weather conditions possible at a certain location, including their typical succession and daytime/seasonal changes. Climate is not only influenced by processes taking place within the atmosphere, but also by its interaction with solar activities. We distinguish e.g. between the:

59 – atmosphere (= gas envelope of the Earth), including its subareas and the – lithosphere (= the solid part of the Earth, like the Earth’s crust and the uppermost part of the Earth’s mantle).

90 When we speak of “weather”, we speak of a period between hours and a few days. Constant “atmospheric conditions” may cover periods of several days, up to one week and, in extreme conditions, even one month or a whole season. “Climate”, however, is the statistically determined status of the Earth’s atmosphere during a period of several decades (about 30 years).

2. Climatic Factors

91 The term “climatic factors” describes the various processes and statuses creating, maintaining and changing the climate. We distinguish between - primary and - secondary climatic factors.

92 - Solar radiation, - altitude and - location of a site, - distribution of land and seas, and the - composition of the Earth’s atmosphere

belong to the primary climatic factors (see Fig. 13)

60 Latitude Location towards the mountains/Altitude

North Pole Main Cloud dissipation direction Less of wind precipitations Tropic of Cancer Equator Location towards the sea/ “Urban Climate” Vegetation Tropic of Capricorn Su: Heat absorption High Temperatures Cool sea air Su: Heat emission South Pole Mild sea air

Climatic Factors

Fig. 13: Primary Climatic Factors

Solar radiation, with reference to the latitude, makes the 93 North Pole colder and the equator warmer than e.g. the central European region because – the same amount of sunrays illuminates a much larger area at the poles than at the equator (flat angle of incidence) and - the equator gets warmer as the same amount of sunrays hits a much smaller area than at the poles (steep angle of incidence).

Thus, the latitude of a region basically determines its temperature.

The altitude and the location of a site 94 - make temperatures decrease with increasing altitude - cause higher precipitations at the weather side (windward side) of mountains than on their lee side (downwind side)

61 - bring about higher temperatures in towns than e.g. on snow-covered areas (urban climate).

95 The distribution of land and seas - provokes a higher degree of rainfall (precipitations) over the sea than over continental areas - makes the seas absorb more heat than they are able to emit during winter - reduces temperature variations over the seas.

Thus, the seas determine the temperatures and the precipitations of a location.

96 The secondary climatic factors contain various cycles and circulations systems of the Earth which result directly or indirectly from the primary climatic factors. They comprise most importantly - the common circulation of the atmosphere, - the ocean currents, - the water cycles and, to a certain extent, also - the cycle of stones (see margin no. 29).

3. Climate Zones

Climate zones describe areas with similar climatic 97 conditions. Normally, they are belt-shaped. At the poles they are circular; sometimes they may also be interrupted.

We distinguish between the following climate zones:

62 - the tropics - the subtropics - moderate zones - the subpolar regions, and - the polar regions

In addition, the Earth is split up into types of climate and 98 climatic regions (see Fig. 14).

Polar Climate Summer Warm Continental Climate Humid Dry Trade Wind Climate Subpolar Climate Baltic Sea Climate Tropic Alternating Climate Sea Climate of the Western Sides Wintery Rain Climate of the Western Sides Equatorial Climate Transitional Climate Subtropical Eastern Side Climate High Mountain Climate Cool Continental Climate Dry Trade Wind Climate Types of Climate, by Neef (simplified) Fig. 14: The Earth’s Types of Climate

63 99 Below, you will find an exemplary presentation (schematic diagrams) of various types of climate, together with the climatic elements, the average temperature (red line), and the average amount of precipitations (blue area) over the year.

100 Zones of moderate climate are, among others, the western climate and the cool continental climate. They are mainly determined by extratropical westerly winds.

101 Western side climate (maritime, see Fig. 15) can be found - at the European Atlantic coast from northern Spain to Norway, - at the Pacific coast of Canada and the USA, - in southern Chilli, on Tasmania, and on the southern island of New Zealand. Temperatures: moderate, modest temperature variations. Maximum temperatures in summer.

Precipitations: perennial, often with a maximum in summer (or balanced over the whole year) Vegetation: summer-green, intensive agricultural use.

Fig. 15: Western Side Climate

Cool continental climate (see Fig. 16): 102

– only on the northern hemisphere, because on the southern hemisphere there are no larger landmasses - influence of cold high-pressures during winter - influence of heat-induced low pressures during summer

Temperatures: Low, moderate, strong to extreme variations between winter and summer Precipitations: All the year, with a maximum in summer Vegetation: Large coniferous forests/Taiga

Fig. 16: Cool Continental Climate (black line = zero degree Celsius)

The rainy winter climate and the subtropical eastern 103 climate are part of the subtropical climate which, during summer, is influenced by the subtropical high pressure belt, and during winter by extratropical westerly winds.

Rainy winter climate (see Fig. 17) can be found 104 - around the European Mediterranean sea (Mediterranean climate), - across the Middle East as far as to the Persian Gulf, - west of the Sierra Nevada (North America) - south of the Atacama desert (South America) - around the Cape region (South Africa), and in - South Australia.

Temperatures: Moderately warm, with a maximum in summer

66 Precipitations: In winter Vegetation: Sclerophyllous plants

Fig. 17: Rainy Winter Climate (light shading = dry season)

67 Besides that, there are also the climates of the 105 areas. We can find them in all climatic zones of mountain ranges. Mountain ranges have a big climate and often also serve as a climatic divide. decrease of temperature along with the increase forms various climate and vegetation levels on a (range). These levels are called altitudinal levels (see Fig. 18). In tropical mountain ranges (e.g. the Andes) such levels are extremely well-developed because at sufficient altitudes we can find all climatic zones here, from tropical to polar.

Snow line Tree line Wood line Icy Terrain

Snow Level Frosty Terrain

Alpine Level Cold Terrain

Mountain Level Moderately Warm Terrain

Hills Level Hot Terrain

Alps Andes

Fig. 18: The Altitudinal Zones of the Alps and of the Andes

106

68 Detailed information about the climatology of a mission area will be provided by the Institute for Military Topography (IMT) and by the Office for Topographical Information (OTI) of the German Bundeswehr.

69 III. Meteorology

1. General

107 The Earth is surrounded by a mantle of air, the so-called atmosphere (see Fig. 19). It consists of around four fifths of nitrogen, one fifth of oxygen and traces of noble gases.

70 Altitude (in km)

Thermosphere

Burning out shooting stars

Meteorites

Mesosphere Measurement Balloon

Thunderclouds Stratosphere

Troposphere

Fig. 19: The Structure of the Atmosphere

Weather is the perceptible short-term state of a part of the 108 atmosphere (troposphere) at a specific location of the Earth’s surface. It may appear in the form of sunshine, cloudiness, rain, wind, heat, and cold.

The weather can have a decisive impact on the success or 109 failure of a mission. All weather observations, weather forecasts and warnings should therefore be integrated into the military decision-making process. A soldier must be able to identify on its own and in time the objective hazards resulting from the observation and the likely development of a weather situation.

Therefore, knowledge about the forming and 110 development of the weather and the hazards resulting thereof are an important decision-making support during operations conducted in alpine terrain. Basic knowledge and own experience will make it possible to assess the local development of the weather. Without knowing the general weather situation, it will only be possible to describe the local weather situation for a period of several hours. For longer-term forecasts, meteorological advice (e.g. by the military weather service, the geophysical advisory service, the radio, the internet, etc.) will be necessary. This manual only covers the most important principles for local weather forecasts to be made in alpine terrain.

By means of the handheld weather measurement kit, data 111 like e.g. the wind force and the temperature can be determined

72 for a certain area and a certain period of time. They will then be summed up in a weather protocol (see ANNEX V)), which will then serve as a basis for the alpine situation picture.

2. Weather-determining Factors

3. Manifestations of Weather

Weather may manifest in the form of 112 – fog and clouds - air movements - weather fronts - katabatic winds and valley winds, and - thunderstorms

Fog is the result of small water droplets suspended in 113 the air, reducing the visibility to less than 1 km. In case of higher visibility we speak of haze. Ground fog is a stratus cloud resting on the ground. In this case, the fog is dissolved by high daytime temperatures coming from the ground. When the fog lifts or does not lie on the ground in the lowlands, we speak of high fog.

The various forms of clouds reflect characteristic 114 manifestations of the weather. The knowledge of the most important types of clouds (see Fig. 20) is a precondition for local weather assessment. You can describe clouds according to the following criteria:

- Composition of the clouds

73 - Basic forms of the clouds - Altitude of the cloud base

High High Clouds

high

Medium

L ow Hei ght km Fig. 20: Types of Clouds

115 Concerning the composition of clouds, we distinguish between - pure water clouds (consist only of water droplets) - mixed clouds (consist of water droplets and ice/snow crystals), and - ice clouds (consist only of ice crystals).

The type of composition is mainly a question of temperature.

116 Concerning the basic forms of the clouds, we distinguish between (see Fig. 20) - Cumulus forms (cumulus clouds), i.e. white, shining, sharply outlined bales of cloud, mainly vertically-shaped. High columns of cumulus clouds indicate instable layers of

74 air (e.g. showers, thunderstorms), whereas flat cumulus clouds indicate stable layers of air. - Stratus forms (stratus clouds) are most of the time grey or dark grey clouds or cloud banks characterized by horizontal layering. - Mixed forms result from cumulus or stratus clouds, most of the time in the form of so-called stratocumulus clouds. They are the result of pure cumulus clouds degenerating in order to stabilize themselves, or of stratus clouds becoming increasingly unstable as a result of vertical swelling.

As to the altitude of a cloud’s base (see Fig. 20), we 117 distinguish between – clouds at an altitude of more than 6,000 meters above sea level, - clouds at an altitude of more than 2,500 m above sea level, and - clouds at an altitude of less than 2,500 m above sea level

Types of clouds at an altitude of more than 6,000 m 118 above sea level: – High clouds (cirrus clouds) - High cumulus clouds (cirrocumulus), - High stratus clouds (cirrostratus)

High clouds are isolated clouds in the form of white, 119 delicate fibres or patches consisting of tiny ice crystals. Sometimes they have a silky shine. They may also be hook- shaped with gradual, veil-like condensation in their source region.

75 Criteria that can be used for local weather assessment: - Decreasing atmospheric pressure does not cause the dissolution of cirrus or condensation trails but only their displacement by means of wind. We can expect a deterioration of the weather conditions within the next 48 hours. – The dissolution of clouds and condensation trails is a clear indication that the weather will improve. – High clouds – unequally dispersed over the sky – mean high atmospheric pressure. – The quick dissolution of condensation trails is an indication that the weather is not going to change.

120 High cumulus clouds have the form of thin, shadeless patches or are fields of clouds consisting of very small, grainy ribbed or ball-shaped parts.

Criteria that can be used for local weather assessment: - High cumulus clouds develop during foehn periods or ahead of weather fronts. - When such a cloud condenses rapidly, a quick change of the weather is very likely.

121 High stratus clouds have the form of a translucent, whitish veil consisting of hair-like fibres. They cover the whole sky or parts of it. Most of the time, they form coloured rings (halos) around the sun or the moon. When veils of clouds condense and the air pressure decreases at the same time, this is a typical indication of bad weather.

76 122 Types of clouds at altitudes of more than 2,500 m above sea level: - Medium-high cumulus clouds (altocumulus) - Medium-high stratus clouds (altostratus)

Medium-high cumulus clouds are baldachins consisting 123 of equally distributed white or grey flocks, scale-shaped elements, bales and rolls.

Criteria that can be used for local weather assessment: – These clouds are mainly bad weather indicators, especially when some masses of clouds reach higher than their neighbours and when they appear together with other types of clouds. – Turret-shaped, medium-high cumulus clouds are typical indicators for upcoming thunderstorms. They appear in the sky mainly in the evening, when they grow up from a flat cloud cover. - Flock-shaped, medium-high cumulus clouds (fleecy clouds) tell us that thunderstorms can be expected in the course of the day. They typically appear at sunrise and dissolve after it. - Almond/cigar-shaped, medium-high cumulus clouds (“lenticular clouds” or “foehn fish clouds”) are typical clouds that appear together with foehn winds.

If the sky is completely covered with light grey medium- 124 high stratus clouds, the fibrous layer will remain thin enough to still let us see the blurred contours of the sun behind it. Contrary to high stratus clouds, medium-high stratus clouds do not have halos.

Criteria that can be used for local weather assessment: - Medium-high stratus clouds are indicators for a deterioration of the weather situation. - If the bases of such clouds are not structured and show shreds of clouds, rainy weather can persist for a period of several days.

Types of clouds at an altitude of less than 2,500m above sea 125 level: - Stratus rain cloud (nimbostratus) - Low stratus cloud - Low stratocumulus cloud - Cumulus/heap cloud

The nimbostratus cloud is a low, black-grey, monotonous 126 cloud cover causing heavy and continuous rain and snowfall. Below this layer, you can often see single shreds of drifting clouds. Normally, they remain until the bad weather has disappeared. The sun and the moon are fully concealed by them.

The low stratus cloud is a foggy, entirely grey layer with a 127 rather uniform base from which little precipitations in the form of drizzle or freezing rain may fall. Often, the base of this cloud is located at very low altitudes. Contrary to the fog, the low stratus cloud does not rest on the ground (high fog). It differs from the medium-high stratus cloud by its reduced luminosity, i.e. the contours of the sun and the moon are more blurred when you look through it. Low stratus clouds are bad

78 weather clouds causing long periods of rain (steady rain) and snowfall. 128 Low stratocumulus clouds belong to the most common types of clouds. They are characterized by thick bales and rolls often covering the whole sky.

Indicators for an improvement of the weather conditions are: - decreasing precipitations - unevenly broken-up could cover - increasing atmospheric pressure - north-westerly winds

129 Cumulus/heap clouds are isolated, dense and sharply limited bales of clouds with top sections taking the form of hills, domes, or turrets. While their base is rather dark and horizontal, the parts exposed to the sun are most of the time brilliant white.

130 Criteria that can be used for local weather assessment: - When low stratocumulus clouds are flatly swollen in the morning, reaching the highest degree in the afternoon and dissolve in the evening, we can expect good weather. - However, when they do not dissolve in the evening but get denser instead, the weather will change. - When they are strongly swollen and have cauliflower- shaped upper parts during the midday hours, showers and thunderstorms will come soon. - High cumulus clouds from southwest or northwest indicate the imminent arrival of wet and cool air masses, together with showers (cold front).

79 - Cumulus clouds, together with red sky in the morning and grey sky in the evening are most of the time indicators of bad weather.

Thunderclouds are dark and menacing clouds formed by 131 the development and transformation of well-developed cumulus/heap clouds. In case the upper section of the cloud takes the form of an anvil, most of the time thunderstorms are about to start, together with strong rain, hail, freezing rain, and gusts of wind.

Movements of the Air 132

We distinguish between vertical and horizontal movements. Vertical movements make rising air cool down by 1 degree every 100 meters. Sinking air warms up by the same amount. Above the base of a cloud, the cooling and warming up effect reduces to 0.6 degrees per 100 m. This is due to the heat that is emitted during the condensation process. (see margin no. 0).

Reasons for vertical air movements: 133 - Thermal lift: Because of strong solar radiation, warmed up air starts to rise on its own. This effect is mainly limited to the second half of the year. It is typically accompanied by cumulus clouds. - Air flowing over mountains: By flowing towards the slopes of the mountains, air is forced to rise.

80 - The lifting of cool masses of air (weather fronts): Warm, humid air is lighter than cold air. Thus, it is lifted when cold and warm airs collide. When a weather front hits a mountain range, it will cause intense vertical air movements together with lots of clouds and precipitations.

Horizontal air movements (wind) are – from a large scale 134 perspective - the result of an equalization of pressure between areas of high and areas of low pressure. A wind is named after the direction from which it blows.

135 Because of the rotation of the Earth, the air rotates as well (Coriolis force). In the northern hemisphere, the air of high pressure areas rotates right, that of low pressure areas rotates left (see Fig. 21).

Fig. 21: Air Movements (Northern Hemisphere)

136 The speed and the direction of a wind can be measured by means of an anemometer (three-cup anemometer) or estimated by using a wind vane (e.g. a thread, paper, grass).

Weather Fronts

137 The border area between different, large masses of air (differences in temperature and humidity) is called front. When cold air is moved towards warm air, we speak of a cold front; conversely, we speak of a warm front.

This term results from the temperature weather element, i.e. the air is significantly colder after a cold front and warmer after a warm front. Both fronts are associated with precipitations, wind, bad visibility, and, thus, with a number of hazards.

The Development of Cold/Warm Fronts 138

- Over polar masses of ice, the air cools down whereas over tropic regions it heats up.

– In moderate latitudes around the northern and the southern hemisphere, warm tropic air meets cold polar air. At the border area of this contact, which is called “polar front” or “frontal zone”, the air starts to swing due to the different speeds of winds and can even escalate to wave-like motions.

On the northern hemisphere, such motions are the reason for the cold air to spread towards the south and for the warm air to spread towards the north. Under the influence of distracting forces caused by the rotation of the Earth, the air masses start to swirl into each other, thereby causing a so- called low-pressure vortex.

In lowlands, cold fronts move faster than warm fronts. 139 In mountainous regions these differences disappear as, due the orographic influences (build-up of air pressure at the windward side, additional rising of air masses, and foehn at the downwind side), the fronts are - reinforced on the windward side and - weakened on the downwind side (lee side).

As a rule, we can say that cold fronts move much faster than warm fronts. After the passage of a front system, the weather usually improves.

140 In the area of the Alps, we mainly have a mixture of cold and warm fronts, the so-called occluded front.

Cold Front Warm Front – Atmospheric – Atmospheric pressure decreases pressure decreases – Increasing number Indications – Quick formation of of high clouds, cumulus/thunderclo after that of uds medium-high stratus clouds

83 Cold Front Warm Front - Deterioration of visibility – Drizzling – Sudden increase of atmospheric – Atmospheric pressure pressure starts to – Quick decrease of decrease slowly or temperature (usually remains unchanged by 10 degrees or – Temperature rises During the more) gradually passage of – Showery and – Transition to rain substantial the front (snow) and strong, precipitation persisting - Thunderstorms and precipitations hail, – Very bad visibility – Bad visibility – Wind freshens up. – Refreshing winds, up to gale force. – Atm. pressure starts

to fall – Atm. pressure – Temperature levels continues to rise off – Temperature levels – Precipitations off continue (steady – Showers decrease rain) and start to – Clouds start ripping After the cease only after up passage of hours - Typical cumulus – Stratus clouds the front clouds remain for a long – Very good visibility period of time – Gusty winds from – Continued bad north to northwest visibility, slowly – “Backside weather” improving after the passage of – “Warm sector” a front after passage of

84 Cold Front Warm Front front

After the passage of a cold front, a small zone of high 141 pressure may develop close to the ground. As such a high pressure area will only persist for a short period of time (16 to 36 hours) we call it an “interim high”. Attention: This may mislead you to a positive assessment of the weather situation. By local observation of the weather, we are not able to find out if it will improve for a longer period or time of if we are only exposed to a short-term interim high.

Foehn wind is typical for the Alpine region. It appears at 142 places where mountains force humid masses of air to rise and, thus, to cause precipitations. Foehn is a warm downslope wind. As the Alps, seen on a large scale, stretch from west to east, we normally speak of southern or northern foehn.

Southern foehn develops from southerly air currents and 143 causes massive clouds and substantial precipitations. Viewed from the north, a cloud bank forms over the main ridge of the Alps, also called “foehn wall”. We can often see receding clouds in these banks. Such places are called foehn gaps. The intense decrease of humidity on the windward side warms up the sinking air of the lee side and, thus, dissolves the clouds (see Fig. 22).

85 Altit ude

Foehn fish clouds (lenticular clouds)

Warming Cooling

Main Ridge of the Alps Fig. 22: The Foehn Wind

144 Before the foehn hits the bottom of the valley, the cold air has to have left the valley (via the lee side). Until this moment, the warm fall wind will continue blowing over the pool of cool air. When it reaches the bottom of the valley, we speak of a foehn breakthrough. In spring, foehn contributes to the quick melting of snow. However, it can also soak the snow and thus trigger avalanches.

145 We can find distinctive south foehn regions all over the year. A high moved to the east can already be enough to cause a foehn stream for the Northern Alps area.

146 Normally, foehn is an indicator of bad weather even though it is difficult to predict the end of foehn weather. Normally, it ends abruptly, giving place to bad weather. However, it will not always be possible to predict the exact time, even when we have good information about the general weather situation and observe the weather horizon carefully.

Mountain and Valley Winds

Thermals develop most strongly over slopes facing the sun. 147 During the morning until late afternoon, rising air pulls additional air upwards from low-lying areas: we also say that the valley wind blows uphill. Conversely, cooled air flows down the slope during the night. We call this phenomenon mountain wind. The stronger the solar radiation can hit the ground or can be reflected from it, the better this wind system will be developed. Stoppage or inversion of mountain/valley winds indicate the imminent arrival of a large-scale air current and are most of the time related to a changing of the weather situation.

Thunderstorms 148

Vertical air movements (rising air), together with high humidity, are the preconditions for the formation of a thunderstorm. Persistent updraft makes clouds rise to towers of up to several kilometres in height. Within these clouds, we have extreme updrafts/downdrafts which can lead to freezing rain (graupel), hail, or strong rain showers.

Thunderstorms are accompanied by electrical phenomena 149 (see margin no. 0). As to their development, we distinguish between heat thunderstorms and frontal thunderstorms. Whereas heat thunderstorms normally form during summer afternoons in local regions, frontal thunderstorms

87 may appear in the area of a weather front, mainly a cold front, and independently of the daytime/season.

4. Typical Weather Conditions of the Alps

150 - Northerly weather conditions: Cold front wavers from the polar region are moved towards the Alps where they accumulate on the northern side. At the same time, we have foehn wind on the southern side of the Alps. This leads to cold air intrusion in mid-May, June, and at the End of October (Frost Saints, Cold Sophia, Sheep’s Chill). - Easterly Weather Conditions: Continental air from the East is hot and dry in summer, but cold and often foggy in winter. On the south side of the Alps, we have low pressure weather with abundant precipitations. - Southerly Weather Conditions are an inversion of northerly weather conditions. - Westerly Weather Conditions These weather conditions are the most common ones. They can develop in any season. In winter, they come with relatively mild, and in summer with cold weather. Cold and damp air from the Atlantic is moved towards the Alps, causing abundant precipitations which are sometimes interrupted by short, brighter periods. During westerly weather conditions, several deep pressure systems may pass by north of the Alps. If they are far enough away, the Alpine region can be exposed to an unimpeded south- westerly air stream for a period of several days.

88 - Trough Weather Conditions: develop mainly in case of westerly weather. A clear indication for such weather is the fact that the atmospheric pressure will not rise, but continues to fall after the passage of a cold front. This phenomenon will be followed by worsening weather conditions together with abundant precipitations in the whole Alpine region. Prior to that, we will have typical foehn streams from south to southwest on the front side of the trough. – Genoa Low is also called “low pressure area over upper Italy” and constitutes a particularity for the Alpine region: Mostly as the result of a cold air intrusion from the north into the Mediterranean region, a small but weather-intensive low pressure area forms in the Gulf of Genoa. Its influence ranges from northern Italy to and even beyond the main ridge of the Alps. In case a Genoa Low moves across the Alps or moves north at the eastern fringe of the Alps, it will cause heavy precipitations in these regions.

5. Weather Rules

For operations in mountainous terrain, we need to know 151 the general weather situation. This information is provided by e.g. military/civilian weather services, the radio, daily newspapers, etc. Large-scale weather forecasts have a high probability of occurrence. Local and especially altitude-dependent influences of high mountain regions, however, can influence the course of the weather in an unpredictable way. General weather rules may help in this case. The more weather indications point in the

89 same direction, the higher the probability of occurrence of a forecast will be.

Fair weather indicators: 152 – Strong difference between morning and evening temperatures. Dew in the morning. Mornings are very cold. - Fog in the morning, dissolving soon after sunset - Single, brightly white cumulus clouds with smooth edges in a clear, blue sky (can flatten in the evening and resemble to lenticular clouds) - Haze in the valleys, higher regions are clearly distinguishable - Red evening sky - Calming down wind turning from northwest to west and maybe east in the northern Alpine region (this indication is especially reliable when the atmospheric pressure rises at the same time) - Twinkling stars (in winter), together with north-easterly winds (causes drop of temperature) - Slow increase of the atmospheric pressure (constant increase over a period of several days); quick increase of air pressure most of the time only indicates an interim high. - Development or persistence of local wind systems (valley winds during the day and mountain winds during the night and in the morning) - Vertically rising smoke - Quickly dissolving condensation tracks which, however, are not displaced by upper winds.

153 Bad weather indicators:

90 - Fleecy clouds, coming in from the west after a longer period of fair weather - Ice clouds or thin stratus clouds appear and condense at several altitudes - Lenticular clouds in the northern Alpine region, followed by clouds from west to northwest - Clearing up in the valley, decrease of visibility at higher altitudes - Distant mountains seem to come nearer and are taking on a bluish-black coloration - Red morning sky - Local wind systems are stopped and inverted (mountain/valley winds). - No wind during precipitations, which indicates persistently bad weather (warm front, steady rain) - Persistent low atmospheric pressure - Dropping atmospheric pressure with clouds from west to southwest - Atmospheric pressure continues to fall (after the arrival of a cold front; trough weather conditions) - Quickly dropping atmospheric pressure, which is an indicator for strong winds and thunderstorms - Colourful halos around the sun and the moon (slow deterioration of the weather situation) - Condensation tracks persist for a long period of time and are displaced by upper winds

Indicators of Thunderstorm: 154 – Fluffy and small cumulus clouds appear in the form of planes or ribbons during the morning hours - Cumulus clouds, developing quickly during midmorning

91 - Cold front, together with clouds (cold front thunderstorm), especially during the warm season. Sometimes it takes only 30 minutes from the first indicators to a fully developed thunderstorm - Development of typical thunderclouds, forming an icy umbrella (“anvil”) - Rolling thunder (when the thunderstorm is 1 km away, 3 seconds elapse between the perception of a lightning and the thunder belonging to it) - Perception of electrical phenomena like the bristling of hairs, the humming of metal objects or visible electrical discharge (Saint Elmo’s fire). This is a situation where lightnings are most likely to strike, even without typical thunderclouds.

D. SNOW AND AVALANCHE THEORY

I. Snow Theory

1. General

155 Numerous mission areas are covered with snow for a longer period of time due to locale climate conditions and/or their altitude above sea level. Snow impedes movements or requires special equipment. On the other hand, certain parts of the terrain can only be used when there is snow. Various altitudes and changes of the snow cover also lead to a constant change of landforms. The operational conditions set by snow require additional assessments during the MDMP as to specific command and

92 control as well as mountain-related technical measures (see chapter G: Military Mountaineering)

156 When there is a snow cover, the risk of avalanches and of slipping off is very high, independent of the season. In order to be able to assess the danger of avalanches and to apply adequate risk management, all soldiers qualified for mountain operations show have basic knowledge on the characteristics of snow and ice.

2. The Development of Snow

157 Snow is a form of frozen water and appears either as a precipitation or sediment. Preconditions for the development of snow crystals: - Temperature lower than 0 degree Celsius - Sufficient humidity - Existence of condensation cores or ice formation cores (e.g. fine dust, salt crystals).

For the development of snow, the following changes of the 158 aggregate states of water are of importance (see Abb. 23): - Humidification: Water is transformed to water vapour (transition of liquid to gaseous state) - Condensation: Water vapour is transformed to water (transition of gaseous to liquid state) - Sublimation: Water vapour is directly transformed into ice or vice versa (solid state becomes gaseous and gaseous state becomes solid) - Freezing: Water is transformed into ice (liquid state becomes solid)

93 - Melting: Ice is transformed into water (solid state becomes liquid)

solid solid (ice) (ice)

liquid (water)

Abb. 23: Change of the Aggregate States of Water

When snow develops, water drops freeze or water vapour 159 sublimates to form snow crystals. These processes either take place in the atmosphere (clouds, snowfall) or at the surface of the Earth (frost, hoar frost) 160 Snowflakes consist of several frozen snow crystals hooked onto each other or frozen together. Snow crystals (see Fig. 24) have a hexagonal structure. Up to now, more than 4,000 different crystal shapes have been detected.

Fig. 24: Snow Crystals (Examples) By courtesy of: © Province of TYROL, Avalanche Warning Service

95 The basic shape of a snow crystal (see Fig. 25) depends 161 on temperature and humidity. Thus, - from minus 6 to minus 10 degrees, pillar shaped crystals, - from minus 10 to minus 15 degrees, plate-shaped crystals, and - from minus 15 to minus 20 degrees, star-shaped crystals are formed.

96 Base c-axis = main axis a-axes = minor axis

Snow Star (Dendrite)

Plate/Board

Column/Prism

Barbell

Cup

Fig. 25: Basic Shapes of Snow Crystals

3. Types and Characteristics of Snow

162 Snowfall, wind deposits and hoarfrost form a snow cover (see Fig. 26) which is composed of various types and layers of snow.

Surface Frost

New Snow

Frozen Snow

Old Snow

Depth Hoar

Soil

Fig. 26: Snow Cover

Basically, we differentiate the various types of snow by 163 - age - humidity - degree of transformation, and - density of crystal structure

Snow which 164 - derives from one precipitation period, - is not older than 3 days and - still has a clearly visible original crystal structure is called new snow.

Snow which does not meet these criteria is called old snow. 165

98 Below, you will find a list of original types of snow. Those 166 types of snow which have gone through a transformation process (metamorphosis) will be covered in subsection 4 (“The Metamorphosis of Snow”). Snow can be formed by precipitations (atmospheric snow) or by accumulation (forming of hoarfrost).

167 Types of atmospheric snow: - Wild snow - Dry, loose snow - Cloggy snow - Graupel

168 Wild snow is dry, loose snow that falls at low temperatures (less than -20 degrees) and when there is no wind (lull). The branching of wild snow crystals is clearly visible and has hardly any interconnection. Wild snow is not very dense and most of the time it falls in small quantities.

169 Dry, loose new snow (also called powder snow) falls at temperatures below the freezing point and when there is no wind. Most of the time, its original crystals remain visible and have little interconnection. Powder snow has low density.

170 Cloggy snow is wet new snow. Normally, it falls in the form of big flakes and at temperatures of around 0 degree Celsius. It is denser than dry new snow. Due to its high content of moisture and, thus, its higher weight, it settles and binds more quickly.

99 171 Graupel (also called snow pellets) are formed when water drops freeze onto snow and ice crystals while they are in the air, thus forming small balls containing air. These balls have hardly any connection among each other and therefore can form dangerous “ball bearings” in the snow cover.

Snow developing from frost production is called 172 - frost or - hoar frost

Frost forms on the surface of a cold soil or snow cover or 173 on solid objects when the air cools down below the sublimation point. Frost that forms during clear, cold nights is called surface frost.

Hoar frost forms when over-chilled water droplets freeze 174 onto solid objects under the influence of wind. Hoar frost grows against the wind direction. Snow-covered layers of frost have very little connection to adjacent layers. They form a weak layer which is dangerous and hardly detectible.

4. The Metamorphosis of Snow

From generation to melting, snow crystals are 175 constant transformation, which is called metamorphosis (see Fig. 27). These processes take place during snowfall, but also when there are no precipitations due to constant changes in the snow layers. This is the reason why the stability of the snow cover is subject to constant changes.

100 New Snow Ice and Firn

Churlish Snow Melted Forms

Round Grain Angular Shapes Cup Crystals Snow

Fig. 27: The Transformation of Snow Crystals

176 We distinguish between the following types of transformation: - mechanic transformation - degrading transformation - restorative transformation, and - melting transformation

177 During a mechanic transformation, the branches of the snow crystals break off, thus diminishing the size of the crystals. The volume of the crystals decreases ad their density increases, thus connecting snow to them.

101 Mechanic transformation may occur due to the snow’s own weight and wind. Demolition works, snowcat grooming and frequent crossing on skis can also cause mechanical transformation. Mechanic transformation by wind can take place during snowfall (blowing snow) or by displacing snow from the ground (drifting snow), even over long distances. The mechanical forces of drifting snow are stronger than those of blowing of snow. Therefore, their destructive force on snow crystals is higher, causing the condensation of snow.

Mechanic transformation creates: 178 - Wind-driven snow: This is snow transported by wind. It has less plasticity and can transfer mechanical tensions via a larger surface. At the weather side wind-driven snow often is very solid; at the lee side it is less solid, and the snow cover normally is thicker. - Cornices are formed by wind-driven snow. – Avalanche snow is snow deposited by avalanches. During the descent of an avalanche, a very strong mechanical transformation takes place. When the avalanche stops, the sintering process starts and the snow gets extremely hard.

Degrading transformation reshapes hexagonal new snow 179 crystals to granular old snow. Degrading transformation starts immediately after the deposition of the snow. At the beginning of this procedure, we can still original forms of the crystals. The interconnection crystals is low, and the crystal structure is felted. crystals transform to sphere-shaped objects and

102 interstitials are getting smaller. The snow cover solidifies (see Fig. 28).

Fig. 28: Degrading Transformation

103 180 Degrading transformation is temperature-dependent. Heat can accelerate, cold can delay it. High snow pressures (big amounts of snow) can also accelerate it (combination of mechanical and degrading transformation).

181 Degrading transformation creates old snow, which is divided into

- fine-grained old snow, which we mainly find in the upper layers of the snow cover; grains normally smaller than 2 mm, and - coarse-grained old snow, which we mainly find in the deeper layers of the snow. Normally, these grains are bigger than 2 mm.

182 Restorative transformation forms, independently of the original form the crystals, at first angular crystals and afterwards cup-shaped crystals. Restorative transformation requires a temperature gradient (difference in temperature with reference to the depth of snow) between the soil and the surface of the snow cover, or between the different layers of the snow cover. Restorative transformation starts at a temperature gradient of more than one degree Celsius across a snow layer of 10 cm. The bigger the difference in temperature, the stronger is the restorative transformation.

183 Water vapour rises from warmer layers of snow to higher (colder) layers, where it sticks to the snow crystals and freezes, thus making them bigger. At first, the crystals get an angular shape (2 to 4 mm). At the end of this process, they get

104 the shape and size of cup crystals (see Abb. 29). These crystals are loosely interconnected and form the so-called depth hoar. At layers where vaporisation takes place, the volume of the crystals decreases, thus forming hollows.

Abb. 29: Restorative Transformation

Depth hoar especially develops 184 - when little amounts of snow fall on warm soil, followed by persistent cold (autumn). - when there is little snow but severe cold - in case of high temperature gradients and - in snowbound, insulating interlayers (frozen snow, ice lamella) of the snow cover.

The transport of water vapour is especially efficient in 185 layers of loose snow that contains a high amount of air (high air permeability) as it provides better circulation for the water vapour. Hollows (e.g. stone blocks, low vegetation) can increase this effect.

When the snow is well solidified or e.g. groomed by a 186 snowcat, the circulation of water vapour will be difficult and much lesser quantities of depth hoar will develop.

105

Layers of depth hoar that were formed by restorative 187 transformation cannot be seen from the surface of the snow cover and can only be detected by means of a snow profile (see section N “Assessment of Avalanche Risks”). Due to the size of the grains and the weak cohesion, depth hoar is a potentially weak layer.

106 188 A melting transformation (see Fig. 30) creates round, sphere-shaped forms, independently of the original form of the crystals. It starts when the temperature of the snow cover gets higher than 0 degrees Celsius. Melting transformation can take place because of heat (sunshine, warm fall wind) and/or moisture (rain, wet snow).

Pore Angle Capillary Water Tension Heat

Heat Heat

2. Melting of 3. Capillary 1. Final edges and forces/stability stabilisation: corners increase Water drainage Fig. 30: Melting Transformation

189 Because of the subsequent influence of cold weather, the snow cover will harden in varying degrees. Further influence of heat will again soften it.

190 Melting transformation forms

- crusted snow - spring snow/poor snow - firn snow, and - firn mirror.

107 Crusted snow is snow with a hardened surface. We 191 distinguish between: - wind crust (is formed by wind together with heat and humidity) - melt-freeze crust (is formed by melting and subsequent freezing of snow), and - breakable crust (is not able to bear loads).

Snow-covered layers of crust form a vapour, water and 192 temperature barrier and normally are very good sliding surfaces.

Spring snow (also called “poor snow”) consists of rough- 193 grained forms of melted snow crystals which have lost their consistence because of their high content of moisture. Spring snow has a massive moistening effect on the whole snow cover.

Firn snow is the end product of melting transformation. It 194 consists of rounded, condensed snow crystals.

Firn mirror is a thin, shiny, not load-bearing skin of ice 195 covering the surface of the snow.

5. Movements and Types of Stability within the Snow Cover

The snow cover is not a stable mass. Type of terrain and 196 ongoing transformation cause a constant movement of single layers of the whole mass and lead to stress in the snow cover.

Due to its plastic (formable) characteristics, snow can 197 absorb and compensate slowly increasing stress up to a certain

108 degree. However, snow reacts recalcitrantly to sudden external forces (e.g. skiers, detonations) and the abrupt increase of stress resulting thereof and eventually breaks.

198 The plasticity of snow depends on - the type of snow - its density - the air temperature and - the snows history of loads (quick – fast exposure to loads, first load, repeated loads).

Movements of and within the Snow Cover

199 Gravity causes movements of and within the snow cover, i.e. the snow cover may - settle - creep, or - glide.

200 A snow cover settles when the depth of the snow decreases due to an increase of its weight caused by metamorphosis.

201 A snow cover creeps (see Abb. 31) in sloping terrain when the lower layers of snow stick to the ground and the upper layers slowly move downslope.

202 Snow glides (see Abb. 31) when the whole snow cover moves downslope on a most of the time smooth or wet surface.

203 Creeping and gliding of the snow cover always take place in combination with its settling.

109 Creeping Gliding

Abb. 31: Creeping and Gliding of Snow Covers Its inner cohesion and the unevenness of the soil have a 204 contrary effect on the movement of the snow cover. Due to - changes in steepness - different depths of snow - different cohesiveness of the snow, and - irregular friction and connection with the soil, creeping and gliding movements may differ in speed, causing tensile, compressive and shear stress (see Fig. 32).

Fig. 32: Types of Stress within the Snow Cover

110 Stability of a Snow Cover

The maximum amount of stress a snow cover can absorb is 205 called stability (see Fig. 33). It is composed of

- basic stability (basal shear stability) and - marginal stability (compressive stability, tensile stability, and marginal shear stability).

Basic Stability Basal Shear Stability

Marginal Stability Tensile Stability Marginal Shear Stability Compressive Stability

Fig. 33: Stability of the Snow Cover

206 Basic stability we call the static friction between the layers of the snow cover and the soil. It does not depend on the hardness of the layers, but on their interconnection. Basic stability is an important prerequisite for the assessment of the avalanche situation. It can be determined by means of an analysis of the snow cover (see section N “Assessment of Avalanche Risk”)

111 207 The marginal stability is composed of tensile stability, compressive stability and marginal shear stability. These types of stability depend on the hardness of the relevant layers.

112 II. Avalanche Theory

1. General

An avalanche is a rapid flow of snow down a sloping 208 surface, including the whole process of movement, i.e. from its triggering to its standstill.

The creation of an avalanche depends on the following 209 factors:

- Weather - Terrain - Composition of snow cover - Additional loads (e.g. human beings, animals, detonations, shock waves and acoustic waves produced by helicopters)

The influence of these factors may vary and will be 210 covered in detail in section N: “Assessment of the Risk of Avalanches”

An avalanche may be triggered by - automatic triggering (spontaneous triggering): the pressure on the snow cover (increase of its own weight or of fresh-fallen snow) or the stress within the snow cover increases to a point where its stability is no longer sufficient enough to retain the snow pack. - an outside factor: additional load (e.g. skiers, shock/sound waves, demolitions) is stronger than the stability of the snow cover.

113 - remote factors: the event that triggers the avalanche and the sliding surface is separated from it (at a different location)

114 2. Types of Avalanches and their Characteristics

We distinguish avalanches according to the international 211 avalanche classification (see table below) and according to their external characteristics. Mixed types are possible.

International Avalanche Classification Additional Characteristics Zone Criterion Name Breaking Starting from one away from Form of point: a line: avalanche – Loose snow – Slab fracture avalanc avalanche he on the ground: Zone of sliding Within the snow cover: – Ground – Surface avalanche surface avalanc he

Avalanche Starting Zone Starting Avalanche Wet: Wetness of the Dry: – Wet sliding snow – Dry-snow avalanche snow avalanch e Ravine-

Flat: shaped: Form of - Unconfined avalanche track Channelled Track avalanche

Avalanche Avalanche avalanche

115 Gliding Snow cloud, drifting along the Form of through the air: surface: movement – Dust avalanche Flowing avalanche Fine (less Surface rough (more than 0,3 than 0,3 roughness of a m): m): – Coarse deposits – Fine deposit deposits Wet: Wetness of Dry: – Wet deposit – Dry deposit deposit

Deposition Area Deposition External material in Existing: None: – Mixed deposits – Pure deposit (stones, dirt, deposit trees, etc.)

Loose Snow Avalanche

212 A loose snow avalanche (see Fig. 34) is characterized by - a dot-shaped fracture - little with, and - a pear-shaped track

116 Dot-shaped fracture on the surface of the snow cover

Created by transfer of impact energy

Fig. 34: Loose Snow Avalanche

117 213 Normally, the inclination of the slope on which the fracture takes place is more than 40 degrees. For loose snow avalanches to be formed, the uppermost layer of the snow must be of little stability and not compact. Dry, loose snow avalanches most of the time only carry the uppermost layer of snow with them. Wet loose snow avalanches form from old snow. The weak cohesion is the result of a water film that is created around the snow crystals.

Slab Avalanche

214 For soldiers, slab avalanches pose a far greater threat than loose snow avalanches. Slab avalanches (see Fig. 35) are characterized by – a linear fracture (fracture crown) running perpendicular to the sliding surface - lateral flanks (boundary surfaces) - a stauchwall, and - a cloddy snow structure

118 Non-slipped off Fracture Crown layers of snow Perpendicular to the slope

Lateral Flanks Sliding Surface (parallel to the slope)

Stauchwall

Avalanche

Fig. 35: Slab Avalanche

The forming of a slab avalanche requires the following 215 factors: - one layer of consolidated snow able to transfer forces over larger distances - a weak layer of snow - an appropriate slope inclination (most of the time, slab avalanches occur on slopes with an inclination from 30 to 45 degrees) - a zone with little basal stability and a size of at least 100m2 or more.

When all these factors are given and the snow cover is 216 additionally loaded, or weakened by a reduction of its stability, a fissure (primary fissure) will expand parallel to the slope within fractions of a second. With the increasing expansion of the primary fissure, further fissures appear at the edge of the

119 slab avalanche. This is a process you most of the time will not see nor hear. When a slab avalanche starts to move, it moves abruptly and as a whole, achieving a high speed already at the beginning.

The Speed and Pressure of Avalanches

217 The speed of an avalanche depends on

- the steepness of its track - the wetness of the snow - the amount of snow - its friction on the ground, and - the landform

Types of avalanches and their speed: – Wet flow avalanche: 10 to 20 m/s (36 to 72 km/h), – Dry flow avalanche: 20 to 40 m/s (72 to 144 km/h), – Dust avalanche: 20 to 70 m/s (72 to 252 km/h).

218 Contrary to the slab avalanche, the speed of a loose snow avalanche only increases when higher amounts of snow start to move and friction forces have been overcome.

With increasing speed of flow (10 m/s and higher), snow dust and, thus, mixed forms of avalanches appear. In case of a further increase of the speed of the avalanche, the amount of dust increases as well, forming dust avalanches.

120 The pressure of an avalanche depends on 219 - its speed, - the density of the avalanche snow, and - the type of movement (dust/flow avalanche).

On the front side of an avalanche, a shock wave is created. 220 However, the destructive force of the ensuing avalanche is even higher than that of the shock wave. The force of the shock wave preceding a dust avalanche is approximately 5 kN/m².

The forces caused by an avalanche are directly related to 221 the force of the moving snow masses. The form of the obstacle an avalanche encounters is decisive for its effects (amount of destructions). Whereas dust avalanches may inflict damages to persons, buildings and nature by means of their shock waves, flow avalanches cause damages mainly because of the mechanic pressure of their masses of snow.

Depending on the type of avalanche, it can create a 222 pressure of up to 1,000 kN per m2 (100 tons/m2). In fact, a pressure of 1kN (100 kg/m²) or higher can push open a window, and a pressure of around 1,000 kN/m2 can damage or destroy concrete buildings.

Other Types of Avalanches

Besides snow avalanches 223 - debris avalanches

121 - mudslides, and - mixed types of avalanches can occur.

224 The assessment of the danger of debris avalanches or mudslides requires profound geological knowledge and will not be covered further in this manual.

E. MOUNTAIN HAZARDS

I. General

225 The hazards of mountainous terrain constitute increased challenges for the leaders and their soldiers during training and operations. Exact knowledge of these hazards, their reasons, forms of appearance, and effects as well as appropriate behaviour when encountering them will contribute considerably to protect soldiers from casualties and damages and to fulfil the mission assigned.

226 We distinguish between the following hazards: - Objective hazards (caused by the nature of mountainous terrain) - Subjective hazards, caused by human misbehaviour

Because of subjective misbehaviour, objective hazards are often overlooked or caused additionally (see Fig. 36)

122 Objective Subjective (Environment) (Environment)

Grass Phys. Fitness Skills Debris Health

Rock Stamina Equipment Patience/Courage Mountain Fear Rockfall Hazards

Ice/Icefall Weather Knowledge Experience Glacier Planning Trail/Route Navigation Firn/Snow

Fig. 36: Mountain Hazards

II. Objective Hazards

1. Terrain Conditions

Knowledge about the prevailing type of rock allows us to 227 deduce the stability and the viability of terrain. Large, steep walls of rock traversed by vertical cracks and chimneys are indicators for hard rock, whereas reddish or yellowish coloration found in limestone may indicate fragile rock.

Grassy slopes can become dangerous when they are wet or 228 covered with hoarfrost or snow. In order to minimize the risk

123 of accidents, it may be convenient and necessary to use crampons.

229 Steep slopes interspersed with grass and covered with bushes and creeping pines – also called ledges – are difficult to be assessed as to their stability. When walking on such terrain, check the handholds and footholds for stability.

230 Cirques, couloirs and moraines mainly consist of stone blocks and debris. Depending on the steepness of the terrain, there may be risks of falling/rockfall.

2. Rockfall

231 The main reason for falling rocks is their weathering due to variations in temperature. Water penetrates rocks, freezes below 0° Celsius, thus increasing its volume and causing a so- called “frost wedging”.

232 Further reasons for rockfall: – Persons and animals dislodging stones – Wind, rain and meltwaters setting loose stones into motion – Lightening strokes hitting rock jags/buttes, thus splitting off big blocks of rock – geological processes, or – the melting of permafrost.

233 Indicators for increased danger of rockfall: – Pale (fresh) pieces of rock located on scree at the foot of the rock wall and on horizontal ledges, terraces and platforms.

124

– Pointed rock waste cones at the exit of gorges and couloirs – Rock covered with fine dust and pale patches (frequent rockfall) – Traces of impact of rock on snow/firn fields.

Beside the identification of local risks of rockfall, we also 234 have to consider further factors like e.g. the weather and the time of the day/year.

There is an increased risk - in spring, when the snow starts to melt - in autumn, due to differences in temperature between day and night - in case of sunshine after a cold night - during heavy rain, and - when there is strong wind and storm

Preventive measures in case of danger of rockfall: 235 - Put on the helmet in time (helmet has to meet EN 12492) - Avoid areas of likely rockfall, if possible - Cross couloirs and gorges one by one - Keep distances between soldiers short when ascending/descending on scree - observe the terrain in upslope direction - use natural cover - choose belay stations carefully, handle ropes carefully

125 236 Action to be taken in case of rockfall: – If possible, stop dislodged rocks before they are getting faster – Use natural cover and dead space in case of rockfall – If possible, protect head and neck additionally with the rucksack – Warn your colleagues by crying “Rock!”

3. Risk of Falling

237 These consequences of a fall depend on the inclination of the terrain, the terrain conditions, the path of the fall and further factors, and can cause severe or deadly injuries.

238 Possible reasons for falling: – Inattention (stumbling) – Exhaustiveness – Slippery ground – Bad weather or lighting conditions – Rockfall – Lightning strike – The breaking away of handholds, footholds, or hooks

239 Preventive measures: – Pay attention when moving, climbing and gripping – Be familiar with safety techniques – Choose a route that fits to your personal capabilities

126 4. Dolines

Dolines are bowl, funnel or chimney-shaped hollows in the 240 limestone, formed by water erosion. We typically find them in karst areas. Especially small and covered dolines (e.g. by vegetation or snow) are difficult to locate and therefore very dangerous.

5. Water

Mountain brooks and gorges are filled with different 241 amounts of water, depending on the season and on the weather. After strong rainfall, the amount of water can increase rapidly and strongly, thus becoming an unsurmountable obstacle. The bottom of a brook and its banks are often covered with algae and mosses and therefore very slippery. Falls can cause minor to deadly injuries. You therefore have to assess how to cross a body of water and which safety precautions you need to take. Furrows and chimneys can turn into torrents within a short period of time during or after heavy rainfall. You should therefore avoid them or leave them in time.

6. Mudslides

Mudslides occur in steep terrain and are the result of 242 increased induction of water. They are streams of mud and debris flowing downhill at high speed. Mudslides represent a danger mainly for march routes and for infrastructure.

127 243 Preconditions for the development of mudslides: - Little amount of hardened material - Sufficient steepness - Long-lasting, intense precipitations or induction of meltwater - A sliding layer 7. Snowfields

244 Snowfields normally only constitute a risk during the morning hours when they are hard frozen. If you are not able to absorb a fall you can be seriously injured. Walking on hard frozen snowfields may require the use of crampons, ice axes and rope belaying.

In case these assets are not available, you should - bypass snowfields or - cut stairs and handholds into them.

As the day goes by, the air will get warmer and the snowfields may become soft, thus allowing walking on them.

8. Avalanches

245 Avalanches are a permanent danger emerging from snow- covered terrain. When planning and executing military tasks, the assessment of avalanche risks is of decisive importance. The assessment of dangers coming from avalanches will be covered in detail in section N of this manual (“Assessment of avalanche risks”).

128 9. Cornices

Cornices are formed by wind deposition on the downwind 246 side of exposed ridges and can overhang up to several meters. They may break off due to their own weight, the influence of heat or when loaded. Often, the fracture line is not placed directly above the ridgeline, but up to several meters away from it on the allegedly safer side.

We can deduce the existence of a cornice by - locating other cornices existing in the same region - determining the prevailing wind direction - identifying terrain on a map that might favour the forming of a cornice - locating a fracture or a gap along a ridge (cornice gap).

Action to be taken when walking on a cornice: 247 - Keep long intervals between soldiers. - Cross the fracture area one by one; secure with rope if necessary. - Do not stop on cornices and do not reduce intervals between soldiers. - Always move below the likely fracture line. - Do not step on the side part of a cornice. - Do not follow existing tracks blindly.

Action to be taken when surmounting a cornice: 248 - Walk on the least protruding part of the cornice - If necessary, try to climb through it (rope belaying!).

129

10. Crevasses

249 Crevasses are dangerous for soldiers. By knowing the factors that lead to the forming of a crevasse and by intensive studying of the map, you can identify possible danger areas.

250 At the end of a warm summer with poor precipitation, glaciers are usually free of snow. Crevasses are visible, and dangers easier to identify. In late winter and during spring, glaciers are relatively safe to walk on. These are the periods where crevasses, due to snowfall in winter and snow drift, are covered with a thick layer of snow which, to a great extent, is hardened by freezing and melting processes.

Crevasses are most dangerous when - they are hidden under a thin snow cover - their edges are corniced, and - they are difficult to identify because of bad visibility (e.g. fog, diffuse light, drifting snow).

251 In order to identify indicators for crevasses, you need much experience. Indicators for covered crevasses are: - slight dents in the snow, - different colorations of the snow, - fracture lines on the surface of the snow.

130 Action to be taken when walking on glaciers: 252 - Choose the right time of the day and consider the weather (e.g. heat, rain, and foehn). – Use ropes. – Maintain proper intervals between the people. – Do not reduce intervals during halt rests. – Cross crevasses perpendicular to their trace. – When descending by ski, choose a moderate speed and a safe style. – Do not unfasten the skis. – In critical situations, follow the track of the person in front of you.

NOTE: When the risk of an avalanche is higher than the risk to fall into a crevasse, do not rope up (do not form a rope party).

Action to be taken when crossing a snow bridge: 253 – Probe it with an ice pick/ski stick first. – Have only one secured soldier cross the bridge at a time. – Step carefully. – Cross critical parts by crawling.

11. Fractured Glaciers and Falling Ice

The movement of ice in fractured glaciers is incalculable. 254 You cannot predict the time when ice walls or ice towers (seracs) will collapse. In fractured glaciers, the risk of falling ice is permanent, especially during heat, rain, and storms.

131 255 When ice breaks off from frozen waterfalls, fractured glaciers or hanging glaciers, or ice towers fall over, an icefall takes place. It can trigger avalanches. Icefalls can occur independently of the temperature, the time of the day, and the time of the year.

256 Preventive measures to be taken in case of risk of icefall - Put on the helmet (has to meet EN 12492) in time. - Identify areas threatened by icefall and bypass or avoid them. - Cross endangered terrain as quickly as possible. - Observe the terrain in upslope direction.

12. Changes of Weather

257 The types of weather are as multifaceted as the hazards for soldiers resulting thereof. In mountainous terrain, changes of weather occur often and by surprise. They show much bigger contrasts than those occurring in the valley. Hazards caused by changes of weather may develop in case of - fog, - a sudden fall in temperature, and - a thunderstorm

258 Thus, the local, and especially the altitude-dependent influences of high alpine areas can have an unpredictable influence on the on-site weather. Therefore, it is indispensable to - observe the weather - identify indicators of a change, and

132 - initiate necessary action in time.

Fog or low-hanging clouds often develop quickly and 259 therefore give us little time for appropriate measures. This can result in severe consequences as to mission accomplishment.

Consequences and side effects of foggy weather conditions: - Reduced visibility - Difficult navigation - Difficulties in estimating distances, slope inclinations and differences in altitude - Soaked clothing - Increased risk of slipping on wet rock or grass - Icing

Measures to be taken in case of fog: 260 - Determine your own location in time. - Move by using the map, the compass, the altimeter and the GPS set. - Mark the return route. - Reduce intervals among soldiers; get roped up if necessary. - Set up bivouacs in time. - When you get lost, return to the last known location.

A sudden fall in temperature is a quick deterioration of 261 the weather with partially significant impacts on the physical and psychic condition of the soldiers. Wet and icy conditions can abruptly increase difficulties of mission accomplishment.

133

Indicators for a sudden fall in temperature: – Quickly decreasing temperature – Stormy winds – Low drifting clouds; torn, dark clouds together with starting rain - Hailstorm - Starting snowfall, which can become a snowstorm within a short period of time and can cause icy rocks, frostbite and difficulties in navigation

134 Action to be taken in case of a sudden fall in 262 temperature: – If the mission permits, refrain from or cancel difficult and long activities. – Return to your accommodation or set up a bivouac in time. – Keep cool, act considerately.

Thunderstorms pose a serious threat to soldiers operating 263 in mountainous terrain as they may have to remain at exposed locations for longer periods of time (e.g. ridges or summits).

Action to be taken in case of a thunderstorm or a 264 lightning strike: - Avoid summits, ridges, plateaus or other exposed terrain, or move away from them (depending on the mission). - Lay down your weapons, metal objects and wet ropes in a sufficient distance (approx. 25 m). - Keep as much distance as possible from wire ropes and artificial belay systems. - When belaying yourself on wire ropes, do that at a right angle if possible. - Avoid water-bearing gorges, couloirs, brooks and wet caves. - Always belay yourself when moving in terrain where there is a risk of falling. - If possible, go to protecting places (e.g. vehicles, houses, sufficiently big and dry caves or overhanging rock).

135 - During a thunderstorm, assume a squatting position; if possible, use an insulating sitting mat. - Keep bigger intervals between soldiers when moving.

136 III. Subjective Hazards

1. Physical Factors

Mountain operations require soldiers with stamina and 265 good to excellent physical fitness. Soldiers should be able to fulfil tasks without problems in their current status of health, physical fitness and acclimatisation, however considering a certain safety reserve in order to minimize hazards. It is not always possible to provide soldiers help from outside (e.g. in case of a sudden fall in temperature). Thus, it may be necessary to provide aid to sick, injured, or exhausted soldiers, or to evacuate them by own forces. This will not only weaken the physical reserves of the healthy soldiers, but also retain forces needed at another place. Thus, preparations and training always have to be tailored to the specific requirements of a mountain operation.

2. Psychological Factors

Operations and training in mountainous terrain often 266 mean to be able to survive and fight on one’s own. Mountain operations require physical endurance and hardness against oneself. Courage and the controlled handling of stress and fear are already required during military mountaineering and military combat training. A realistic self-assessment and an appropriate willingness to take risks will help you to be successful in mountainous terrain.

137 3. Preparation and Planning

267 Each mountain operation needs serious preparation. Unplanned operations may fail or cause accidents, e.g. due to insufficient equipment or a lack of physical condition.

Preparation and planning consist of: - Assessment of the alpine situation - Identification of possible alpine hazards - Preparation of your unit (squad, platoon, company) in terms of personnel and materiel

4. Equipment

268 Depending on the mission, the difficulties, the environmental and other conditions, and the duration of the operation, you will have to take with you additional equipment which, however, has to be reduced to an absolute minimum.

5. Knowledge, Experience, and Skills

269 Besides technical knowledge on mountain-related issues, first aid and combat in mountainous terrain, you should above all have experience in order to be successful. However, it will take some time to develop the above-mention factors. Only military leaders with sufficient experience will be able to react appropriately to emergency situations.

138 IV. Alpine Signal of Distress

The alpine signal of distress is an internationally 270 standardized procedure used to call for help if not possible by radio or shouting. It consists of a call for help and an answer.

The call for help consists of 6 optical or acoustical signals 271 (e.g. light, pale cloth, shouting, whistling, gunshot etc.) sent at even intervals within one minute. After a one minute break, the same signal is to be repeated until you get an answer or aid is provided.

The answer will consist of an optical or acoustical signal 272 sent at even intervals three times per minute.

139 F. NAVIGATION IN MOUNTAINOUS TERRAIN

I. General

273 Navigation in mountainous terrain is a special challenge for all soldiers. At any time, a soldier must be able to - determine his own location and that of any other terrain feature - determine the bearing to a terrain feature

274 The following chapters will only cover mountain-specific topics of navigation. General information you will find in the specific manuals.

275 Navigation in mountainous terrain is difficult because of - special landforms and surface shapes, - poor or non-existent road network, - the types of weather, and - increased physical and psychological burdens.

276 In mountainous terrain, navigation errors may have severe consequences, causing not only a loss of time but also leading to an increased use of energy and exposure to hazards.

140 II. Navigation Assets and How They are Used

1. General

For navigation in mountainous terrain, we use 277 - maps of various scales - strip maps and movement tables - altimeters - compasses - the GPS (global positioning system) - air pictures, and - route sketches (topos)

A direct look at the landscape, knowledge and description 278 of the terrain as well as the availability of maps are often insufficient for navigation. Especially during bad visibility (e.g. fog, snowfall) and darkness, technical assets (e.g. compass, altimeter, GPS) are of big importance. During movements in alpine terrain, military leaders have to have maps or sketches, compasses and altimeters at hand.

2. Maps

As to their contents, maps can be divided into 279 - topographical maps and - special maps.

Topographical maps are maps that describe locations. 280 They display situations (e.g. landforms, bodies of water, vegetation) as detailed as possible.

141

281 Special maps depict forms of appearance and circumstances related in some way to the surface of the Earth (e.g. trafficability, climate, density of population).

282 Leader’s manuals and other special editions (e.g. about forests and the protection of nature) are additional aids which may be used for detailed route assessment in difficult terrain.

283 For navigation in alpine terrain, maps in a scale of 1:25,000 are especially convenient. The use of military maps in a scale of 1:50,000 requires lots of routine, as this scale (which does not show the terrain in sufficient detail) makes land navigation more difficult, especially in the mountains.

284 Contour lines, due to their special importance, will be described in more detail afterwards. A contour line joins points of equal elevation via a reference area (e.g. sea level). As contour lines are constructs, a contour line diagram has certain abstractness. By means of shading or the changing of colours and brightness, terrain features can be plastically highlighted (see Fig. 37).

142 Fig. 37: Plastic display of terrain features

The evaluation of contour lines is absolutely necessary for 285 the detailed planning of movement in mountainous terrain. A precondition for that is knowledge about the map scale and the distance between the contour lines (= equidistance). This distance is the same for each map and indicated in its legend. On topographical maps of a scale of 1:25,000, the equidistance is most of the time 20m; 100 m contour lines are especially highlighted. Contour lines represent approximate values. Please mind that in reality “s-shaped terrain” (see Fig. 38) is steeper at some points.

Fig. 38: “S-shaped” Terrain

Contour lines follow the indentations and the bulges of the 286 relief and depict the - sloping of the terrain - the absolute altitude in relation to the reference area - the form of the terrain, and the - direction of the slope

143

287 Most of the time, the legend of a map also includes a graphic display of the slope scale or of the intervals between the contour lines.

3. Strip Map and Movement Table

288 A strip map (see Fig. 39) is a simplified, map-like display of a portion of terrain, including the route you intend to take, together with important landmarks. In combination with a compass and an altimeter, it allows quick and safe navigation. Divide the route into legs; draw the legs in the sketch (with correct bearings) and number them consecutively. Before making a strip map, assess the terrain by means of a map. Consider the (tactical) situation, the mission, the hazards, and the difficulties.

289 If one leg leads to the end of a prominent landmark (e.g. a rocky ridge, the prominent spur of an arête) it may be convenient, during limited visibility, to turn slightly towards the inner side of the landmark before aiming at it. This will prevent you from overlooking this landmark when passing it (see Fig. 39 leg III – displayed as a broken line).

144 Start Point

Strip Map:

(via the northern flank)

Scale: 1:25,000

Fig. 39: Strip Map

If necessary, a strip map may be complemented by a 290

145 movement table (see Fig. 40). A movement table contains all data necessary for a movement.

Movement Table from to as of:

Distance Altitude (m) Duration Bearing Return Distance in pitches Landmark Remark Bearing in meters abs. relat. of Move

Fig. 40: Movement Table

291 On sloping terrain, map distances differ from distances in nature. Thus, you will have to determine the natural (true) distance by means of a construction done in the map scale. For that, you have to convert the difference in altitude into the map scale. Then plot the map distance and the altitude difference, measure the distance in nature and calculate it by using the respective scale (see Fig. 41).

146

a = Map distance 6.4 cm b = Altitude difference 280 m  1.12 cm c = Distance in nature 6.5 cm  1,625 m Fig. 41: Determination of the natural distance (Map Scale 1:25,000)

4. Altimeter (barometric)

Besides the compass and the map, the altimeter (see Fig. 292 42) is an important means of navigation for operations in mountainous terrain. It allows you to determine the altitude and to measure the air pressure.

An altimeter reacts to the atmospheric pressure, which 293 decreases with increasing altitude. Thus, you can read the altitude of a location from the altimeter. However, independently of the altitude, the atmospheric pressure of the same location may vary due to high pressure/low pressure weather conditions. Hektopascal (hPa) is the unit of measurement for atmospheric pressure (air pressure). At sea level, the normal atmospheric pressure is defined as 1,013 hPa at a temperature of 15 degrees Celsius.

147 294 An altimeter contains a can-like hollow object made of thin metal sheet and fitted with a needle. When the atmospheric pressure rises, the can is compressed; when it falls, the can expands. These movements are mechanically transferred to the needle. You can read the altitude and the air pressure from a dial. An altimeter works independently of the air temperature because the can contains a vacuum. If there was air in it, the can would expand when getting warm.

1 Altitude Scale 7 Orange Needle 2 Red Arrow 8 Blue Barometer Dial 3 Red Line 9 Yellow Barometer Dial 4 Counting Disc 10 Red Barometer Dial 5 Red Triangle 11 Ribbed Adjusting Ring 6 White Triangle Fig. 42: Altimeter

148 Handling

The handling of an altimeter is limited to the setting of 295 the height of the current location and the fixing of the barometer reading, which is done by turning the ribbed adjusting ring (protruding on the top and bottom part of the altimeter). By slightly tipping on the protection glass with your index finger, the needle may start to swing slightly. The uncertainty of measurement resulting from the “play of the needle” can be compensated by e.g. reading the average value.

Altimetry (Measuring the Altitude of a Location)

An altitude is displayed by means of the orange needle and 296 the counter disc. For measuring the altitude, only the altitude dial, the digits of the counting disc and the orange needle are of relevance.

How to measure the altitude of a location: 297 - Before starting a march, set the current altitude by turning the adjusting ring (align the needle with the respective meter marking of the altitude dial). The counting disc will then show the current altitude in kilometres. - Check the reading at intermediate locations along your route (in order to detect changes of the atmospheric pressure) and make corrections, if necessary (rising air pressure makes the altimeter show a higher altitude and vice versa.) - When arriving at your destination, read again the altitude and correct it if necessary.

149

Example: Fig. 43 shows an altitude of 755 m.

Fig. 43: Altitude Measuring

Barometer

298 An altimeter can also be used as a weather barometer. For that, you have to align the red line exactly with the orange needle. Now you can read from the red arrow whether the air pressure rises or falls. When the orange needle moves towards the tip of the red arrow, the air pressure is going to fall, when it moves towards the opening of the red arrow, the air pressure is going to rise.

How to measure the atmospheric pressure

299 By means of the - orange needle - colour of the counting disc

150 - coloured barometer dials, and - the white triangle above the “km” inscription, the altimeter indicates the atmospheric pressure or the barometer reading.

Absolute Atmospheric Pressure

The absolute atmospheric pressure is indicated 300 automatically by the altimeter. It is read from the barometer dial, which has the same colour as that at which the white triangle beneath the counting disc is pointing. The value read from this dial is that of the current atmospheric pressure.

Example: Fig. 44 shows an atmospheric pressure of 834 hPa.

Fig. 44: How to read the absolute atmospheric pressure

151 Relative Atmospheric Pressure

301 To read the average or relative atmospheric pressure, you take the altimeter and align the zero mark of the altitude dial with the red triangle. Now you are able to read the relative atmospheric pressure by using - the red barometer dial at altitudes from 0 to 605 m - the yellow barometer dial at altitudes from 651 to 1,640 m - the blue barometer dial at altitudes from 1,641 to 2,600 m and following an imaginary line (in the example below it is the broken green line) from the altitude indicated on the altitude dial to the centre of the dial.

Example: Fig. 45 shows a relative atmospheric pressure of 926 hPa at an altitude of 750 m.

152

Fig. 45: How to read the relative atmospheric pressure

Reduced Atmospheric Pressure

In order to be able to read the reduced atm. pressure, you 302 have to set the exact geographical altitude on your altimeter. The zero mark of the altitude dial will then show, on the red barometer dial, the reduced atm. pressure at sea level. When compared with the normal atmospheric pressure (see margin no. Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.), the reduced atm. pressure is used to assess the local weather situation.

Example: In Fig. 46 the altitude is 755 m, and therefore the reduced atm. pressure is 1,030 hPa.

153

Fig. 46: How to read the reduced atmospheric pressure

5. Compass

303 The compass is an important means of orientation for mountain operations. It can be used to - determine the cardinal directions - orient maps - determine directions and locations - maintain the direction of travel

304 Magnetic north deviates from true north at an angle that is called declination. Declinations can be expressed in degrees east or west of north. For details see the margin of the map.

154 In the Alps, the declination is slightly extending to the west. It can be neglected for distances of 500 to 1,000 m. In regions outside of Europe, declinations can extend up to 30 degrees - a factor that has to be considered when navigating.

6. Satellite-based Positioning

(Global Positioning System – GPS)

The NAVSTAR GPS satellite navigation system is a 305 space-based radio navigation and time system consisting of 24 satellites. It is able to indicate the exact position, speed and time continuously and independently of the weather. A GPS set needs the signals of at least three satellites to determine a position (longitude and latitude). To determine the altitude, the signal of a fourth satellite is necessary. The reception of signals in enclosed rooms is not possible without an outdoor antenna. Dense tree growth, narrow valleys, or very overhanging terrain weakens the signals.

The GPS receiver 306 - does not emit signals and, thus, cannot be located by electronic means, - can be used together with other information technology systems (e.g. PC, PC Map to transmit waypoints and routes), and - can be used, together with a laser range finder, for the determination of target coordinates.

155 307 General regulations for the use of a GPS you will find in the respective manuals and operating instructions.

NOTE: Do not use the GPS alone. Use it together with other means of orientation. Be aware that battery performance is limited.

7. Route Sketch

308 A route sketch illustrates the routing in steep terrain. It is especially used by mountain guide/reconnaissance teams when operating in mountainous terrain. This sketch contains the reconnoitred route together with necessary details (e.g. prepared security installations).

309 A good route sketch often can replace a route description, and it is always a valuable complement to it. To make a route sketch, you can use an informative picture. If not available, use a simple and clear elevation sketch. Now you draw, as detailed as possible, the route on the picture, the elevation sketch or a transparent paper you have laid over it. Use the route symbols (topographic symbols) as recommended by the UIAA (Union Internationale des Associations d‘ Alpinisme).

Route Symbols (Topo Symbols)

310 The graphic display of a climbing route is called a “topo”. The UIAA recommends using standardized symbols when

156 making a topo (see Fig. 47). You can find them, among others, in Alpine Association Information Brochures.

157 Visible Route Hidden Route Route Variant

Good Belay Station Bad Belay Station Sling Belay Station

Good Bivouac Site Bad Bivouac Site Hammocks or Sling Bivouacs

Snow, Firn or Rocks, Stones, Vegetation Terraced Terrain Köpfl Ice Scree (Botany) (Broken Rocks) (Rock Spike)

Abseiling Metres along the arrow Abseiling Site Crack, chocks Crack, no chocks Pendulum Traverse Ramp necessary necessary left/right

Water Gully Strip of Water Chimney Chimney Dihedral Chockstone Dihedral

Couloir Edge Vertical Horizontal Ledge Overhang Roof Niche, Slab Slab Hollow

Grotto Platform Slab Move, Normal Bolt Abseiling Tunnel Exposed Rock Wall Crux Piton Metres u/o kühn??

????

Difficulty Height of Rock Wall (Face) ???? Number of Rope Pitches Time from Entrance to Summit Time fr. Start Point to Entrance Start Point Time fr. Summit to Start Point

Fig. 47: Route Symbols/Topo Symbols

158 G. MILITARY MOUNTAINEERING

I. Command and Control (C2)

Each operation in mountainous terrain needs serious 311 preparation. The decisive part of the command and control process is the assessment of the alpine/mountain situation. Environmental conditions and the hazards resulting thereof can have an immediate effect on military missions. The bad assessment of a mission can lead to its failure.

The time needed for preparation depends on the intensity 312 of the mission. Professional preparation can increase security and the probability of mission accomplishment. The preparation can be divided into four parts: - personal preparation - preparation of the unit - material preparation, and - concrete preparation

The following factors can have decisive influence on the 313 command and control process used for mountain combat operations - Terrain assessment - Climate and weather - Mountain hazards - Altitude - Water level - Vegetation - Fauna

159 II. C2 Tactics and Techniques

314 Before moving in mountainous terrain, you have to make the following basic decisions: Are you going to move - without protection devices or - by using protection devices like o fixed installations (belays, anchors, etc.) and/or o ropes? Thus, alpine command and control tactics also affects, besides tactical considerations, the organization of the persons or units you are responsible for.

315 C2 techniques refer to the technical solution of tactical command and control decisions. The following chart will give you guidance on C2 techniques to be used for military mountaineering.

160

C2 Tactics C2 Tactics C2 Techniques C2 Techniques – Several soldiers – Walk and climb roped up – Descend/glide – Two-man roped over screes party – Walk/climb – Three-man roped along a protected party route – Five-man roped – Follow the ski party Lead soldiers track of your Lead soldiers – Walk on the who are not predecessor when roped up short rope – Ski on your own roped up – Slipping along – Free skiing the rope within limiting – Skiing on the lines (e.g. tracks) rope - Ski within a – Let down/abseil formation – Ropeways - Spacing between - Security point soldiers installation

C2 tactical decisions and C2 technical measures depend on 316 - the character of the terrain - the existing conditions - the performance level of the soldiers, and - the weather

161 III. C2 Measures

317 Common C2 measures during movement in alpine terrain: - Determine the personnel strength and the intervals between the individuals according to the difficulties to be expected - Determine a track to be followed - Place physically weaker soldiers in the front of the formation - Make rest halts in time - Make sure soldiers have adapted to the altitude - Assess alpine hazards continuously and take appropriate measures - Ensure contact among the soldiers - Set up a bivouac in time in case of bad weather or other critical situations - Designate an advance party tasked to set up protected routes and to make the scheduled route viable (e.g. by blowing up avalanches, constructing routes, etc.) - Give order in time to protect against solar radiation and cold

318 The rate of march depends on the difficulties of the terrain, on the weather, and on the physical fitness and training status of the soldiers. During the first 10 to 20 minutes of the march, walk slowly; later on increase the speed. After each halt, again start to move slowly. Continuous speed will ensure steady movement. Adapt the clothing to the rate of march and to the weather. While moving, adapt the physical stress to the mission to be accomplished.

162

Request uniform clothing only when it is necessary to 319 maintain military discipline and order, or when it is essential for mission accomplishment. Individual changes to the ordered dress code may be granted when it is necessary to maintain the physical fitness of the soldiers.

Pauses during a march can take the form of a halt or a rest 320 halt. A halt lasts only several minutes. It is used to check the proper fit of the uniform and the equipment carried, as well as to have a soft drink. A rest halt normally lasts longer than a halt and is used for eating, drinking, and recovery. Halts and rest halts depend on the situation and mission as well as on the physical stress and fitness of the soldiers. Halt/rest halt areas have to be chosen with reference to the situation and the objective hazards. For details see the “Mountain Hazards” section of the “Objective Hazards” chapter below. Halts and rest halts should be used for orienting and continued assessment of the march route, for issuance of orders, and for situation briefs.

To maintain the operational readiness of the soldiers, order 321 pauses along your march route. Stick to the following timings, which have proven to be convenient: - after 10 to 20 minutes of march, make a halt for about 5 minutes. - After one hour of march, make a short halt.

163 - After marching about two hours with light load, make a rest halt of about 10 to 15 min. - In case you carry heavy load, make a rest halt of about 10 to 15 minutes every hour. - After 4 to 6 hours, make a rest halt of 30 to 60 min.

164 IV. Avalanche Emergency Equipment

Avalanche emergency equipment makes it possible to 322 find, rescue and evacuate people buried by avalanches. It consists of: - an avalanche rescue beacon (transceiver) - an avalanche probe, and - avalanche shovel. In case of risk of avalanche, each soldier should have the avalanche emergency equipment with him at all times.

Prior to each operation/event in alpine regions, soldiers 323 have to check the proper functioning of the avalanche rescue beacon. This can be done as follows:

- Switch on the beacon, check the battery performance, replace battery if necessary. - Align all soldiers at intervals of two meters, then have them set their beacon for “search”. The soldier whose beacon is going to be checked has to set it for “transmit”, hold it upright and pass by the other soldiers at a distance of one meter. - After that, all soldiers set their beacon for “transmit”, the checking soldier sets it for “search”, and the other soldiers pass by the checking soldier at a distance of one meter. - At the end of this procedure, the checking soldier sets his beacon for “transmit”.

Besides the avalanche emergency equipment, each soldier 324

165 can be equipped with an avalanche airbag for special operations. This system can reduce the burial depth, but it does not offer protection against mechanically induced injuries.

166 V. Walking on Steep Paths and on Pathless Terrain

1. General

Military mountaineering starts by walking along trails 325 and steep paths. However, each member of the mountain troops should, besides these competences, learn how to walk on pathless terrain and how to climb moderately difficult rocky slopes. When walking on steep paths or pathless terrain, soldiers must have their hands free for balancing.

Walking on pathless terrain requires a sure foot and a 326 sense of balance. Grassy slopes, rock ledge, scree, and rock can be used for training. For better balancing, you may use ski poles.

Principles for walking and stepping: 327 - Make short steps. - Do not make too high steps. - Look at the surface you are moving on. - Place the foot with as much surface of the sole as possible. - Place the stepping foot on flat ground. - Walk (climb) slowly, steadily, and upright. - Breathe evenly.

Principles for walking and stepping upslope: 328 - When making a step forward, shift the balance point forward, over the standing leg, then raise your body.

167 - Try to distribute your weight evenly on the standing foot (over the whole sole). - Make short steps and keep a steady speed in order to save energy.

329 Principles for walking and stepping downslope: - Shift the balance point over the slightly bent front leg before lifting the rear leg. - Roll the foot from the heel to the toes. - Position the legs at hip width. Together with a slight forward bent of upper part of the body, this will prevent you from skidding.

330 Ski sticks can support walking and stepping. They can - support your movement on flat and steep terrain - support the carrying of heavy loads - support balancing - favour the joints when walking downslope - increase the rate of march - be used as a rescue device (e.g. for splinting or as a rescue sledge) in emergency cases

331 When walking upslope, hold the ski sticks either by their handle or by their shafts, depending on the steepness. If you cannot achieve sufficient hold with the rammed tips of the sticks it will be necessary to drive the handles of the sticks into the snow. When traversing a portion of terrain, hold the downslope ski stick by its handle and the upslope stick by its shaft.

168 In order to ease your movement on steep slopes or through extremely deep snow, you can hold together both sticks with your hand and use them as a support by pressing them into the show in front of your body. When walking downhill along the fall line, hold the sticks by their handles. When descending obliquely, hold them as you do when moving obliquely uphill. In case of very steep descends along the fall line, you can use both sticks together at one side of your body.

2. Walking on Difficult Paths and Trails

In the mountains, paths and trails are often steep very 332 rarely have a hard surface. Their surface is rocky, stony or muddy and, above all, uneven. Often you can find natural or artificial steps of different height and consistency. The paths are often very narrow and run along steep mountain faces. Exposure and a lack of security increase the risk of slipping/falling.

When using such paths, consider the following: 333 - Walk deliberately. - Make precise steps. - When walking on slippery, wet stones, shift your weight onto level stepping surfaces. - Avoid stepping on wet roots

169 3. Walking on Pathless Terrain

334 Pathless terrain is marked by a lack of connected footprints. With reference to the character of this surface, it is divided into - grassy terrain, - wooded terrain, - rock ledge, and - debris.

You may use climbing irons (crampons) when moving on steep, slippery terrain covered with wetness, hoarfrost, ground frost, or long blade grass.

335 Grassy terrain is marked by coherent, smooth or structured surfaces covered with short or long grass, low vegetation (e.g. bushes) and single rock deposits.

336 Wooded terrain is, independent of its steepness, characterized by soil honeycombed with roots and covered with weathered, partially ingrown wood.

337 Principles for movements on grassy and wooded terrain: - Ascend/descend diagonally to the slope (walk in serpentines) - Place the soles horizontally by making use of natural stepping surfaces. - Press or drive the edge of the shoe soles firmly into the ground

170 - If there are no stepping surfaces, do not lean against the slope - Use ingrown stones as stepping surfaces. - Apply your heels when descending over a steep slope. - Do not use weathered, ingrown wood as a stepping surface (risk of sliding).

Rock ledge is rocky terrain (most of the time fragile rock) 338 interspersed with grass. Such terrain contains a high risk of rockfall/falling.

Principles for moving on rock ledge: 339 - Choose your stepping surfaces carefully. - Do not exert sudden pressure on them. - When you step on grassy patches or ingrown stones, step on their centre part. - Use your hands for balancing.

Debris 340 is the massing of stones of different size and with little interconnection. Most of the time, you can find them below rock faces or around glaciers (moraines). Depending on their size, we differentiate between piles of debris or piles of blocks. If there is only little debris deposited on a rocky surface, there is a risk of sliding. Besides that, tilting blocks and the spaces between them constitute a big risk of injury.

Principles for walking on debris: 341 - Use the whole sole when stepping on debris

171 - When stepping on bigger blocks of rock, step on their centre parts. - Rather use bigger stones and solidified stepping surfaces - When walking in heaps of debris, lift your legs consciously without rolling the soles from heel to toes.

342 Principles for descending on heaps of debris: - Walk along the fall line. - Use the flow movement of the debris layer. - Move in running motion. - Bring the rear leg actively forward.

343 Principles for descending on heaps of rocky blocks (boulders): - Move calmly and in a controlled way. - Step on the blocks with the centre of your soles. - Use your arms for support.

344 Contrary to walking and stepping, you use your arms and hands for support when you are climbing. By using various techniques, you will be safe and reduce the amount of energy necessary for climbing. When climbing, you have to make sure that your legs do most of the job. Use your arms primarily to balance yourself and to support the legs in steep terrain.

345 Depending the personal skills and on the terrain, there are three types of climbing downwards: - With the back to the wall - With the face to the wall

172 - Sideways

You climb down with your back to the wall (see Fig. 48) 346 in easy terrain. You flex the knees strongly, bend the upper body forward and use your hands for support and balancing. This technique allows you to keep a good view of the terrain.

Fig. 48: Climbing down with the back to the wall

173

347 In more difficult terrain, you most of the time climb down with your face (front of your body) to the wall. It is also recommended to use this technique when carrying heavy loads in order not to get stuck on a rock.

174 Fig. 49: Climbing down with the face to the wall

Climbing down sideways (see Fig. 50) is a mixed 348 technique used in easy and terraced terrain.

Fig. 50: Climbing down sideways

4. Walking in Snow

When walking in snow, spread your legs at hip width and 349 slightly flex your knees. Keep the upper body upright or slightly bent forward. When walking in soft snow, set or press

175 your unloaded leg into the snow by at the same time keeping the sole horizontal or inclining it slightly forward. When you feel that the surface is sufficiently compressed, put more weight on the leg. Now lift the unstressed leg. Do not roll over from heel to toes or push off the foot from the ground.

350 When walking in hard snow, press the edges of your soles or the tips of your shoes into the snow or drive them in. Continuously improve your track by further condensing and enlarging your stepping surface. In flat terrain, the length of the steps depends on the sinking depth. In steeper terrain, the length of the step also depends on the slope inclination. In flat and sloping terrain, we use the oblique upward/downward climbing technique. In steeper terrain, we climb upward and downward along the fall line.

351 When climbing obliquely up/down, the main job is done by the upslope leg. Move the downslope leg one to two shoe lengths forward and put weight on it. Move the upslope foot a half to one shoe length forward and place it with the tip pointing upslope. The result thereof is a typical track pattern (see Fig. 51).

176

Fig. 51: Oblique walking track pattern

When changing direction, create lager steps (standing 352 steps). When walking downslope, place the heel first and then place your weight horizontally on the sole of your shoe. The steeper the slope, the shorter the steps will be. However, the track pattern will remain the same.

In steep terrain, ascend/descend along the fall line (see 353 Fig. 52). The steeper the slope, the less you will lift your feet when walking. When walking in soft snow, you have to apply the weight from top to bottom; in hard snow you drive the tips of your shoes or your heels into the ground. Normally, you walk upslope with your face to the wall. When you descend with your back to the slope, press or drive

177 your heels into the snow. When approaching flatter terrain, place the heel first and then slowly and carefully roll from heel to toes. When using the upslope track for downslope walking, do not “jump” or “drop” in order not to destroy the track.

Fig. 52: Ascending along the fall line

354 When performing a traverse movement in flat terrain, use the oblique uphill walking technique. Cross steep terrain nearly in the same way as you ascend along a fall line: Climb with the face to the wall by using the step-to-step technique. Use your hands for stabilizing the upper part of your body (see Fig. 53).

178

Fig. 53: Crossing a slope by using the step-to-step technique.

When you place your shoes flat on the ground during a 355 fall line descent, you will end up in a sliding step together with a skidding phase. When the slope becomes really steep, this sliding step will change to two feet sliding. If so, spread your legs to hip width, place your weight evenly on both of them, and clearly bend your knee and hip joints. Bend your upper body forward and keep your hands at the side of your body for balancing (see Fig. 54)

179

Fig. 54: Sliding

356 The sliding speed can be controlled by placing the soles of the shoes flat on the ground. You can slow down by raising the tips of your shoes and driving the heels into the ground. By alternately moving pushing your legs forward during longer sliding periods, you can prevent early fatigue.

357 Sliding in snow is dangerous when - a fall can turn into uncontrolled sliding (e.g. in case of steep terrain or hard snow), - there is no slow-down area (e.g. stone blocks, gaps), - you do not have good view of the slide (e.g. holes, gaps), - there are obstacles in the area of the slide (e.g. rocks), - the snow cover could break (e.g. brooks, edge of the snow cover, too soft snow), - carrying heavy equipment, and - in case of advanced fatigue or exhaustion.

180 H. ROCK CLIMBING

I. General

To fulfil missions in mountainous terrain, soldiers must 358 also be trained to move, with their equipment, in rocky terrain. Sufficient knowledge of basic rock climbing skills is a precondition for that, also with respect to safe movement and reduced physical strains.

Climbing requires, above all, body control and 359 coordinative skills. As to the position of the body, we differentiate between the frontal and the contorted climbing position. Frontal climbing brings the body’s centre of gravity closer to the wall. Contorted climbing offers better transmission of power.

Normally we make the next footstep or move on to the 360 next handhold from a stable position in order to reach the next stable position. Too high footsteps or a too big distance between footholds and handholds require much energy.

Basically, soldiers can, after a certain adaptation phase, 361 climb up to grade IV when wearing combat boots. For higher grades, they need special climbing boots.

II. Climbing Techniques

181 1. General

362 Depending on the form, difficulty and consistency of the rock, we have to use various climbing techniques like e.g.

- the stepping technique - the handhold technique - spreading and supporting - friction climbing - the counterpressure technique (Piaz technique) - the stemming technique - the jamming and crack technique, and - the transverse support technique

2. Stepping Technique

363 When using a good stepping technique, you place your foot exactly on the next foothold. We distinguish between (see Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.) - frontal stepping - toe pad stepping (friction stepping) - outside (of the foot) stepping - inside (of the foot) stepping, and - clamping.

364 Try to place your body’s centre of gravity over the stepping surface. On sloping terrain, keep your hip away from the rock; on vertical and overhanging rock, bring it close to the wall.

182

Frontal Stepping

Toe pad stepping Outside Stepping (Friction stepping)

Inside stepping Clamping Fig. 56: Stepping techniques

183 3. Gripping

365 Gripping and holding onto holds is used for stabilization and to prevent the climber from falling backwards. Try to grip the hold as smoothly as possible. Smooth gripping means to grip the hold with the minimum force required.

Because of the various holds rocks offer, we use various gripping techniques, which differ by types of holds and finger positions.

366 Types of holds you can find on a wall of rock (see Fig. 55): - Side pull - Undercling - Pinch grip - Pocket - Sloper - Bucket (handle)

Side Pull Undercling Pinch Grip

184

Pocket Sloper Bucket (Handle) Fig. 55: Types of holds (handholds) Finger positions when gripping a hold (see Fig. 56) 367 - Open fingers - Open hand - Open crimp - Closed crimp

Open Fingers Open Hand

185

Open Crimp Closed Crimp Fig. 56: Finger Positions

4. Spreading and Supporting

368 We use spreading techniques when climbing through dihedrals, niches, and chimneys. By spreading the legs against the opposite walls you can get a better foothold, and your body’s centre of gravity will be lowered. In doing so, you will achieve a stable and effort-saving position (rest position). Often, you will complement spreading by supporting yourself with your arms and hands. If so, move the foot that is below the supporting hand forward. For supporting, use supporting holds you can find at waist level (see Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.).

186

Fig. 57: Spreading and Supporting

187 5. Friction Climbing

369 When using the friction climbing technique, try to keep your body’s centre of gravity over the stepping surface. On an inclined friction surface, keep the upper body conveniently away from the rock in order to be able to exert pressure on the stepping surface. Friction footholds are most of the time loaded by placing the foot frontally on them (see Fig. 58).

Fig. 58: Friction Climbing

6. Counterpressure Technique

370 When using the counterpressure or “Piaz” technique, you move your body’s centre of gravity away from the stepping

188 surface. By pulling with your arms and exerting counterpressure with your feet, you will be able to use flat parts of the rock as friction footholds.

For that, you place your feet approximately on the fall line 371 of your hands in order to prevent swinging. Keep the distance between arms and legs as big as possible because too little distance will exert increased tractive forces on your arms (see Fig. 59). You can use this technique when climbing over edges, cracks with distinct edges and flakes.

189

Fig. 59: Counterpressure Technique

190 7. Stemming Technique

The stemming technique is based on the counterpressure 372 between the back on the one hand, and the feet, hands or knees on the other hand. It is used for chimneys, body-width cracks, and acute-angled dihedrals. Depending on the width of a chimney, we differentiate between - parallel stemming - alternate stemming, and - knee stemming (see Fig. 60).

191

Fig. 60: Parallel, Alternate, and Knee Stemming

373 In case of parallel stemming, the feet exert a counterpressure on the back, and the hands are placed at waist level. After building up a counterpressure between the hands and the feet, lift the body. Then lean the back against the rock again and make upward steps with your feet.

374 In case of alternate stemming, bend one knee and place the foot as high as possible on the rear wall. Place one arm on

192 the wall in front of you for support, move the back away from the rear wall and lift your body.

When knee stemming, you create a counterpressure 375 between the feet placed on the wall behind you, the knees pushing against the wall in front of you, and your bottom. At the same time, exert counterpressure on the two walls with your hands and with your shoulders. Now you can lift your body by alternately pushing up your shoulders and your hips.

8. Jamming and Crack Techniques

Narrow gaps in the rock, just or not wide enough for a 376 human body, are called “cracks”.

Depending on their width, we can jam - a shoulder - a fist - a hand - one or several fingers - or our feet (foot) in them (see Fig. 61).

The jamming effect is reached by twisting the above- mentioned parts of our body or by clenching the hand into a fist.

193

Fig. 61: Fist Crack, Hand Crack, Finger Crack, Foot Crack

9. Transverse Support Technique

377 The transverse support technique (see Fig. 62) is used when climbing over rock ledges and platforms. You perform a pull-up and then you support yourself on the ball of one or two hands. Then you place one foot as close to the hand as possible, push up your body and get in an upright position.

194

Fig. 62: Transverse Support Technique J. PROTECTION TECHNIQUES

I. General

Protection technique deals with 378 - protection theory and - protection practice

Protection theory describes the relations between forces 379 created by strains (e.g. fall, friction) and their effects on dynamic and semi-static ropes (hereinafter referred to as “static ropes”). Knowledge of strains that may occur in your chain of protection is a precondition for the proper use of mountaineering equipment.

The chain of protection consists of: 380 - a standard harness system (see margin no. Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden. to Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden

195 werden.) or improvised chest/sitting harness (see margin no. 0). - knots - ropes - intermediate belays - belay points - abseiling and protection gear, and - soldiers tied (fixed) to a rope

NOTE: The protection chain is a strong as its weakest link.

381 Protection practice is the implementation of protection theory and its appropriate application on the terrain, with the aim to reduce risks when skidding (see margin no. Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.) or falling (see margin no. Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.).

II. Protection Theory

382 To get familiar with protection theory, you are supposed to get familiar with the following terms:

383 Sliding is the loss of balance, the fall ensuing thereof and the subsequent sliding, most of the time on a sloping surface. Normally, the risk of getting hurt is low.

384 Fall

196 is an uncontrolled movement including (partial) loss of contact with the ground. Normally, the risk of getting hurt is high. Immediate risk of falling means that skidding may immediately turn into falling.

Free Fall 385 is a fall without contact to the ground. Generally, the risk of getting hurt on impact is very high, depending on the height of fall.

Free Hanging 386 means hanging on a rope without the possibility to support yourself with hands or feet.

Impact Force 387 is the force created at the moment of the maximum elongation of the rope. Its intensity depends on the fall factor and the weight of the falling person. Climbing ropes have to be designed to prevent forces higher than 12 kN in case of a “standard fall” (see annex III). The impact force is transferred to the chain of protection via the rope.

Fall tension 388 is the force transferred from the rope to the protection device.

Force at the deflection roller (see Fig. 63) 389 is the force created when falling and being arrested by an intermediate belay. It consists of the fall tension and the

197 impact force. Intermediate belays can be loaded with two times the energy of the impact force.

ImpactForce

Fig. 63: The force created at the deflection roller

390 Friction At intermediate belays and on the rock friction transforms a certain amount of the impact force into heat. When, due to friction, the fall tensile loading gets weaker than the braking force dynamic belaying will not be possible any longer.

391 Impact pulse is the chronological sequence of forces affecting the chain of protection during a fall until the climber stops falling

198 (maximum elongation of the rope). It depends on the absolute height of fall.

Fall factor (FF; see Fig. 64) 392 is the ratio between the height of fall and the length of the paid-out rope available for the fall. The fall factor provides information on the fall energy and the length of the rope available for the dampening of the fall. We differentiate between: - soft falls (see Fig. 64/1) FF 0.5 - hard falls (see Fig. 64/2) FF 1 - very hard falls (see Fig. 64/3) FF 1.5, and - extremely hard falls (see Fig. 64/4) FF 2.

In reality, FF 2 will never be reached, except for falls on viae ferratae. The real force of impact depends in fact on the friction and on the behaviour of the belayer (dynamic belaying).

199

Fig. 64: Fall Factor

393 Impact force elongation (dynamic elongation) is the elongation of the paid-out rope in case of a fall. It must not exceed the standard value, which is 40% of the normal length of the rope. In case of an UIAA standard fall (see ANNEX II), elongation reaches about 25% of the length of an unexpanded rope.

394 Static elongation (working elongation) is the elongation that occurs when hanging on the rope. In case of a single rope, elongation must not exceed 10%, in case of half rope it must not exceed 12 %, and in case of a static rope the maximum elongation should not be more than 5%.

200

Fall energy 395 is transformed into thermal energy (warming-up of the protection device and of the carabiners used for the intermediate belays) and into deformation energy (rope elongation, deformation of the body).

Fall distance extension 396 is composed of the amount of rope running through the protection device and the impact force elongation produced in case of a fall. The bigger the amount of rope running through the protection device, the weaker the impact force and the load affecting the chain of protection will be.

Height of fall 397 consists of the - extension of the fall distance - distance to the last intermediate belay - the length of the last intermediate belay, and - the sag of the rope (slack rope).

Edge stability 398 is the stability of loaded ropes or slings when running over an edge. Sharp edges, horizontal movements (shearing effect) and vertical movements (rubbing effect) will additionally reduce the breaking resistance.

Stopping distance 399 is the amount of rope running through the protection device in

201 case of dynamic belaying, thereby transforming the fall energy into deformation energy and heat energy.

400 Braking force is the force needed to bring a moving mass (e.g. the weight of a falling person) to a standstill (passage of the rope).

It primarily depends on - the protection device in use, together with the diameter and the condition of the rope (e.g. icing, wetness, temperature), - the loading direction (feed angle/braking angle), and - the manual force. Depending on the protection device, this may result in different braking forces. The average manual force is around 0.2 kN

The retarding forces of protection devices in use: Device Force HMS karabiner 1.6 – 3.5 kN Tuber 1.0 – 3.0 kN

401 Static belay means that the rope does not run through the protection device. As a consequence, the chain of protection is be affected by a maximum of impact force. The distance of fall is only extended by the impact force elongation.

402 Dynamic belay is the controlled passage of a rope through a protection device, thus enabling the belayer to reduce the load affecting

202 the chain of protection. In this case, the impact force is nearly as strong as the retarding force of the protection device. The distance of fall is extended by the distance travelled by the passing rope. Dynamic belaying requires from the belayer to have a sufficient amount of rope in reserve to be able to let enough rope pass through the protection device.

Breaking load (breaking resistance) 403 is the force needed to make material break or crack, like e.g. - influences from outside - mechanical influences, - chemical influences - thermal influences, and - aging. These factors can reduce the breaking resistance.

Mechanical influences: 404 - cutting of rope fibres (e.g. sharp edges, rough rock) - ice enclosed in the rope material - various types of tensile and compressive stress (edges and knots), and - sharp-edged stone material washed into the rope’s outer layer and rope core.

Chemical influences 405 are influences caused by acids (e.g. battery acid). They lead to the destruction of the rope material. Damages caused by acids are difficult to be detected from outside.

203 406 Thermal influences are caused by friction (e.g. rope on rope or sling, causing heat). They can damage ropes, slings and accessory cords (they melt on the surface) or the break apart (melt through).

407 The aging of ropes and webbing depends on their intensity of use and their exposure to UV radiation. Ropes which are not constantly used in the open air (e.g. permanent belay stations) will not age very much during their period of use. The outer layer of the rope protects the load-carrying core. Webbing, however, only consists of load- carrying material and is therefore more vulnerable. NOTE: Knots reduce the breaking load of ropes and webbing. Depending on the type, a knot can reduce strength of a rope by 25 to 50 percent.

204 III. Roping Up

1. General

Roping Up 408 means to put on a standard harness system or an improvised chest/seat harness and to use a rope and a via ferrata (klettersteig) set. The putting on of a harness system and the use of a rope need not take place at the same place and time. Anyhow, you and your men are supposed to put on the harness system in time and, if possible, at an objectively safe location. If necessary, give an order to do so.

2. Standard Harness Systems

Standard harness systems may be 409 - a combination of a chest and a seat harness - a seat harness alone - a combined harness.

By using this equipment, the forces affecting the body of the climber will be evenly distributed and will reduce the risk of injury in case of a fall. The harness has to be adapted to the size of the climber. Make sure it fits tightly.

Standard harness systems are to be used 410 - on viae ferratae

205 - in situations where the climber can hang freely on the rope after a fall, and - when climbing in a terrain of UIAA difficulty level III or higher.

NOTE: Adequately trained soldiers should check the proper wearing of each harness, including their security-relevant parts (e.g. belay ring, clip buckle, threading back of harness straps through buckles).

How to Put On the Chest/Seat Harness Combination

411 When putting on this combination, you have to ensure that the chest and the seat harnesses are firmly connected together (see Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.).

206 Fig. 65: Firm connection between the chest and the seat harness

There are several points to fix a rope or a locking 412 carabiner to them. These points are called rope-up points (see Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden. Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.).

Fig. 66: High rope-up points for a rope (left) and a pair of locking carabiners (right) on a chest/seat harness combination

207

Fig. 67: Medium rope-up points for a rope (left) and a safelock carabiner (right) on a chest/seat harness combination

How to Put On a Seat Harness

413 A seat harness alone may be used for climbing practice on artificial climbing structures and in climbing gardens. Otherwise, this type of roping up requires the permission of a military mountain guide. For roping up, you have to use the figure of eight knot or a double bowline knot (see Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.).

208

Fig. 68: Rope-up point with figure of eight knot (left) and double bowline knot (right) on seat harness

How to Put On a Combination Harness

When putting on a combination harness, pass a short thin 414 rope twice through both belay loops and tie them together with two overhand knots, thus forming a belay ring (see Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.).

209

Fig. 69: Combination Harness with Belay Ring

415 For fixing the rope and the carabiner to the combination harness, see Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden..

210 Fig. 70: How to fix a rope (left) or 2 locking carabiners (right) to the rope-up point of a combination harness

211 IV. Ways of Roping Up

1. General

416 Roping up is a protection and, at the same time, a command and control measure. We differentiate between: – Roping up as a party and - Roping up on a climbing protected route (see chapter Q: Construction of protected routes)

NOTE: After abseiling, check proper roping up (also that of your colleagues).

2. Roping Up as a Team

417 A roped-up team (rope team, rope party) consists of at least two and of no more than 10 soldiers, connected by a rope.

418 Mountaineering teams have to be roped up - for UIAA difficulty level II and higher, and - when moving on glaciers (see margin no. 0).

419 Personnel that does not need to rope up: – Military high mountain specialist trained for UIAA level II rocky terrain, depending on individual assessment and on- the-spot conditions (e.g. objective risks, psychological/physical condition). - Military mountain guide when moving on steep ice, firn and rock according to the mission received and the on-the- spot conditions, based on individual assessment.

212 - Military mountain guide candidates, in accordance with regulations pertaining to military mountain guides and based on the assessment of their instructor. We differentiate between: 420

- two man rope teams - three, four, and five man rope teams - short rope teams (only mil mountain guides), and - formations consisting of several roped-up persons

The two man rope team 421

The two man rope team (see Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.) makes it possible to climb in a staggered manner and advance quickly. Concerning rope management, a two man rope team can use the single, half ,or twin rope technique (see Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.).

213

Fig. 71: Single, half, or twin rope technique

422 The half rope technique is especially used in difficult terrain with doubtful intermediate belays (anchors). It makes it possible to reduce energy in case of a fall, offers additional safety reserves, and can reduce the friction of the rope. For solid intermediate belays, the half rope can be used as a twin rope.

423 For tying in to the rope, the first man of the team uses the threaded figure eight knot or the double bowline knot to get connected to the tie-in point. A two man rope team can be formed by using a single rope or a half rope.

214 Three, four, and five man rope teams

Three, four, and five man rope teams (see Fehler! 424 Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.) make it possible for the leader of the team to move up to four soldiers in terrain with risk of falling or skidding. Such teams need staggered climbing and, thus, more time. The first and the last man of the team tie in to the rope by means of a threaded figure eight knot. The other soldiers hook into the figure eight or butterfly knot of the rope by means of two locking carabiners or one safelock carabiner. In case of a halved single strand rope, the first person of the team ties in by means of two locking carabiners or one safelock carabiner.

215

Pitch

Half a Half

1 Pitch Halved Strand

Single Strand Double Strand

Fig. 72: Rope teams, using a single strand rope

425 When using a half rope (see Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.), the leader has to be protected with a double strand rope. One strand of a halved rope can only be used to protect no more than one soldier moving behind the lead climber.

216

Pitch

Half a Half

1 Pitch

Fig. 73: Roped-up teams, using half ropes

The Use of a Rope Switch

When using a rope switch (fixed or mobile) for a three 426 man team on a single rope, tensile load can be taken from the centre person of the team.

A fixed rope switch is about 2.5 to 3 m long and has to be 427 established by the last person of the team. For that, you have to tie an overhand knot loop with a diameter of 30 to 50 cm.

217 At the end of this loop, you tie a figure of eight knot to which the centre soldier hooks himself with two locking carabiners or one safelock carabiner (s. Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.).

Fig. 74: Fixed rope switch

428 A mobile rope switch is made by using a rope clamp (e.g. tibloc, shunt). The centre soldier makes a connection by means of a webbing loop, a locking carabiner and a rope clamp (see Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.).

218

Fig. 75: Mobile rope switch

Short Rope

The “short rope” (see Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte 429 nicht gefunden werden.) is a rope management technique used by military mountain guides when climbing simultaneously in a roped-up team. For details see chapter VII/section 2).

219

Fig. 76 “Short Rope”

430 In order to form a short rope, take up the rope by looping it around your upper body and then tie it off with a knot (see Abb. 77).

220

Abb. 77: Fig. 79: Tie off a rope on a combined harness (left) and on a seat harness (right)

Several Roped-up Persons ???

“Several roped-up persons” is a form of roping up used 431 for simultaneous movements on glaciers up to UIAA difficulty level II. For details see chapter K, section III: “Roping up on glaciers”.

221 V. Anchors

1. General

432 Anchors are connections to the ground. They are the preconditions for protecting a climber, for constructing a protected route, and for mountain rescue operations.

433 We distinguish between natural and artificial anchors. Anchors can be loaded in one or different directions and can be of different quality. This is a factor you should consider when installing and using them.

434 An anchor is a belay point established by means of carabiners, slings, accessory cords or ropes. It is used for the transmission of forces.

2. Natural Anchors

435 - Trees - Rock projections - Boulders - Chockstones - Tunnels

436 Anchors on trees can be set quickly and easily. However, consider the proper thickness of trees or roots and their condition. When used as a permanent anchor, take an underlay for protection.

222 The anchor can be tied to the tree etc. by means of a rope ring (rope, accessory cord), a winding, or a knot (see Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.).

Fig. 78: Anchor on trees, made of a rope ring (top), a winded rope (centre), or a knot (secured, threaded clove hitch, bottom)

223

437 A rock projection (see Fig. 79) is a part of the bedrock and can only be loaded in one direction. When attaching slings or ropes to it, consider the sharp edges.

Fig. 79: Rock Projection

438 A boulder (see Fig. 80) is a more or less exposed body of rock. Its effect is based on weight, friction and solidity. Thus, before using it you should assess its mass and its stability.

224

Fig. 80: Boulder

A chockstone (see Abb. 81) is a piece of rock that has got 439 stuck between two walls of rock. Before using it, assess the clamping and loading direction.

Abb. 81: Chockstone A tunnel (see Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht 440 gefunden werden.) can be natural or manmade (drilled).

225 Depending on its shape and dimensions, tunnels can be loaded in several directions. Avoid traverse loads. Consider sharp edges.

Fig. 82: Tunnels: Natural (left) and manmade (right)

3. Artificial Anchors:

441 - Bolts - Normal pitons - Chocks, friction anchors - Other anchors

442 Bolts are devices which are spread or pasted into holes.

We distinguish between - mechanical systems (friction-locked or form-locked systems, and - chemical systems (composite lock)

226 The components of standardized bolts (EN and UIAA) 443 have to be made from the same material and show the following tensile strengths (see Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.):

Fig. 83: Tensile strengths of standardized bolts

444 During military operations, we use mechanical systems. They work by means of expansion (friction- locking) or form locking and can be loaded without delay. Due to their expansion pressure, friction-locking systems cause a bursting effect. Form-locking systems, however, are nearly free of expansion pressure. When installing one of these systems, follow the operating rules issued by the producer of the system in order to avoid mistakes. Chemical systems (glue-in bolts) are mainly used for the construction of training facilities (climbing crags). However, the chances of making a mistake when installing them are higher than with mechanical systems. They are glued into the

227 rock with special glue and according to the regulations of the producer. They may only be loaded when the glue is cured. The curing time depends on the temperature and the type of glue. For details see the operating instructions.

445 When using already installed bolts for training or operations, they need to be assessed thoroughly. In case of mechanical systems, consider – the distance to cracks and edges of rock (expanding effect), - the creation of cracks, - the length of the protruding threaded rod, and - the tightness of the nut.

Chemical systems are difficult to assess. However, the following indicators may point to mistakes made during their installation: - the eye of the glue-in bolt is not in contact with the rock - the drill hole is not completely filled with composite glue - the bolt is loose, which is an indication that the glue is not at all or badly connected with the rock. For detailed inspection, hook a carabiner on the bolt and tilt it. By turning the carabiner, you can check if the bolt is moving or not.

228 Normal pitons are driven into cracks by means of a rock 446 hammer. Depending on the type of rock and the shape of the crack, we use different types of pitons. A normal piton is always a questionable anchor. The EN norm distinguishes between pitons for progressing and safety pitons. Safety pitons are marked with an “S” and their shafts have a minimum length of 90 mm. The breaking load of the material is similar to that of bolts. Differences in standardized designation do not have an impact on the practical use.

Normal pitons are made form 447 - steel or - hardened steel

Normal steel pitons are light-coloured and mainly used for 448 limestone, as they adapt to the crack path. Before driving them in with a hammer, stick one third of the shaft into the crack and then drive them in as much as possible (see Fig. 84).

Normal hardened steel pitons are dark-coloured and 449 mainly used for primary rock. Stick two thirds of the shaft into the crack and then drive them in as much as possible (see Fig. 84).

229

Fig. 84: How to drive in normal hooks made from steel (above) and hardened steel (below).

450 When driving in a normal piton, a - high, singing tone indicates that the piton will hold well whereas a

230 - low, dull tone tells you that the piton won’t hold well.

Already installed normal pitons tend to be overestimated 451 as to their holding force. Just hit the piton several times with the hammer and you will see if it is stable or not.

When a normal piton is not driven in completely, push the 452 sling you fix to it as close to the rock as possible (see Fig. 85).

Fig. 85: How to fix a sling to a piton

V-profile hooks have to be driven in transversely to the 453 path of the crack (see Fig. 86).

231 Right Wrong

Fig. 86: How to drive in a V-profile piton

NOTE: Driving in the piton too firmly loosen it again (break out the rock).

454 Chocks and friction anchors (see Fig. 87) are mobile protection devices that are removed after use.

Fig. 87: A chock (left) and a friction anchor (right)

232 Chocks are mainly used for cracks. The size of a chock 455 depends on the width of the crack. Always try to achieve as much contact with the rock as possible. Also consider the loading direction. After placing the choke, fix it with a firm pull or some light blows of a hammer. To remove them use a chock remover or, for bigger chocks, a rock hammer.

Friction anchors are placed in cracks, holes, or hollows in 456 a way that all segments are in full contact with the rock. However, the segments should not be in minimum or maximum position.

Consider the direction of loading! Avoid leverage effects 457 or the tilting of the anchor when loading it. The use of an extension (e.g. tubular webbing or express sling) will reduce the transmission of the rope’s movement and, thus, prevent an unintended disconnection.

NOTE: When using chocks and friction anchors, consider their bursting effects on the rock.

Other types of anchors: 458 - masts - hand rails, - concrete bases, etc.

Check them for stability before use. Pay special attention to possible damage of ropes and webbing (slings).

233 VI. Constructing a Belay Station on a Rocky Surface

1. General

Moving in difficult terrain requires the installation of belay station anchors, hereinafter called belay stations. A belay station prevents, in the worst case, the fall of a whole rope party. Its construction is a complex challenge. On a belay station, forces can act in any direction, especially in case of a fall (exception: belay station built for only one direction). Constantly changing terrain requires appropriate selection, use and adaptation of the protection systems.

Basic terms for the construction of a belay station: - Anchors - Direction of fall tension - Central point - Anchor belaying - Body belaying Anchors can retain loads working in various directions of tension. Besides the direction of tension, the quality of the construction (expected value of retention) is also of importance. In this regard, we distinguish between

- reliable anchors and - questionable anchors.

Reliable anchors like nonstandard bolts, tunnels as thick as an arm, trees, massive rock projections, boulders, etc. can have retention forces of more than 10 kN.

234

It is not possible to exactly assess the retention forces of questionable anchors. Most probably, their retention forces are below 10 kN. The spectrum of anchors reaches from well-set chocks or friction anchors to good normal pitons, old, non-standard bolts, bad normal pitons or questionable chocks.

The direction of the fall tension is an essential criterion when building a belay station. When a lead climber falls and is arrested by an intermediate belay point, the tensile force normally also works upwards (which is certainly not the case when you have traversed a wall of rock right after the belay station.) When the trail climber falls or, even worse, the lead climber falls into the belay station (which is the biggest force a belay station can be affected by and, thus, the worst possible situation), the fall tension will work downwards.

The central point is the point at which self and comrade belays are hooked up and directly connected with all anchors of the belay station. For that, you can use ring pitons, locking carabiners, the “soft eye”, or the tie-in ring of the seat harness in case of body belaying (military mountain guides only!).

In case of anchor belaying (see Fig. 88), fix the central point to one of the anchors. For that, you can use a locking carabiner, a “soft eye”, or a ring piton.

235

Fig. 88: Anchor Belaying

In case of body belaying (see Fig. 89), the tie-in ring of the seat harness is used as the central point. We distinguish between active and passive body belaying. As the belayer is part of the chain of protection, the following criteria must be met to use this system: - Climbers must have experience in retaining colleagues that have fallen over their own body - Only a slight difference in the weights of the climbers (lead climber must not be more than 20 heavier than follower) - Pull tension must work upwards (see margin no. Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.; lead climber is belayed with a tuber). - Sufficient space above the belayer

236 - sufficient length of rope for the self-belaying of the belayer (at least 1.5 m)

Fig. 89: Body Belaying

NOTE: Body belaying may only be used by military mountain guides. Exception: Top rope belaying on indoor climbing walls and in climbing crags.

Belay Station Systems

For the construction of a belay station, you can choose between different systems. Consider the following criteria: - sufficient safety

237 - simple and clear - easy to construct and to remove

Further criteria to be met, if possible:

- Redundancy: This means that, when an anchor breaks off, at least one additional anchor should be able to absorb the released energy: Exception: Sufficiently reliable single anchors (see margin no. 0) as well as anchors positioned in snow and ice (see chapter K/section IV: “Walking on Glaciers/Climbing on Ice and Snow”)

- No additional force affecting the belay station: The belay station should be built in a way that, if an anchor breaks off, the other still working belays are not immediately affected by a force other than that generated by the broken off anchor.

- Be prepared for the worst case: When the lead climber falls into the belay station, the greatest force will be generated before the first intermediate belay. Therefore, in case of questionable anchors, place at least two anchors for downward and one anchor plus body for upward absorption of tensile forces. - Normally, climbers use anchor belaying. Body belaying is the exception.

NOTE: Belaying by using only the weight of the belayer’s body is a technique that may only be used by military mountain guides.

238 The system used for the construction of a belay station depends on the terrain. Therefore, use and adapt the basic belay station systems listed below as appropriate:

- Belay station based on a series construction - Belay station with fixed equalisation - Belay station with only one anchor - Belay station oriented in one direction only

A belay station based on a series construction is used when the station has to be connected to - two reliable anchors or - one reliable and one questionable anchor.

If connected to two reliable anchors, one anchor alone will be loaded by the falling climber. The second anchor is only a backup. Hook up the central point only to the lower anchor. When the anchors are place at the same altitude, you have to fix the central point in the direction of climbing.

As a central point you may use: - a climbing rope with a figure of eight knot - a webbing with a “soft eye” - a locking carabiner

When you use a locking carabiner as central point, body belaying has to take place at the closed side (spine) of the carabiner. A series construction can be made by using a climbing rope or a belay station sling.

239 When using a climbing rope, a series construction can be made of clove hitches or one figure of eight knot and one clove hitch (see Fig. 90).

240

Fig. 90: Series construction with a climbing rope and a locking carabiner as the central point (left), or with a figure of eight knot as the central point (right).

When making a series construction with a sling, make the belay station sling first. For that, take a long sling and tie a “soft eye” by means of a double bowline knot (see Fig. 91).

Fig. 91: Soft Eye

241 For a belay station sling, the “soft eye” is its central point. A second anchor is connected to it by means of a granny knot or a clove hitch with hooked-in loop (see Fig. 92).

Fig. 92: A series construction with belay station sling, tied back with a granny knot or a clove hitch

When the belay station is attached to one reliable and one questionable anchor, also use a series construction. In case the lower anchor is questionable, nevertheless fix the central point to it because the load will anyway be transmitted to the higher, reliable one. When the anchors are at the same level, always use the reliable anchor as the central point (see Fig. 93).

242

Fig. 93: Series construction, fixed to one reliable and one questionable anchor.

243 2. Belay Station with Fixed Equalisation

When there are only questionable anchors available for the construction of a belay station, use the fixed equalisation system. It will prevent additional forces from affecting the system in case of the failure of an anchor. When using a lead climber, tighten the fixed equalisation in downward direction by means of at least one anchor and the weight of the belayer (see Fig. 94).

As a rule - place at least two anchors for downward pull tension and - one anchor plus the weight of your body for upward pull tension.

You can use a locking carabiner or the granny knot loop of the fixed equalisation as the central point.

244

Fig. 94: Belay station with fixed equalisation for the trail climber (left) and tightened downward for the lead climber (right).

If there are several questionable anchors available, follow the “fixed equalisation principle” by using additional material (see Fig. 95).

245 .

Fig. 95: Belay station with several questionable anchors (left: for the trailing climber, right: tightened downward for the lead climber).

246 3. Attaching the Belay Station to an Anchor

Provided that an anchor is sufficiently dimensioned, you can also use it as the basis for a belay station.

Such anchors can be: - trees (at least 15 cm thick and well-rooted) - boulders - rock projections - tunnels (at least as thick as a man’s forearm and well- grown), - vehicles

In exceptional cases, a belay station can also be fixed to only one standard bolt.

If there is a risk of being involuntarily lifted off upwards, the anchor must be connected another anchor by means of e.g. a tightened cord which is secured by a clove hitch (see Fig. 96).

247

Fig. 96: Tying off an anchor set on a rock projection

4. Belay Station Constructed for a Single Direction

When abseiling, lowering a load, or building a protected route, the load will work in a previously known direction. Therefore, it will not be necessary to tie off (belay station built for only one direction of load).

However, stick to the following basic rules: – Avoid additional forces working on the belay station when one anchor breaks off (series construction, fixed equalisation).

248 - When sufficiently dimensioned, one anchor point normally is enough

For a belay station built for abseiling, you may use the accessory cords as depicted below:

Fig. 97: A fixed equalisation, built by means of an accessory cord and used for abseiling (left), or – which is an exception – built with an accessory cord in the form of a single strand (right)

NOTE: For belay stations, you should use accessory cords at least in the form of a double strand. Use locking carabiners for central points and for self and buddy belaying.

249

250 251

252 Fig. 98 (below) will provide you an overview of belay station systems.

253 Initial Eval uation Situation Solution Remark No additional measures necessary for load working in one direction only.

For forces working upward (lead climber) tie off to one anchor and to the body (body only = exception)

254 Initial Situation Solution Remark E val Focal point below or in the direction of climbing

Focal point below with force transmitted to the reliable anchor. When horizontally arranged, always use the anchor.

Two questionable anchors. Downwards: fixed balance, upwards: tied off at an additional anchor.

No additional anchor available for tying off. Only possible by using one’s body (military mountainguides only!). Fig. 98: Belay Station Systems (Overview)

255

256 VII. Climbing as a Member of a Roped Party

1. Rope Party Procedures

Roped parties set intermediate anchors to reduce the distance of fall and the forces affecting the chain of protection when climbing.

When setting an intermediate anchor, make sure that

- the rope is running as straight as possible - the direction of fall does not push the rope against the open side (gate) of the carabiner - the carabiner does not get kinked, and - mobile protection devices are not pulled out by the traveling rope

For a path of rope as linear as possible, you may have to prolong the intermediate anchors, if necessary. Rope commands (climbing calls) control the cooperation of the members of a roped party. If there is no visual/acoustic contact or the tactical situation requires, such commands can also be given by pulling the rope (silent climbing calls). However, climbing calls require experience and a well-attuned party.

257 Silent Situation Rope Command Rope Command Belayer Climber Belayer Climber Lead climber has hooked himself to an Belay on! intermediate anchor Ten, Five, Running out of Set up rope the belay!

Lead climber Pull has finished Off belay! three climbing and is times anchored. Second climber Pull has unhooked Take in! three buddy times protection The slack rope has been taken Out (of in. Rope is rope)! under tension The MMG has hooked in the Follow! Pull the buddy rope protection The follower Coming starts climbing !

For buddy protection (belaying) you may use the following systems:

258 - Italian hitch - Tuber - Plate system (e.g. GIGI), and - Carabiner-folded rope protection

The Italian hitch is the easiest method and needs the least amount of material. When using the half rope technique for climbing, each strand of rope has to run through its own Italian hitch (HMS) carabiner (see Fig. 99).

Fig. 99: Using an Italian hitch for buddy belaying (left: single rope, right: half rope technique)

The tuber is especially suited for belaying climbers who

259 use the half rope technique. For single ropes, the tuber is mainly used on artificial climbing walls and climbing crags, together with the body belay technique.

When using the tuber, make sure to use ropes with a diameter big enough to develop a sufficient braking effect. Use the tuber according to its construction. When using a tuber as a roped party, you will have to distinguish between tubers used for the belaying of the lead climber and tubers used for the belaying of the followers.

For the belaying of the lead climber, the outgoing rope has to be deflected to develop a sufficient braking effect in case a climber falls from its belay station. The deflection has to be maintained at least until the lead climber has attached himself to a solid intermediate belay, or until a fall from the belay station can be excluded (see Fig. 100).

260

Fig. 100: Tuber, used for belaying the lead climber

For the belaying of the following climbers, the tuber is used in the form of a plate system (see Fig. 101).

261

Fig. 101: Tuber, used in the form of a plate system

For a roped party, a plate system can only be used to belay the persons climbing behind the lead climber (see Fig. 102).

262

Fig. 102: Plates systems, used for the belaying of persons climbing behind the lead climber

The carabiner-folded rope protection (Karabinerknicksicherung) (see Fig. 103) is used by military mountain guides (MMGs) to establish belay stations in snow, firn, and easily viable ice and rock terrain. It has a low braking effect and is especially suitable together with ice picks and skis rammed into the ground.

263

Fig. 103: Carabiner-folded rope protection

A roped party can climb using the

- staggered technique, - the leapfrogging technique, - or its members can climb simultaneously

When using the staggered technique, the lead climber is belayed by a member of the roped party. He overcomes difficult terrain, establishes a belay station, and belays the climbers that follow him. The staggered technique is used by two man, three man, four man, and five man parties. The distance between the belay stations depends on the terrain, the visibility, and the physical fitness of the climber(s) following the lead climber. When using the staggered climbing technique, the roped party needs to be regrouped at each belay station. Thus, a

264 staggered party needs more time than a party using the bounding technique.

Moving to a new belay station: - The lead climber belays the following climbers until they reach the belay station - The second (and third) climber attach themselves to the station and pass on the equipment to the lead climber - If necessary, the rope is pulled through from the side of the second climber – The second climber hooks in the buddy belay device of the lead climber. When using a tuber, the first intermediate belay device also needs to be hooked in immediately. - After checking the buddy belay and as soon as the two climbers are ready, the lead climber unhooks his self-belay device and continues to climb.

The leapfrogging climbing technique is used in difficult terrain and when the team members have sufficient skills. Most of the time, climbers use the whole length of rope for that. Lead climbers relieve each other. Climbing in leapfrogging formation is only possible for two man rope parties. It fosters speed.

Simultaneous climbing enables speedy advance in easy terrain containing short, steep slopes, on ridges, and on mountain flanks covered with snow, ice, and firn. Simultaneous climbing is possible with a - rope coiled for transport and a - rope used for the belaying of the second climber

265 Simultaneous climbing with a rope coiled for transport is used in walking terrain without a risk of falling. It is a method to cross easy portions of terrain quickly and without untying from the rope. In this case, the lead climber can carry several rope slings with one hand. The distance to his follower is about 3 to 4 meters. The rope does not have a belaying function. Simultaneous climbing with a rope used to belay the second climber is called “leading on the short-fixed rope”, which is the most difficult leading technique and may only be used by MMGs. In this case, the rope has a belaying function. For roping up see margin no. Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden. et seqq.

2. Leading on the Short-fixed Rope

The decision to lead on the short-fixed rope depends on the following criteria: - Terrain difficulties (e.g. walking terrain, rugged terrain, ridges, mountain flanks covered with firn) - Current conditions (e.g. snow, ice) - Consequences caused by the slipping of a colleague - Possibilities and time needed to establish a belay - Number of climbers led - Weight ratio between the MMG, the persons led by him and additional loads - Physical condition, experience and general state of health of the MMG

Leading on the short-fixed rope is possible - without rope loops (active belaying)

266 - with a hand strap (active belaying) - with rope loops in the hands of the MMG (variable length of rope, shortened rope)

When leading on the short-fixed rope without rope loops (see Fig. 104), the MMG and his follower have to climb simultaneously, keeping the rope tight. This method can be used on rocks as well as on mountain flanks covered with snow, firn, and ice.

Fig. 104: Leading on a short-fixed rope without rope loops

When leading on a short-fixed rope with hand strap (see Fig. 105), the MMG uses one hand for climbing and the other for balancing. He keeps the rope tight. The hand strap is either formed by means of a leader’s strap (e.g. a small granny knot strap) or by forming 2 to 3 small straps of approx. 1 meter.

267 In case the second climber falls, the MMG can allow the rope to slide through his hand and, thus, dynamically compensate the first pull.

Fig. 105: Leading on the short-fixed rope with hand strap (left: leader’s strap, right: 2 to 3 normal rope straps)

The method of leading on the short-fixed rope with rope loops in the hand of the MMG (see fig. 108) is often used in varying terrain. On the one hand, it allows simultaneous walking (like with the hand sling), on the other hand it makes it possible to overcome difficult portions of terrain by means of staggered climbing. Belaying can be provided via a hand, the body, a rock jag, but also via an anchor (belay station).

268

Fig. 106: Leading on the short-fixed rope with rope slings in the hand of the MMG

When leading on the short-fixed rope, the distance between the MMG and the second climber is normally about 2 to 3 meters. Exception: jump rope (see margin no. 0). The rope is kept so tight that a stumbling soldier cannot gain momentum. In order not to be brought out of balance by a sudden pull, slightly bend the elbow of the hand that controls the rope. In case the MMG controls the rope movement with a hand strap or a rope loop, he should always use the downhill side hand for that. When the roped party consists of more than two persons, the distance between the climbers following the MMG has to be as short as possible (not more than 2 meters). The weakest of them moves directly behind the MMG. Make sure the rope is always kept tight between these soldiers. When performing a diagonal ascent on the short-fixed rope (see Fig. 107), the MMG moves above the following

269 climber. When it is possible for him to make a good track by means of his steps or if such a track is already available, he makes the following climbers walk one behind the other on this track. If it is not possible to make a good track, the climbers following the MMG use their own track, which has to follow the fall line of the MMG.

Fig. 107: Diagonal ascent

When ascending along the fall line on a short-fixed rope, the MMG goes first and the others use his track. Depending on the steepness of the slope, they use the following walking positions: – MMG and his followers walk upright - MMG walks upright, followers use the support technique

270 - MMG and followers use the support technique

If the MMG is able to make a good track with his steps when traversing a slope on the short-fixed rope, or if such a track is already available, the follower(s) use(s) this track. Keep the distances between the roped-up climbers short. When using an ice axe, use it on the upslope side of your body. If there is already a track available for horizontal or slightly sloping traverse movements, the MMG may also move as the trailing member of the roped party. If there is no track or the MMG is not able to make a track, the followers walk below the MMG. If two soldiers follow the MMG, they use the rope between them for belaying (see Fig. 108).

271

Fig. 108: Traversing a slope with two followers moving below the MMG

When the terrain does not permit simultaneous walking during a traverse movement, climbers use the staggered movement technique. When moving in rocky terrain, rock jags or rock projections can be used for belaying. Descending on a short-fixed rope is like ascending. However, the MMG moves above the follower(s). It is him who decides about the technique to be used, depending on the physical condition of the follower(s) and the terrain.

Especially on a rocky ridge, the short-fixed rope leading technique often is the most convenient one. Rock jags or boulders offer time and again possibilities for belaying. The

272 lead climber especially has to assess risks of swinging and falling. On firn, ice and snow ridges, you will not find many possibilities for belaying. In order to prevent a slipping climber from falling, the selection of the proper leading technique is decisive. Careful crampon technique of the follower(s) can reduce this risk.

When leading on the short-fixed rope along ridges covered with firn, ice, or snow, the MMG may use the following techniques:

- Walking on the edge of the ridge - Walking on both sides of the edge of the ridge - Walking on one side of the edge of the ridge - Staggered walking and belaying from belay stations

You walk on the edge of a ridge when its flanks are too steep or the situation requires doing so. As a rule, the MMG walks above the follower(s). In case of a good track leading along flat or slightly sloping edges, it is also possible to let the followers go first (see fig. 111). The MMG, however, takes up 5 to 10 m of rope and holds it in his hands (jump rope) in order to be able to jump to the other side of the ridge should a member of the roped party falls.

273

Fig. 109: Walking along the edge of a ridge

When walking along both sides of a ridge (Fig. 110), the MMG walks on one side of the ridge and the followers on the opposite side. This is the safest technique.

274

Fig. 110: Walking on both sides of the edge of a ridge

Walking on one side of the edge of a ridge (fig. 113) is used when the ridge is corniced. In this case proceed like during traverse movements or diagonal ascents/descents (see margin no. Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden. and 532).

275

Fig. 111 Walking on one side of the edge of a ridge

In case of heavily corniced ridges or risk of snow slab, simultaneous walking on short-fixed rope can be dangerous. Better use the staggered walking technique, and build belay stations for belaying. For mountain flanks covered with snow, firn and easily viable ice, consistency and steepness are decisive factors. Parties are led on the short-fixed ropes without rope sling. When moving on blank ice, the use of the short-fixed rope is an exception. It may only be used in moderately steep terrain, together with good quality of ice and good ice climbing skills of the soldiers following the lead climber.

276 During unfavourable conditions or insufficient physical fitness, tiblocs may be used for intermediate belaying when moving on firn or ice-covered mountain flanks. If so, the MMG climbs ahead and installs an intermediate belay by means of a tibloc. From this time, the MMG and his follower(s) start climbing simultaneously along a tensioned rope. If necessary, the MMG places further intermediate tibloc belays. In doing so, he has to take care that the rope is deflected via the frame of a carabiner (see Fig. 112).

Fig. 112: A tibloc, used for intermediate belaying

277 VIII. Aid Climbing

1. General

Aid climbing makes ascents easier in difficult terrain or when carrying heavy loads. Aid climbing is performed by means of - artificial/natural anchors - climbing aids - ascent techniques in combination with ropes

459 Before using artificial or natural anchors for aid climbing, assess them as to their solidity. In doing so, we differentiate between

- anchors used for movement only (must be able to sustain an impact two to three times the body weight) and - anchors which can also be used for belaying.

460 Devices that can be used as climbing aids: - tubular slings - accessory cords and - etriers

461 The etrier technique (see Fig. 113) is used to cross difficult climbing sections that require technical support. When using the etrier technique, make sure that the etrier hook (fifi hook) drops out automatically when you continue your ascent.

278

Fig. 113: The etrier technique

Climbing techniques on the rope: 462 - Rope hoist technique - Traversing techniques - Ascent on the rope by means of ascenders - Hoisting of soldiers and material

2. Rope Hoist Technique

The rope hoist technique is used the save energy when 463 crossing difficult terrain. It is used by the climber himself (self-hoisting) or by the rope partner. It can also be combined with climbing aids.

We distinguish between

279 - single rope (single strand) hoist technique and - half rope hoist technique

464 When using the single rope hoist technique (see Fig. 114), you fix an accessory cord of at least 1.5 m to the chest/seat harness combination and clip it into a carabiner. Then hoist yourself. In doing so, the belay rope will be unloaded and therefore can be hooked into the intermediate belay.

Fig. 114: The single rope hoist technique

280 When using the half rope hoist technique, you take one of 465 the two rope strands instead of the accessory cord. Otherwise proceed as if using the single rope technique.

Traversing techniques We distinguish between 466 - rope hoist traverse - abseiling traverse and - pendulum traverse

When performing the rope hoist traverse (see Abb. 115), 467 you use a lateral rope hoist to traverse short sections of a wall you cannot cross without climbing aids. Make sure the rope is kept taut by the belayer. The first climber braces himself against the direction of pull of the rope. On the command of the first climber, the belayer releases the rope.

Abb. 115: Rope hoist traverse

281 468 The abseiling traverse (see Abb. 116) is used to cross difficult parts of a wall when abseiling. Proceed as follows:

- Prepare the climbing rope for abseiling - The first climber abseils, bracing himself against the direction of pull of the rope. - Intermediate belays may be placed as necessary in order to prevent too strong swinging - The second climber abseils also and unhooks the intermediate belays. The ends of the ropes need to be fixed to the anchors.

Abb. 116: Abseiling traverse

469 The pendulum traverse (see Abb. 117) is used to cross difficult, also overhanging sections. Proceed as follows:

282 – The first climber hooks the rope into an anchor as high as possible and is then lowered. By swinging, he will again reach climbable terrain.

- the second climber o is either pulled up as described in the retraction procedure (see margin no. 0 et seqq.) or o also swings to climbable terrain (elevated belay station)

Abb. 117: Pendulum traverse

3. Rope Climbing by Means of Ascenders

Ascenders (see Fig. 118) allow climbers to follow the lead 470 climber quickly without being trained for the level of difficulty they are confronted with.

Proceed as follows:

283 - Hang two ascenders into the rope that is fixed to a belay station - Then continue as if using the prusik technique (see margin no. 0 et seq.). - In the upper ascender, you hook a carabiner into the eye next to the rope, thus enclosing the rope.

Protection against unhooking

Fig. 118: Rope climbing by means of ascenders

284 4. Hoisting of Soldiers and Material

Use this technique 471 - at places that cannot be crossed (when carrying equipment) or - when you need to transport additional material

Hoisting is done by using 472 - the hand-over-hand technique - a pulley, or - a team of climbing partners

Hand-over-hand hoisting is the quickest method. It may 473 only be used for light loads. When hoisting soldiers or heavy loads, install a return stop. You may also use rope pulleys to reduce friction.

Hoisting by means of a pulley or a team of climbing 474 partners (Mannschaftszug) is described in chapter P, section IV: “Improvised Mountain Rescue”.

285 IX. Abseiling and Lowering

1. Abseiling

Abseiling allows fast and safe crossing of difficult terrain. It is used when descending or climbing down is too dangerous, too time-consuming or not possible. Abseiling can be used – after proper training – by each soldier on his own and without supervision. When using a standard harness system, abseiling is possible in any terrain. Prior to that, the abseil site has to be checked by appropriately qualified personnel (military mountain guide (MMG), military mountain specialist (MMS), protection system manufacturer).

An abseil site consists of: - The location proper from which the soldier abseils (abseil station) - all protection measures included (e.g. self-belaying, fixed ropeways), and - all preparatory measures necessary for abseiling.

You can abseil on a single or on a two-strand rope. When using a half rope, you have to abseil on two strands. Two ropes are tied together with a granny knot or, in case of different rope diameters, with a package knot. When building an abseil station for the abseiling of several soldiers, you have to secure the rope strands against sideward movements and sliding through the carabiner etc. in case of rockfall. This can be achieved most conveniently by

286 means of a stone knot, a figure-eight knot, or by fixing each single strand to the belay station (see Fig. 119).

Fig. 119: Abseil station – protection against sideward movement and sliding

NOTE: In order to prevent the soldier from abseiling beyond the end of the rope, tie a rope into the knot approx. 40cm before its end.

For abseiling, you have to - hook the ropes to the belay station - pick them up by using the rope loop method, and

287 - throw them away from the wall so that they cannot get entangled into each other, if possible.

Before throwing the ropes you call “Rope!” (aka “Below!”) in order to warn your colleagues.

When abseiling, consider the following (see Fig. 120): - Belaying takes place with a friction hitch or an additional safety rope. - Avoid sudden loading of the belay station. - Bend the upper body slightly forward at waist level and open the legs to hip width, then flex the knees slightly and place the feet as much as possible on the ground. - Prepare a self-belay sling and hook it into the next belay station. - After that, remove the abseiling/belay gear and the friction hitch/safety rope. Then report: “Belay off!” - If possible, avoid staying in the fall line (risk of rockfall).

288

Fig. 120: Abseiling

For abseiling, you use the figure eight descender, the tuber or, as an exception, the HMS carabiner. Hook it into the rope-up point by means of a locking carabiner. Friction hitch belaying takes place below the abseiling/belaying device. The friction hitch is tied into the leg loops (combination harness) and into the lowest rope-up point or clipped in by means of a locking carabiner. The length should be such that the friction hitch does not touch the abseiling/belaying device and cannot be pulled into it. For that, you may, when using the seat harness, fix the belaying device above the harness by using a sling (see Fig. 121).

289

Do not hold the braking hand too close to the abseiling/belaying device. Use the second hand to loosely control the friction hitch.

Fig. 121: Belaying by means of a friction hitch (left: combination harness, right: seat harness)

You can refrain from setting a belay when a soldier is supervising the abseiling process at the end of the rope and is able to stop it by putting the rope under tension, if needed.

290 Withdrawing the ropes

When two ropes are tied together, withdraw one on each side of the connecting knot. When using abseil rings, place the connecting knot next to the wall (see Fig. 122).

Fig. 122: Ropes ready for withdrawing

Before the abseiling of the last soldier, an already abseiled soldier has to check the proper withdrawing of the ropes. When using a figure eight descender, the parallel running of the ropes during the abseiling of the last soldier is achieved by clipping in an additional carabiner (see Fig. 123).

291

Fig. 123: An additional carabiner, to make the ropes run parallel

Withdraw the ropes equally in order to prevent them from getting entangled. Pay special attention to the risk of rockfall.

Removable Abseiling Gear At very steep or overhanging abseil stations or when abseiling beginners, you can use a removable system, which makes it possible to lower the abseiling soldier in case of an emergency.

292 For that, you should have available excess rope in the length of at least the abseiling height (which may be achieved by connecting two single strand ropes or four half ropes). The rope adapted to the abseiling height is releasably fixed to the belay station (see Fig. 124), then the abseiling/belaying gear and the belay prusik/belay rope are hooked in (attached), and the soldier abseils. When a soldier gets stuck, the fixing can be released and the soldier can be lowered to the ground.

Fig. 124: Removable system, to be used at an abseil station

293 ATTENTION: To prevent the ends of the ropes from running through the carabiner, fix them or tie a knot.

Abseil Track

An abseil track is a succession of several prepared abseil stations. In doing so, it is possible to overcome large differences in altitude. On an abseil track, soldiers abseil at first from one abseil station. Distance “A” (see Fig. 125) normally is one rope length (pitch). It should not exceed 100 m. If there is a short lateral distance, called SG (see Fig. 125), between the abseil stations, the ends of the ropes need to be fixed to the next abseil station. Let the rope slack. In case of a big lateral distance, belaying takes place in the form of a ropeway. Attention: Fix the ends of the ropes used at the previous abseil station to the beginning of the rope handrail. Let the rope slack. If possible, place the next abseil station off the fall line.

294

Fig. 125: Abseil Track

2. Lowering

When lowering a soldier, he is slowly let down by another soldier by means of an abseiling/belaying device. At the lowering site, you have to prepare - the lowering station - all security measures (e.g. self-belay, rope handrail, rope brake, etc.), and - all measures necessary for lowering When reconnoitring and preparing a lowering site, consider the following points, if possible: - Abseiling/lowering to be performed in advance, and assessment of possible risks (e.g. rockfall, sharp edges)

For beginners’ training also

295 - do not use slings or plateaus on which the abseiling soldiers might stop or rope loops could form; - keep visual contact between the person operating the abseil/belay gear and the soldier that is being lowered (if necessary, position a third person between them to maintain contact.

Use only adequately trained personnel for lowering operations (MMG, MMS, protection system manufacturer, member of a mountain infantry platoon)

For lowering, you have to continually release the rope by alternately using the left and the right hand. Keep enough distance between the abseil/belay gear and the rope. In case of adverse environmental conditions (cold, humidity, rockfall) and when training beginners, the abseil/belay gear can be additionally attached with a - friction hitch or a - second soldier (backup).

For lowering, you can use the following abseil/belay gear: - Figure eight descender - Tuber - HMS carabiner

Attach them to the belay station by means of a locking carabiner. Using the figure eight descender of the Austrian Armed Forces (see Fig. 126) without deflection is only allowed in appropriate terrain and /or with little additional load.

296

Fig. 126: Lowering by means of a figure eight descender

When lowering in the deflection mode by means of a figure eight descender or a tuber (see fig. 129), use a locking carabiner for deflection. Fixing (tying up, slip knot) takes place at the locking carabiner. In exceptional cases, you may also use a snap carabiner.

297 Fig. 127: Lowering on a deflected rope by means of a figure eight descender (left) or a tuber (right)

Lowering with an HMS carabiner causes intense entanglement. You can avoid this by parallel running ropes. In order to increase the braking effect, you may use a double HMS when lowering heavy loads (see Fig. 128)).

Fig. 128: Lowering by means of a double HMS

Tie the brake rope directly into the rope-up point or clip it to it by means of a locking carabiner (see Fig. 129). Fix the loose end of the rope or tie a knot to prevent it from running through the carabiner.

You can refrain from that when 298 - the brake rope is longer than the lowering distance and - there is no risk of falling at the end of the lowering section

Fig. 129: Lowering

299 X. Climbing on Artificial Climbing Structures and in Climbing Crags

1. General

Climbing on artificial climbing structures (e.g. climbing walls, climbing gyms) and in climbing crags is done at all training levels with the aim to gain experience in movement and in climbing techniques. Basically, topics already covered in this chapter have to be complied with.

As to the execution, the following specialities and exceptions apply:

- Rope up only when wearing a seat harness - You may use body belaying (only when belaying at the base of the rock wall) - Belay by means of an HMS or a tuber. - Secure the loose end of the rope with a knot to prevent it from running through the carabiner - Get directly tied to the rope by means of a figure eight knot or a double bowline knot. In case of top rope climbing, you may also use two opposing locking carabiners or a safelock carabiner (see Fig. 130).

– Check your buddy by:

- checking his harness system and, - prior to each climbing, tour check o the rope-up knot and the carabiners of the rope-up point

300 o the belay device and the carabiners used, and o the knot at the end of the rope.

Fig. 130: Tying in with 2 locking carabiners

2. Climbing Crags

Normally you will not find top-rope stations in climbing crags. Therefore it is necessary to place them at already prepared anchor points. If so, use the redundancy principle, i.e. set two anchor points that are independent of each other (exception: a sufficiently massive natural anchor point like e.g. a tree etc.). These independent anchor points can be connected by using a series connection or a fixed equalisation (see Fig. 131).

301

Fig. 131: Deflection with fixed equalisation

Rope deflection also has to be redundant (see Fig. 132). If necessary, use/adapt the systems displayed in the following figures according to the conditions you may encounter.

302

Fig. 132: Redundant rope deflection

When the terrain requires to move the deflection point forward (e.g. across the edge of a rock), you have to assess

303 possible effects of sharp rock edges as well as the influence of friction and scrubbing on the extended rope. When using a top rope station in open terrain for a longer period of time, check it regularly.

Rethreading at the deflector

When you want to deflect the rope directly at a ring or directly through a hook eye (circular), you need to rethread the rope. For that, you have to proceed as follows (see Fig. 133): – Phase I: - When arriving at the deflector, the climber belays himself (e.g. with an express or tubular sling). - Then he sticks the rope that comes from below through the deflector (in the form of a double rope). - After that, the ties a figure eight knot into this rope and hooks it to the rope-up point by means of a locking carabiner (= double belaying: express sling and rope)

– Phase II: - The climber opens the roping-up knot. - He establishes contact with the belayer, who will then put tension on the rope so that the climber can pull himself into the direction of the deflection point - He then removes the self-belay which has been relieved by that. - Finally, the belayer lowers the climber to the ground.

304

Fig. 133: Rethreading the rope at the deflector (Phase I left; phase II right).

3. Artificial Climbing Structures

Most of the time you will find top-rope stations installed on artificial climbing structures. They have to follow the above-mentioned principles of redundancy and prevention of unintended unhooking. When climbing in climbing gyms or climbing crags, use the active body belay system (move into the direction of the fall tension). Also hook the abseil/belay devices (HMS carabiner, tuber) directly to the rope-up point (for a tuber use a locking carabiner).

305 In case the climber is considerably heavier than the belayer (more than 20 %), - the belayer has to attach himself additionally to an anchor point (e.g. by using a long sling) or - the climber has to be belayed from a belay station.

When the difference in weight is somewhat tolerable, additional friction can be achieved by hooking in the first intermediate belay, away from the climbing direction (see Fig. 134).

Fig. 134: Increase of friction by an additional intermediate belay

306 Belaying the lead climber (paying out the rope) in body belay position and by means of an HMS/tuber:

- In the basic position, always keep the braking hand low (see Fig. 135)

Fig. 135: Basic position for body belaying

- For paying out the rope, the braking hand pushes the rope into the abseil/belay device while the controlling hand pays out the rope. 307 - Thus, the braking hand comes nearer to the abseil/belay device and is then again folded down. - After that, the braking and the controlling hand slip a bid downwards, and you reassume the basic position.

308 Top-rope belaying (hauling in the rope) in body belay position by means of an HMS/tuber:

- For taking in the rope, the braking hand is folded upwards. - Then the controlling hand pulls the rope downwards and, at the same time, the braking hand pulls upwards. - After that the braking hand is again folded downwards and the controlling hand slides upwards along the rope. - The braking hand slides upwards along the rope (“tunnel grip”) in order to reassume the basic position

ATTENTION: Independently of the abseil/belay device, always keep one hand on the incoming (braking) rope.

309 XI. Improvised Procedures and Techniques

1. General

When fulfilling military missions it may be necessary to reduce the soldiers’ additional loads to a minimum. During operations and exercises it is also possible that equipment cannot be used any longer due to loss or technical breakdown. In order to ensure mission accomplishment anyway or to counter dangerous situations, you can resort to improvised procedures and techniques.

2. Improvised Chest/Seat Harness

An improvised chest or seat harness (see Fig. 136) is made of two accessory cords. It is used against slipping.

It is used for - climbing on protected routes (with the exception of steel ropes) - several persons tied in to one rope, and - for abseiling/lowering.

Below, you will find a description of how to make an improvised chest/seat harness.

How to make and improvised chest harness

- Put an accessory cord around you upper body (below the armpit).

310 - Cut the cord to length and tie it together with a granny knot. - Put the longer end of the cord crosswise over your shoulder, then pass it around the cord that runs below your armpits and bring it to your back over the other shoulder. - Now tie an overhand knot at the chest side of the cord that runs below your armpits (see Fig. 339). - Tie together, with a granny knot, both sides of the accessory cord - Finally, tie a granny or a figure eight knot at both ends of the accessory cords.

How to make and improvised seat harness

Never use an improvised seat harness alone!

For its construction, proceed as follows: - Divide the accessory cord into two halves. - Depending on the hip measurement, adapt its length by means of a granny knot. - In doing so, you form a sling which you put around the bottom from back to front. - Pass the loose ends of the cord between the legs and to the front (the granny knot is now between the legs). - Pull the ends of the accessory cord from inside through the slings (at the left and right side), and then tie them together with a granny knot. - Pull one loose end of the cord through the chest harness and then tie it together with the other and of the cord by means of a granny knot (see Fig. 136).

311 ATTENTION: An improvised chest/seat harness may only be used when free hanging of the climber can be excluded (see margin no. Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.).

Fig. 136: An improvised chest/seat harness, used for ropeways (left) and for rope-up points (right)

312 3. Improvised Abseiling

Improvised abseiling by means of a Dülfer seat or an abseil sling seat/two-strand carabiner seat is only possible for short distances (one storey high), or for steep sections. When using a single strand rope, improvised abseiling may be used up to one rope length in wooded, grassy or rugged terrain up to an inclination of 45 degrees. Wear sturdy clothing.

When using the Dülfer seat, control the rope as shown in Fig. 137.

313 Fig. 137: Improvised abseiling by means of a Dülfer seat (left-hander).

The abseil sling seat/carabiner seat is made of a long sling or an accessory rope. For that, you put the sling (accessory rope) around the bottom. Then pass the lower cord between the legs, and pull it forward and upwards. Thus, you will have formed three slings which you connect with a locking carabiner on the front side of your body. Now lay the rope into the locking carabiner and, like with the Dülfer seat, over one shoulder. Use the opposite hand for braking (see Fig. 138).

314 Fig. 138: Improvised abseiling with abseil sling seat/carabiner seat (left-hander).

315 K. WALKING ON GLACIERS/ CLIMBING ON ICE AND SNOW

I. General/ Command and Control (C2) Measures

When operating on glaciers you will, beside the general C2 measures quoted in section C (“Military Mountaineering”), also have to consider the following special C2 measures:

- Put on a standard harness system and always hold ready two locking carabiners and one safe-lock carabiner. - Hold ready basic glacier equipment - Order the type of roping up to applied, depending on the situation. - Choose a route adapted to the risk of crevasses, icefall and ice breakage. - Maintain intervals between the climbers during ascent and descent, also when making halts or rest halts. - Use ice climbing equipment (e.g. ice axes, crampons)

Basic glacier equipment is used to set anchors and to transmit loads after a crevasse fall. It has to be carried ready for use by qualified mountaineering personnel. It consists of - a locking carabiner, - an accessory cord, - a long sling, - ice screws (when moving on blank ice),

and

316 - skis, - snow boots, or - ice axes when moving on snow-covered surface.

Besides that, additional equipment for recovery operations should be available in the rucksack.

317 II. Techniques

1. Walking and Climbing with Crampons

When walking on glaciers and climbing on ice, you need to be familiar with the proper movement technique, and also with the handling of the ice gear. However, also steep and icy wooded or grassy terrain and frozen mountain streams or waterfalls may require the use of ice gear. In terrain covered with crusted snow, firn and ice, crampons, together with ice axes, will ensure a safe and quick movement, provided the soldier knows how to walk in snow and how to handle an ice axe properly. When walking with crampons in medium-steep terrain, use the Eckstein technique (see Fig. 139). If so, make sure that all vertical teeth of your crampons are in touch with the surface. Place the feet a hip width, thus preventing the teeth of the crampons from hitting your legs from behind and hurting them, or prevent stumbling. Depending on the steepness, the tips of the shoes are more or less oriented uphill/downhill.

318

Fig. 139: The Eckstein technique

When descending along the fall line (see Fig. 140), place the feet at hip width and in a way that the whole sole and all vertical teeth of the crampons are in touch with the ice. Shift the body centre of gravity to the heels and bend the upper part of your body slightly forward.

319 Fig. 140: Descending along the fall line

In steep terrain you use the front teeth technique (see Fig. 141), which means that you alternately fix your left and right foot with the front teeth of the crampons. For support, you may use ice axes and hands.

Fig. 141: The front teeth technique

2. Handling of an Ice Axe/Steep Ice Gear

An ice axe can be used as a support for walking, climbing and balancing the body. Depending on the conditions, it is used as a – Spazierstock, – Kopfstützpickel, – Seitstützpickel, – Ankerpickel oder – Zugpickel

320 - walking stick - head support axe - lateral support axe - anchor axe, or - pulling axe.

The ice axe is used as a walking stick (Fig. 142) when walking in flat or slightly ascending/descending terrain. Hold the axe by its head with your uphill hand.

Fig. 142: Walking stick

The ice axe is used as a head support axe (see Fig. 143) when ascending and crossing steep terrain covered with ice or compact snow.

321

Fig. 143: Ice axe, used as a head support axe

The ice axe is used as a lateral support axe (see Fig. 144) when performing a traverse movement during an ascent or descent.

Fig. 144:

322 Ice axe, used as a lateral support axe

The ice axe is used as an anchor axe (see Fig. 145) when ascending/descending along the fall line. When you attach the axe to your hand with the axe’s wrist strap, it will be easier to hold it by its shaft.

Fig. 145: Ice axe, used as an anchor axe

When using the ice axe as a pull axe (see Fig. 146), drive the adze into the snow or ice at head level. Then hang on to the head of the axe by grasping it with one hand from below. With the other hand, you press the spike against the slope.

323

Fig. 146: Ice axe, used as a pull axe

3. How to Cut Single Steps and Rows of Steps

On steep slopes covered with condensed snow and ice, you can cut steps by means of an ice axe. Make sure these steps are slightly inclined inwards.

Depending on the steepness of the terrain, you may cut - long steps (horizontal steps) - half steps (vertical steps) and - turning steps/belay steps

You cut long steps for the whole sole of your feet for - traverse movements - diagonal ascents/descents and - sideward descent on a steep slope along the fall line

324 Half steps only provide a stepping surface for a part of the foot and are normally cut when ascending/descending along the fall line.

Turning steps/belay steps should be large enough for both feet and are cut - to change the direction when ascending/descending and - to establish a belay.

Principles for cutting rows of steps:

- Cut two-row steps parallel to each other - The distance between the steps should correspond to the natural size of the steps - The steeper the terrain, the shorter the distance between the steps should be. - As a rule, cut two steps for one belay. Start with the upper one. - Cut turning steps at turning points.

4. Arresting Techniques

Due to the weak friction between the fallen climber and the icy/snowy surface, the climber will reach a high speed within a short period of time. Thus, the fallen person should try to stabilize and to arrest himself as quickly as possible

We distinguish between: - Self-arrest without crampons and ice axe

325 - Self-arrest without crampons, but with ice axe (ice axe rescue grip) - Self-arrest with crampon and ice axe

For arresting yourself without crampons and without ice axe (see Fig. 147), you use the push-up technique: Slightly spread your arms and legs and press the tips of your shoes against the surface. With your arms you keep your body in the push-up position. When falling headlong or on your back, you first of all have to turn around your body.

326

Fig. 147: Self-arrest without crampons and ice axe

327 When arresting yourself without crampons but with an ice axe (see Fig. 148), you will increase the braking effect by pressing the head of the axes into the surface. Subsequently, you pull the ice axe against your body with both hands and press the tips of your shoes into the snow. Keep the head of the axe in an oblique position above your shoulder to avoid injuries.

328

Fig. 148: Self-arrest without crampons, but with an ice axe

When arresting yourself with crampons and an ice axe (see Fig. 149), you go prone and tuck up your legs in order to prevent yourself from getting caught on the surface by your crampons or from falling head over heels.

329

Fig. 149: Self-arrest with crampons and an ice axe

5. Techniques Used in Steep Ice

For crossing steep icy terrain you need not only use ice gear but also special climbing techniques, i.e. - the parallel technique and - the triangle technique.

330 When using the parallel technique (see Fig. 150), you are able to cross flanks and steep sections up to an inclination of 90 degrees. For that, you have to - drive the steep ice tools into the ice at head level, - ascend with small steps by at the same time pulling yourself up at both steep ice tools and assume a stable position, and then - repeat the whole procedure.

Fig. 150: Parallel technique

The basic version of the triangle technique (see Fig. 151) is a good solution for slopes of all degrees of steepness.

When using this technique you - change from your basic position to the triangle position, - keep the second steep ice tool (ice axe) with one hand driven into the ice at shoulder height, - lower the pelvis, and put weight on the supporting arm.

331

- Then you make three small upward steps – the first step you place in the fall line of the upper steep ice tool. – After that, you place the lower steep ice tool at a higher position and laterally from the upper steep ice tool as soon as your head reaches the level of the head of the ice axe. Then you reassume your basic position.

332

Fig. 151: The basic version of the triangle technique

When using the triangle technique with blocking position (see Fig. 152), you will not be able to reassume the basic outstretched arm position. From the blocking position, you will also be able to quickly cross steep climbing sections. Initial position: Starting from the basic position, you assume the triangle position, bringing your head to the height of the upper ice axe. At the same time bend the supporting arm for balancing your body (blocking position).

When using this technique, you - place the second steep ice tool (ice axe) over the first one. - Then you make two upward steps in the direction of the supporting hand. Place the first foot in a diagonally higher position in order to again form a triangle position with the second foot (blocking position).

333

334

Fig. 152: Triangle technique with blocking position

For traverse movements, you use the triangle technique on slopes with an inclination of up to 90% (see Fig. 153). In detail, you

– Drive one steep ice tool into the surface laterally from you and make short steps until you have reached the lower end of the tool. - Then remove the second tool and place it beside the first one. Make sure not to place the tools too close to each other to avoid ice and, as a consequence, the steep ice tools from breaking off.

335

Fig. 153: Triangle technique in a traverse movement

The triangle technique with inward turn of the upper body (see Fig. 154) is used in steep ice for the stabilisation of the body’s centre of gravity.

When using this technique, you – change from the basic position to the triangle position and then, by making two upward steps, to the blocking position. At the same time you turn your body in the direction of the supporting arm. - Then you place the second steep ice tool as high as possible and climb to the next blocking position by at the same time gradually turning your upper body inwards.

336

337

Fig. 154: Triangle technique with inward turn of the upper body

338 III. Rope-up Techniques on Glaciers

1. General

Roping up is used to prevent people from falling into crevasses, but also to be able to rescue them quickly.

When the steepness and the difficulty of the terrain require the use of the leapfrogging or staggered climbing technique, proceed as described in chapter J, section VII of this manual (Protection Techniques)

Put on the standard harness in time, i.e. at the latest before you step on the glacier. For moving on a glacier, the leader may order one of the following rope-up systems to be used: - Several persons on one rope (see margin no. Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.) - Two man rope team (see margin no. 0 – Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.).

You may move on glaciers without being roped up when - the risk of avalanches is higher than the risk of falling into a crevasse - you are a military mountain specialist (MMS) moving on - snow-free glaciers and - during good visibility or - when you are a military mountain guide (MMG) who has analysed the situation properly.

You attach yourself to the rope with two locking

339 carabiners or one self-lock carabiner.

The distances between the roped-up soldiers are used as braking distances when arresting a crevasse fall. These distances must be the bigger the smaller the number of roped- up soldiers is. Braking knots (granny knot, butterfly knot) will make it easier to arrest a victim and to set an anchor. Keep the rope taut between the soldiers in order to prevent the height of fall from increasing. ATTENTION: Keep distances as ordered, also during halts and rest halts.

2. Several Persons on One Rope

The several-persons-on-one-rope method (see Fig. 155) is used for moving on glaciers and simultaneous climbing on rocks up to and including UIAA difficulty level II. With this technique, 3 to 10 soldiers will be able to move at the same time. They are belayed by the roped-up soldiers (glacier) or by the belay station (see section Q: “How to construct a belay station”). The distances between the soldiers should be no longer than 4 meters. Attach the soldiers to the rope at equal distances. On glaciers, you may use a single rope or a half rope, depending on the level of difficulty. On rocky terrain, you have to use a single strand rope or tow half ropes.

340

Fig. 155: Several persons on one rope

341 When there are less than 5 persons on one rope, consider the following: - For four persons, the between them is 10 m - For three persons, the distance between them is 12 m. For walking on a glacier, you have to tie three braking knots into the rope with a distance of approximately 2 m to each soldier. - The rest of the rope can be used as assessed by the leader.

3. Two Man Roped Party

The two man roped party requires much experience because arrests are after a crevasse fall difficult. As a minimum, each of the two soldiers has to know how to set an anchor. A two man roped party can use a complete single strand rope as well as one single strand of a half rope. However, assess the efficiency of fiction hitches and rope clamps first. The two soldiers should keep a distance of 12 m between them. The rest of the rope can be used for rescuing and is distributed to the soldiers as assessed by the MMG. Starting from the middle, you tie three braking knots with a distance of 2 meters into the rope connecting the two soldiers (see Fig. 156).

342 Distance between the knots: 2 m

Fig. 156: A two man roped party moving on a glacier.

343 IV. Anchors in Ice and Snow

This chapter complements chapter J, section V (Protection Techniques) of this manual with particularities concerning icy and snowy terrain. In icy and snowy terrain, anchors also can be loaded in one or in several directions. Even more than on rocks, their quality (reliable or questionable) depends on the surface, which therefore needs special consideration before setting them. With the exception of a few natural anchors (natural ice tunnels, ice pillar) anchors used in ice and snow are artificial anchors, i.e. - ice screws - ice tunnels - ice bollards - T-shaped anchors - firn anchors

We use ice screws of different length. Their retaining force depends on - the quality of the ice - the length of the screw - the profile of the thread and - the direction of load

When the ice is of good quality, ice screws can be assessed as reliable anchors.

344 Drive the ice screws into the surface at an angle of approx. 90 degrees and in a slightly hanging position (see Fig. 157). Before that, remove brittle ice from the surface.

Fig. 157: Driving in an ice screw

Ice screws which a supposed to stay in the ice for a longer period of time (construction of a protected route, evacuation operations) and/or are exposed to sunshine have to be covered with ice or snow in order to prevent them from getting loose too early.

When an ice screw cannot be driven in completely due to the insufficient thickness of the ice, wind a sling around the protruding section of the screw shank to reduce the leverage effect.

Provided that there is good ice and a convenient load, an ice tunnel (Abalakov tunnel) can have the same retention force as an ice screw. Ice tunnels are especially suitable for - abseiling (they save material) - the construction of protected routes, and - a top rope deflection.

345 To make an ice tunnel, use the longest ice screws possible. The bigger the equiangular triangle formed by them (see Fig. 158) and the harder the ice, the bigger the retention force will be.

Fig. 158: Making an ice tunnel

An ice bollard (see Fig. 159) is an anchor that can only be loaded in one direction. This system is material-saving and can be used for a long period, but it takes time to build it. It should have a minimum width of 40 cm, and the groove around the bollard must be at least 15 cm deep and fillet- shaped. When an ice bollard is used as a belay station/final anchor whose unintended release cannot be excluded, it has to be secured (with a knot??).

346

Fig. 159: Ice bollard

In snow and firn, a T-anchor is often the most appropriate type of anchor to be set. Normally, it can only be loaded in one direction. You build a T-anchor by using an ice axe (see Fig. 160), skis, a rock, a rucksack, or similar devices. You have to bury these things perpendicularly to the direction of load. The depth of burying depends on the solidity of the subsurface. Then, by means of a girth hitch, fix a sling or a doubled accessory cord to the centre of gravity. The cord should run along a slightly descending groove towards the surface - in the direction of load. Then fill the open parts of the surface with snow, which you finally tramp down.

347

Fig. 160: T-anchor, built with an ice axe

348 A firn anchor (see Fig. 161) needs to be driven into the snow as deep as possible. The long cable will make a cut into the snow and, thus, return to the surface at a sharp angle. You should not overestimate its retention force, which is two to three times the body weight, provided the conditions are good.

Fig. 161: Firn anchor

349 V. Building a Belay Station in Ice and Snow

1. General

475 You need to build a belay station when the difficulties caused by the terrain and/or the general conditions require belayed climbing and abseiling/lowering. In snow, firn and ice, - the strength and thickness of the snow/firn layer and - the quality of the ice are of special importance.

Besides the prevailing conditions, you also have to assess the - direction of load and - strains affecting the belay station

476 As to the location of the belay station, you have to consider the effects of possible rockfall and the further direction the lead climber wants to take. For basics concerning the building of a belay station see chapter J, section VI of this manual (Protection Techniques). For exceptions allowing the building of belay stations on an anchor point set in snow, firn, and ice see margin no. 482.

2. Belay Station with Series Construction

477 A belay station with series construction (see Fig. 162) is built when you either have - tow ice screws (good quality of ice = reliable anchor) or

350 - one ice screw and one questionable anchor (e.g. a questionable ice screw or steep ice tool/ice axe) available.

Fig. 162: Belay station with series construction, attached to two reliable anchors (left), and one reliable and one questionable anchor (right).

For details see margin no. 490 et seq.: “How to build a 478 belay station on a rocky surface”. For its construction, you can use a prepared belay station sling or a rope. Anchors should be placed approx. 10 cm sideways and in a distance of 75 cm to each other.

351 3. Belay Station with Fixed Equalisation

479 You use a belay station with fixed equalisation when the station will be loaded only in one direction. Such a belay is used in ice

- mainly for the end anchorage of rope handrails - on belay stations built for abseiling, or - for the construction of top rope stations.

For such these constructions, you may use ice screws or ice tunnels (see Fig. 163).

Fig. 163: Belay station with fixed equalisation, attached to two ice tunnels with a single accessory cord

352 4. Top Rope Station in Ice

Top rope stations are used for the practicing of rescue and 480 climbing techniques. Due to melt pressure and/or sunshine, the ice screws can get loose. Thus, you have to use the following belay station systems:

- A series construction with one or two ice screws. - An oversized ice tunnel together with an ice screw backup anchor. - Two ice tunnels with fixed equalisation.

Build the series construction in a way that a load only affects the first anchor, leaving the second anchor as a backup.

By covering the anchors with snow or ice, their loosening 481 can be delayed. Check them at regular intervals. For deflection and abrasion stress see the criteria quoted in chapter J, section X of this manual (Top rope stations built on rock).

5. Belay Stations Fixed to an Anchor

In snow, firn and ice, belay stations attached to anchors 482 are subject to criteria different from those in rocky terrain. The assessment of the prevailing conditions, the equipment available, and the choice of the most appropriate method are of special importance. These methods are: - a T-anchor or

353 - an ice axe/a ski rammed into the surface.

483 A T-anchor (see margin no. 0) may serve as a belay station used for belaying, abseiling/lowering and for rescue techniques. A rammed-in ice axe (see Fig. 164) normally is only designated for loads pulling in one direction and used as a backup anchor for a roped party, for lowering, and in the form of a removable ice axe (see margin no. 486). When using this technique on loose snow, condense the snow first, then ram the ice axe into the snow as far as to its head, if possible, and keep it slightly inclined towards the slope. Tie a girth hitch to the shaft, right below the head of the axe. Use a foot to press down the head of the axe. For belaying, you may use an HMS or a carabiner-folded rope protection.

354

Fig. 164: Rammed-in ice axe

Rammed-in skis (see Abb. 165) are only used as a backup 484 belay or for lowering. For that, you

- turn the running surfaces of the skis to each other and then ram the skis at a slight angle against direction of load into the ground until the bindings touch the surface. - Then you tie a tubular sling around the skis, just above the snowy surface, and hook an abseiling/belay device into the sling. - Support the tips of the skis with your shoulder.

355

Abb. 165: Rammed-in skis

6. Removable Anchors in Snow and Ice

485 Removable anchors (i.e. removable ices axes or ice screws) are only set when abseiling as the last climber, and may only be used by MMGs.

486 To set a removable ice axe (see Fig. 166) you

- ram the ice axe into the snow (see “Rammed-in ice axe” above), - deflect the accessory cord (which is fixed to the spike of the ice axe and running upwards along its shaft) via a second horizontal ice axe, - pass the rope used for abseiling around the rammed-in ice axe,

356 - fix the accessory cord to a girth hitch tied into the rope, and - tie the rest of the accessory cord to the second ice axe.

Remove the rope with a sudden jerk, thus also removing the rammed-in ice axe and pulling it in by means of the accessory cord tied to it.

Fig. 166: Removable ice axe

For setting a removable ice screw (see Fig. 166) you 487

- drive in the ice screw and unscrew it again, - fix an accessory cord to the eyelet of the ice screw

357 - drive in the ice screw as deep as possible and make sure that the accessory cord is at the same time wound up below the tab. - Then make another four windings, - put the rope around the ice screw for abseiling, and - fix the accessory cord to the rope by means of an overhand knot

Remove the rope steadily, thus also making the ice screw twist out. Pull the screw in with the accessory cord tied to it.

358

Fig. 167: Removable ice screw

359 L. SKI MOUNTAINEERING

I. General/Command and Control (C2)

For operations in snow-covered terrain, we use military skiing equipment. By means of skis fitted with climbing skins, we are able to extend our operational range and to reduce the time needed to fulfil a mission.

Soldiers who are able to apply the techniques of “military skiing” can considerably increase their mobility. For further details see the Austrian Armed Forces Training Document on “Military Skiing”. Leaders should consider the following command and control measures in order to ensure the highest level of security possible, and to reduce physical strain:

- Assess snow and avalanche situation. - Check avalanche emergency equipment (see margin no. Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.). - Designate a track preparation team. - Give orders on intervals between soldiers. - Give orders on the type of ascend and/or descend.

Designate a track preparation team; it can make terrain more viable. If necessary, mark the route and danger areas (e.g. for darkness, bad visibility, etc.).

Lay the track according to the - mission,

360 - terrain conditions, - snow and avalanche situation, and - the physical fitness of your men and women.

II. Ascending on Skis

1. Walking with Skis and Climbing Skins

When walking with skis and climbing skins on, you normally use the diagonal step technique. For that, observe the following principles:

- Spread your legs to hip width to stabilize your lateral balance and to improve your freedom of movement, especially when carrying heavy loads. In doing so, you will create a centre ridge between the tracks of the two skis (see Fig. 168) - Push the unloaded ski forward without lifting it. - For optimal contact, place the ski as flat as possible on the ground (see Fig. 168). - When walking in deep snow, lift the ski slightly and then push it forward. - Adapt the length of your steps to the inclination of the slope - When moving your right ski forward, push the left ski stick into the ground and backward, and vice versa. - On a flat track, use the ski sticks for balancing your body. - On a medium-steep to steep track, use them to push yourself forward, together with your legs.

361 - Depending on the steepness of a slope, you may hold the uphill ski stick by its shaft.

When moving on a very hard surface, crampons (see Fig. 168) can protect you from slipping backwards or sidewards. By using the “ascending aid” you can move on steep slopes with reduced physical effort.

Fig. 168: Ascending on skis

362 2. Changing the Direction

The way you change your direction depends on the steepness of the terrain and on the sink-in depth. You can change your direction of movement by making curves of various radiuses (slope inclinations of 30 degrees and more) or, in steep terrain, in the form of kick turns (uphill or downhill). Walking a curve (see Fig. 169) is the most economical way of changing the direction and is mainly used in flat terrain. When walking a curve on skis, do not change your rhythm of movement, your length of steps, or your speed.

Proceed as follows: - Form an angle with the outer ski and push it forward/inward - Align the inner ski with the outer ski - Push both skis across the snowy surface

363

Fig. 169: Walking a curve

Stepping a curve (see Fig. 170) enables you to change the direction more sharply. This technique is used from flat to medium-steep terrain. The radius of the curve is shorter, the walking rhythm and the length of the steps remain hardly unchanged.

When stepping a curve, you - form an angle with the inner ski and displace it inwards; - then you align the outer ski to it.

364

Fig. 170: Stepping a curve

Upslope hairpin turns (see Fig. 171) are used in terrain too steep for ascending it by walking curves. Hairpin turns reduce physical strain and risk of falling. To make an upslope hairpin turn, proceed as follows:

- Push both ski sticks downslope beside your body. - Shift the weight of your body onto the downslope ski.

365 - Jauntily turn the upslope ski into the new direction of movement. - Shift the weight of your body onto the upslope ski. - Align the downslope ski to the upslope ski. - Move the downhill ski and the outer ski stick forward, into a convenient position.

366

Fig. 171: Upslope hairpin turn

Use the following technique for very steep terrain and adverse snow conditions (see Fig. 172):

- Assume a horizontal, standing position at the place where you want to make the turn. - Push both ski sticks upslope into the ground. - Lift the upslope ski and jauntily bring it into the new direction of travel. - Jauntily align the downslope ski to it and place it in the track. - Continue the ascent by slowly steepening the track.

367

Fig. 172: Upslope hairpin turn in very steep terrain

368 The kick turn (see Fig. 173) is an improved version of the hairpin turn. It is a technique used to change the direction in steep terrain. A kick turn is performed from a horizontal standing position. Proceed as follows: - Push the ski sticks downslope and beside your body into the ground. - Shift your body’s weight onto the downslope ski. - Jauntily lift the upslope ski and turn it into the new direction of movement. - Shift your weight onto the upslope ski. - Place the outer ski stick (in steep terrain both sticks) upslope for stabilisation. - Lift the downslope ski. - With a kick of your heel against the ski you will fold down the rear part of the ski. - Finally, turn the downslope ski around the standing leg and into the new position.

369

Fig. 173: Kick turn

3. Traverse Movements

For traverse movements in soft snow, use the technique described in margin no. 0.

In case of a hard snow surface (crusted snow) the skis slide on their uphill edges and only partially on the climbing skins. Thus, they tend to slide forward and sideward.

370 In order to prevent backward slipping - prepare flat tracks and - use crampons.

Measures to prevent sideward slipping: - Tilt the skis in downslope direction in order to place as much climbing skin as possible on the ground. - Try to make tracks as deep as possible by pushing the skis firmly into the snow. - Step on the disc of the downhill ski stick. - Use crampons.

If these measures are not successful, remove the skis and cross the slope on foot.

During an ascent, you may have to do short descents on skins. If so, keep the ski fittings set for “ascent”.

Do not use the “ascent aid”. Remove or unfold the crampons. Balancing will be easier in a slight stepping position. Make shallow tracks to avoid high speed. Change directions in the form of curves or hairpin turns.

4. Ascending and Descending without Skis

When the soldier does not use his skis for ascending or descending, he - shoulders them or - fixes them horizontally or vertically on his rucksack

371 You shoulder the skis - in easily viable terrain, or - for short distances This carrying method - saves time and - leaves you one hand free.

You carry the skis horizontally on the rucksack - in easily viable, open terrain This carrying method - leaves you one hand free but - might pose a risk when crossing slopes.

You carry the skis vertically on the rucksack (one on each side or both tied together) - in steep terrain by - fixing them on top of the rucksack or tying the tips of the skis together

This carrying method - leaves your hands free, but - the ends of the skis could be a handicap when descending.

III. Downhill Skiing

1. General/Command and Control Measures

When skiing downhill, be aware of the fact that soldiers might be tired and thus exposed to a higher risk of falling. As a consequence, you should divide the whole distance into sub-

372 distances. This will give less physically fit soldiers the possibility to recover and to ski in a controlled manner. When skiing downhill, the military leader should designate waiting and assembly areas which, as a principle, should be away from danger areas.

2. Methods of Downhill Skiing

- Skiing along a track - Free skiing

Depending on the terrain and on the objective risks, you can ski downhill - as a team, by maintaining intervals between the soldiers (at least 20 m) - or individually (normally on slopes with 30 degrees of steepness or higher).

When skiing downhill along a track, all soldiers follow one or several pre-set tracks. The track should be flat because with increasing use it will become faster. Change directions in the form of curves or hairpin turns.

This method is used - when soldiers have bad skiing skills, - when carrying heavy loads, - in areas with the risk of crevasses or other sudden falls, - in case of difficult snow, and - during bad visibility.

You also can do it with climbing skins attached.

373

For free skiing (see Fig. 174), the leader should delineate areas in which the soldiers are allowed to ski downhill by choosing an individual track. Free downhill skiing should only be allowed when the situation permits it. The soldiers should have view of danger areas and the route leading to the next assembly area.

Delineation by track

Assembly Area Delineation by terrain features

Fig. 174: Free downhill skiing

374 When skiing individually, make sure that only one soldier is moving in a predetermined section.

Individual skiing is used - in difficult terrain (e.g. narrow couloirs, steep slopes), - to take the load off the snow cover, and - when there shall be only one soldier within a danger area (e.g. avalanches, icefall, enemy troops).

Soldiers may ski individually along pre-set tracks, but also in the form of free skiing.

3. Downhill Skiing on the Rope

In case of risk of crevasse fall and/or bad visibility, soldiers should rope up before skiing downhill. The rope should be kept slightly taut. The trailing soldier may prepare a grip sling for better control of the rope. Depending on the crevasse situation, soldiers ski downhill along one track or laterally staggered. If necessary, they may be attached to ropes for the crossing of steep steps of terrain on which they could slip.

375 M. SNOWSHOEING

I. General

Moving with snowshoes is an alternative to be used by troops and units that are not ski-mobile in order to increase their mobility. In mountain and winter operations, the use of snow shoes – especially during combat in wooded terrain – can be of big advantage due to increased mobility, especially over short distances. The fact that snowshoeing apparently is not a problem does not mean that it is really an easy job. Soldiers have to get training on the proper walking technique and how to use the shoes.

II. Walking Techniques

1. General

Changing snow situations and terrain require variability and adapted behaviour. Slopes with an inclination of more than 30 degrees should be avoided when walking with snow shoes because they would provide too little lateral stability. Thus, leaders should reconnoitre the route in advance. It is hardly possible to perform traverse movements on slopes with more than 20 degrees. For that, soldiers need much technical experience. Depending on the type and quality of snow, snow shoes will sink, thus making movements more difficult and increasing physical strain. Therefore, it will be necessary to relieve the point man already after a short period of time.

376

During training, it is indispensable to teach basic techniques in order to have the proper technique available for the snow conditions and the terrain you are confronted with.

Snowshoeing principles: - Make slightly cradling steps (centre of gravity of the body is above the standing leg). - Lift and place the foot. - Place feet on the ground in a slightly V-shaped position - When walking, spread your legs to hip width.

Put on the snow shoes in a kneeling position. This will make it easier for you to balance your body and to handle the binding system.

2. Basic Technique

The diagonal step is the basic technique for snowshoeing. It is divided into three types:

- Diagonal step without sticks - Diagonal step with sticks - Stork walk

The diagonal step without sticks corresponds to the everyday motor function.

The diagonal step with sticks (see Fig. 175) is the most common technique. It main characteristics are:

377 - the diagonal and simultaneous arm and foot action and - the forward swinging arm, which moves the stick parallel to the body

Fig. 175: Diagonal step with sticks

The “stork walk” (see Fig. 176)) is a diagonal step technique which is adapted to the sinking depth. Its main characteristics are: - the lifting of the thigh until the tips of the snow shoes are out of the snow and - the subsequent placing of the snow shoe from top to bottom (stepping)

We use the stork walk in new snow or in deep spring snow.

378

Fig. 176: Stork walk

3. Ascending techniques along the fall line

Duck step and kick step are techniques used when ascending along the fall line, depending on the steepness and on the general conditions.

When using the duck step (see Fig. 177), you walk in an upright position, looking upwards and keeping the snow shoes in a V position. This technique is especially used in new or spring snow. The V position of the feet forms an angle of about 30 to 60 degrees. With increasing steepness of the slope, the angle gets wider and the steps become shorter.

379

Fig. 177: Duck-Step

When the terrain gets too steep for the duck step, you use the kick step (see Abb. 178). This movement is characterised by a kick performed by the knee for better traction of the crampons.

380

Abb. 178: Kick-Step (KSP = body centre of gravity)

4. Crossings

Slopes are crossed in the form of - traverse movements (see Fig. 179) - the line step, or - the line hill step.

These methods are based on the basic techniques.

381

Fig. 179: Performing a traverse movement

The line step (see Fig. 180) is used on ridges and along an already existing track.

Fig. 180: Line-Step

382 The line hill step (see Fig. 181) is the most appropriate technique to cross a slope by at the same time ascending it.

Fig. 181: Line-Hill-Step

5. Descending techniques

When descending with snow shoes, you can use one of the following three techniques, depending on the conditions given, i.e. the

- diagonal step descent, - double stick support descent, and the - sliding descent.

The diagonal step is used for easy descents.

The double stick support (see Fig. 182) makes descending easier on steep slopes and during difficult snow conditions.

383

Fig. 182: Double stick support

Downhill sliding (see Fig. 183) is a technique used when descending in deep new or spring snow.

384 slight supine position

Fig. 183: Downhill Sliding

385 N. AVALANCHE RISK ASSESSMENT

I. General

Each military leader fulfilling a mission in a snowy terrain must have sufficient knowledge of how to assess the avalanche situation and to deduce the risks resulting thereof. In fact, he will have to decide between the continuation and the abandoning of the mission. It will be impossible to assess the whole scope of avalanche risks. However, a military leader has to be able to reduce them to an acceptable minimum. Despite intense researches and new findings/theories, it is still very difficult to predict avalanches in terms of space and time. There are also no formulas which would allow calculating such a risk. Knowledge about numerous influencing factors – which may vary to a large extent already within small areas – and about their interaction is indispensable. Depending on the level of training received, leaders are provided with increasing knowledge on avalanche risk management. Depending on the international avalanche risk scale, military operations are affected by the following changes/complements: - The type and extent of additional equipment may constitute a considerable additional burden for the single soldier. - Snowmobiles also constitute a big additional burden.

- eventuelle(r) Reduzierung/Verzicht von/auf Entlastungsab-stände(n).????

386 II. Human Influences

The human factor constitutes an essential element of risk management. It is often the decisive additional burden and has to make decisions about further action. However, in a decision-making process, mistakes cannot be excluded. They are based on psychological and social influences. Thus, it is important to be conscious of such influences and to counter them. The use of specific methods and strategies can help reduce the susceptibility to errors. The more personnel operate on snow-covered terrain, the higher the risk of triggering an avalanche will be.

Individual soldiers moving on skis can cause additional stress in a snow cover. The reasons for that are: - load exerted on the snow cover during an ascent (one to three times the body weight) - load exerted on the snow cover when skiing downhill (four to five times the body weight) - load exerted on the snow cover as the result of a fall (six to seven times the body weight). Contrary to soldiers moving with skis attached, walking soldiers exert a big additional load as their feet’s’ soles are smaller than the running surfaces of the skis and, thus, sink deeper into the snow. Besides that, there is the danger of piercing a harder snow cover and, thus, initiating a crack in a weak layer of snow. This may primarily happen during descents. A soldier carrying his equipment on a soft snow cover exerts pressure also on the deeper (down to one m) layers of

387 snow. In case of a hard surface, the load is distributed horizontally (see Fig. 184).

Soft Hard Layer Layer

Weak Layer Weak Layer

Fig. 184: Distribution of pressure on soft (left) and hard (right) surface

In order to reduce the pressure on the snow cover, soldiers may keep intervals of at least 15 m when ascending.

III. Influence of Weather

The weather has a decisive influence on the development of avalanche risks. Thus, you have to consider the following factors: - Precipitations (rain, snow) - Wind - Air temperature and radiation

388 These factors have to be seen in combination with each other, as they have different influences on the snow cover. They also have various influences on the avalanche situation, depending on the season. New snow exerts pressure on an already existing snow cover. New snow can be seen easily and has immediate impact on the avalanche situation. New snow is snow which is not older than one to three days. Critical amounts of new snow are layers with a thickness of - 10 to 20 cm in adverse conditions, - 20 t0 30 cm in medium conditions, and - 30 to 50 cm in favourable conditions

For details on adverse and favourable conditions, see the following table: Criteria Adverse Favourable Wind strong or stormy weak less than -5°, especially at the slightly below Air Temperature beginning of the 0° snowfall Often and Even and regularly relative loose crossed by Old Snow Cover (e.g. surface vehicles during frost, ice) and after snowfall Structure of the weak stable snow cover

389 The following table shows various amounts of new snow fallen during a period of 3 days and their effects. Without With Effects Wind Wind up to 30 cm up to 20 cm No essential change Upcoming risk of 30 to50 cm 20 to 40 cm avalanche Big risk of avalanche 50 to 80 cm 40 to 70 cm Local risks for roads Big risk for roads and 80 to 120 cm 70 to 100 cm exposed parts of settlements more than more than Big overall risk of 120 cm 100 cm avalanches

Precipitations in the form of rain can put a load on the snow cover within a short period of time and annihilate the connection between the snow crystals. Wind is the architect of slab avalanches. Snow moved by wind is called wind-driven snow. Wind can - transport snow and deposit it somewhere else, - destroy the form of ice crystals, - condense snow, and - condense a deposited layer of snow.

The denser a layer of deposited snow, the better it can transmit stress. Such layers are called wind-driven layers of snow.

390 The following table shows you the force a wind needs for the creation of wind-driven snow: Transportation of Wind Force Indications Snow Triangular scarf < 15 km/h No transportation. moves. First transportation of Scarf is stretched ab 15 km/h cold new snow with by the wind. little density . Wind is audible Considerable when hitting transportation of new solid objects. ab 40 km/h snow. Snow banners on Start of transportation of summits and old, loose snow cover. ridges Enormous Soldiers have 60 km/h transportation of snow. difficulties in and more Ridges blown free of walking. snow.

391 Forms of terrain and snow cover have considerable influence on the effects of wind. In this regard, consider the following:

- Surface winds are characterised by the mountain relief and the landform. Depending on the terrain, the direction of wind may vary considerably next to the surface and differ from the main direction of winds at higher altitudes. Normally, the force of wind increases with the altitude. - In order to compile a sufficient amount of wind-driven snow, there must be enough snow available. - Wind-driven snow deposits on the lee side (e.g. behind edges of terrain or in hollows). - Wind-driven snow may form layers of different thickness, depending on the terrain. - Besides the pure transportation of snow, wind can also bring masses of cold or warm air and thus influence the surface of the snow.

Air temperature and radiation have an impact on the energy balance of the snow cover and influence their structure and density. Contrary to the air temperature, the effect of radiation depends on the location of a slope (exposition), its inclination (steepness) and the cloud cover. Snow is a bad heat conductor. Thus, changes to the temperatures of the surface of a snow cover only influence the uppermost layers of snow. Very cold temperatures in combination with little thickness of the snow cover lead to a big temperature gradient, which favours the restorative transformation.

392 The following table shows the effects of the air temperature on the snow cover:

Settlement of the Snow Cover Air Density and Degrading temperature solidity of the transformation increases snow cover slowly increase (favourable)

Air Density and Melting

temperature solidity of the transformation

Heat increases snow cover (e.g. rain, warm quickly decrease; free front, foehn) (adverse) water in the snow cover. Dissolution of crystalline structures. Delay of Snow Cover Settlement Development of a frozen cover Short Condensation of of snow as a influence of upper layers of result of wind cold snow and heat

Cold

Long cold Development of Restorative period layers of weak transformation (several snow (in case of (depth hoar) and

393 days) an appropriate development of temperature hoar frost gradient) (surface frost).

A massive penetration of moisture poses a special challenge for the composition and the assessment of a snow cover. When free water penetrates the snow cover and collects on a layer with less permeability, a sliding surface, able to trigger avalanches, will develop.

IV. Influence of the Terrain

As to the influence of the terrain on the avalanche situation, you have to assess the following factors:

 Inclination of the slope

 Shape of the slope

 Exposition of the slope

 Altitude

1. Inclination of the Slope

The inclination is the key factor for the triggering of avalanches. An inclination of 35 to 45 degrees is to be assessed as critical. When assessing a slope, always assess the

394 steepest part of it. For details on how to determine the steepness of a slope, see margin no. 0.

When assessing the inclination of a slope, consider the following: - Depending on the angle of view, a slope may appear steeper or flatter than it is in reality. - In case of a big sinking depth, the slope might be assessed as steeper than it really is. - Small slopes may appear steeper, large slopes/flanks may appear flatter than they are. - Bad visibility may make it difficult to assess the steepness of a slope.

You can also determine the inclination of a slope on the spot by using - an inclinometer or - the ski stick pendulum method.

When using the ski stick pendulum method (see Fig. 186), mark the length of the ski stick in the snow. Drive the first stick into the snow at the upper marking. Now hold together the grips of the two ski sticks in a way that the second stick is able to swing freely. When the second stick is pointing vertically towards the ground, lower the two sticks until the tip of the second one touches the ground. When touching the downhill end of the marking in the snow, the slope has an inclination of approximately 30 degrees. An uphill or downhill deviation of 10 cm from the marking indicates that the slope is three degrees steeper or flatter and so on (see fig. 185).

395

Fig. 186: The ski stick pendulum method

2. Forms of terrain

Various forms of terrain can influence the direction of the wind and its speed. This is the reason why wind-driven snow deposits may vary in depth and in types of layers.

The following forms of terrain favour the creation of wind-driven snow deposits: - Couloirs and hollows - Slopes below terraces and plateaus - Ridges

396 Couloirs and hollows (concave portions of terrain) are places where wind-driven snow deposits. Especially the edges of such terrain require critical assessment because in these transition areas slab avalanches can easily be triggered due to very little depth of snow. Along mountain ridges and arêtes (convex portions of terrain), snow is often blown away by the wind. Thus, the risk of avalanches can be assessed as low. Areas below arêtes and summits are called ridges. They are often exposed to wind and therefore have to be assessed as critical.

3. Exposition

The exposition of a slope decides on how much direct or indirect radiation is hitting it during day and night. On south- facing slopes, the difference in temperature between day and night is higher than on north-facing slopes. On north-facing slopes, layers of weak snow can persist longer within the snow cover because of the lower temperatures.

4. Altitude

has different effects on - wind, - air temperature, - precipitation, and - the structure of the surface

The structure of the surface has an influence on the composition of the snow cover and can impede or facilitate its

397 movements.

Surface facilitating the Surface impeding the triggering of avalanches triggering of avalanches

- Slippery ground like - Rough ground like rubble stone slabs, meadows or stone blocks with long grass, wet soil, - Dense wood. and blank ice. - Bushes and single trees.

398 V. Observation of the Terrain

To be able to assess the risk of avalanches on the terrain, you have to observe your surroundings carefully, especially for the identification of typical signs of avalanches in combination with the avalanche risk level or situation.

How to determine and evaluate the avalanche risk levels by observing the surroundings: The signs indicating such a risk, as mentioned in the table below, are only approximate values. A massive penetration of water into the snow cover always constitutes an increased risk of avalanches.

Avalanche Indicators Risk Level - A cover of hard snow crust or melt- freeze crust (turning into firn snow) - Cold, loose new snow, or the influence 1 of wind on a compact surface (all without any other risk indicators) - Wind-driven and easily detectable deposits of little thickness (see margin no. 0) - Noises of settling snow (see margin no. 0), most of the time on flat terrain or in 2 hollows – Short cracks without propagation (see margin no. Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.) – New snow with little influence of wind

399 and without spontaneous descends of snow and without cracks – Spontaneous avalanches are small to medium size. - Lots of spontaneous slab avalanches, descending in nearly all directions. - Snow settlement noises, mainly on sloping terrain. - Lots of cracks, often with remote 4 triggering, also over longer distances - Large amounts of new snow in combination with big and spontaneous avalanches. - Extreme amounts of new snow - Lots of big and spontaneous avalanches 5

A centre ridge remaining between the tracks of the skis is a clear indicator for a compact layer of snow (see Fig. 187). If there is no centre ridge remaining, we speak of non- compact snow.

400 Centre Ridge

Fig. 187: Centre Ridge

A V-groove (see Fig. 188) is able to show the compactness of the upper snow layers. Lower layers of weak snow cannot be reached by this technique. In a hairpin turn, the triangle of snow formed by it is subject to considerable shear stress. If there is a layer of weak snow close to the surface of the snow pack, it will normally crack, and the V-groove will break away. Often, thin and hard layers may break loose. However, slabs of up to 5 cm will not pose a special hazard.

401 Sliding Hairpin surface Turn

V- groove

Fig. 188: V-groove

Noises of settling snow (“woom noises”) can be heard when air is pressed out of the snow cover due to cracks occurring inside of it (structural cracks). Noises of settling snow and cracks settling immediately when putting weight on the snow cover are reliable indications of a weak snow cover, and therefore an alarm signal. Most of the time, they are only noticed by the lead soldier. Cracks occurring in the upper part of the snow to the left and right of the ski track are indicators for compact snow. In case of wind-deposited snow, you will see curved cracks (danger!). In crusted snow, the track will break like floes (not dangerous, no propagation of cracks, see Fig. 189).

402 Collapsing snow cover

Cracks around the track

Floes within the track

Fig. 189: Cracks, developing in crusted snow

Deposits of wind-driven snow (see Fig. 190) are one of the main reasons for slab avalanches. Wind-generated signs on the surface of the snow make it easier to identify such deposits. Such signs are (among others): - Snow banners on ridges - Cornices - Dunes - Sastrugi - Wind craters

When you know the course of the weather of the previous days, it will be easier to interpret these signs.

403 Bild entfernt, da sonst zu großes Datenvolumen für das Versenden!

Fig. 190: Snow banners on ridges (top left), cornices (top right), dunes (centre left), sastrugi (centre right), and wind craters (bottom)

404 VI. Civilian Avalanche Report

This report describes the expected avalanche situation for a certain region. Besides the avalanche risk level, it also contains information on the

- the structure of the snow cover - danger areas, and - the weather

The avalanche risk level describes the risk of avalanches in the region covered by the report (and not that of one single slope). It depends on the:

- stability of the snow cover - avalanche triggering probability (light or heavy additional load), and - size and type of the expected avalanche.

Within a specified region, the risk of avalanche may differ from slope to slope and not correspond to the overall avalanche risk report.

The avalanche risk levels are defined by the international avalanche risk scale:

405 Avalanche Stability of Avalanche Triggering Risk Level Snow Cover Probability Can only be triggered by heavy additional loads on a 1 Snow cover well- few extremely steep slopes. bonded and stable Low Spontaneous avalanches will remain small (snow slides).

On some slopes, the Triggering possible in case of 2 snow cover is only heavy additional load on steep moderately bonded, slopes indicated for that. No Moderate otherwise well- spontaneous avalanches of bonded bigger size expected.

Already light additional loads On many steep can trigger an avalanche, 3 slopes, the snow especially on steep slopes Significant cover is only for that. Possibility of weakly bonded. occasional spontaneous medium-size to large avalanches. Probability of triggering already

in case of little additional load. On most of the steep At times many spontaneous 4 High slopes, the snow medium-size, several times also cover is weakly large avalanches can be bonded. expected.

Snow cover is Numerous spontaneous 5 generally not well- avalanches can be expected, bonded and largely Very High also in moderately steep terrain. instable.

The avalanche situation report provides information on the avalanche risk level and other issues. It is the basis for the decision support used by the military mountaineering

406 specialist (see margin no. Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden. et seqq.). Due to his extended knowledge on weather, snow cover and their processes, an MMG my come to a different result. In order to get additional information, he may conduct an analysis of the snow cover. Additionally, he can also use the “interpretation aid for military mountain guides”. This manual is issued to all military mountain guides after having successfully completed the military mountain guide course. It is a guideline for all military mountaineering specialists of the Austrian Armed Forces and is meant to be used for the assessment and the reduction of risks when operating under wintery conditions in mountainous terrain. Required information can be taken from the civilian and the military avalanche situation report (see margin no. 809 et seqq.). Additionally, he may use advice provided by a military mountain guide. When using the “decision aid for MMGs”, the user should be able to - understand an avalanche situation report - identify signs of danger as well as favourable and adverse conditions, and - implement measures in accordance with the given situation.

The assessment consists of three phases: - Planning - Terrain evaluation (locally) - Assessment of a danger area/a slope (zonally)

407 In each of these phases you have to assess the - risk situation - terrain and - troops and make conclusions thereof.

For details see page one of the decision aid booklet (see Fig. 191).

Decision Aid for Military Mountain Specialists As of: Jan 2014 LOCA- RISK SITUATION and INFLUENCING FACTORS Terrain Troops TION Amount of New Snow Planning components little moderate/medium high/extreme Leader, Qualification Regional Maps, Performance Capabilities Wind Avalanche. Situation weak moderate to strong stormy

Temperature On-site little changes during Changes Coldness Massive rise Assessment day and night Local Weather Follow-on Follow-on Assessment? Assessment? favourable adverse extreme Single Slope Sings of Risks Phys./Psych. Situation Status of the none few many Assessment Troops Measures! Single Visibility Follow-on very limited Slope clear cloudy/hazy See double measures page % necessary? Effects on Mission Accomplishment! Fig. 191: Page 1 of the decision aid manual for military mountaineering specialists (MMS)

408 The guidelines shown in Fig. 192 are supposed to be used during all 3 phases. Fig. 192 is a double page of the decision aid booklet and constitutes the graphic link between the avalanche risk level and the steepness of the slope. Depending on the avalanche risk level, the steepness of the slope and the overall conditions (favourable/unfavourable), it gives advice on which actions should be taken.

Decision Aid for Military Mountain Specialists RISK CATCHMENT RISK SLOPE MEASURES/REMARK LEVEL AREAS SITUATION STEEPNESS Very steep terrain,S requires good skiing skills! Factors Risk of falling when snow cover is hard!

No restrictions. Stick to standard measures. Altitude Avoid extremely steep terrain (40° and Exposition more). MMG assessment, bypass possible, dense wood, many skiing Wind tracks, a cover of melt-freeze crust New Snow Halt in case of adverse factors? Moisture Possibility to bypass? Penetr. Stick to standard measures. Warning Avoid very steep terrain (35° and Signs more). MMG assessment, bypass possible, dense wood, many skiing tracks, a cover of melt-freeze crust Halt in case of adverse factors? Possibility to bypass? Stick to standard measures. Avoid very steep terrain (30° and Favourable more). Movement only after MMG assessment!

or Movement only in flat, moderately steep terrain (up to 30°) and outside of catchment areas. Unfavourable?

Fig. 192: Pages 2 and 3 of the MMS Decision Aid Manual

On the last page of the manual (see Fig. 193) you will find summarized important information on - warning signs - favourable/unfavourable factors

409 - critical amount of new snow and - standard measures

Thus, the user of this booklet will have an aide-mémoire for the planning and the execution of an operation.

410 Decision Aid for Military Mountain Specialists Warning Signs  “Woom” noises and cracks when stepping on the snow cover  Spontaneous slab avalanches  Self-triggering  The V-groove of the kick turn slides  Bounded new snow (e.g. centre ridge between ski tracks or shovel test)  Signs of wind (e.g. sastrugi, forming of dunes, cornices, and snow banners.

Favourable Factors Adverse Factors  Little amounts of new snow  High amounts of new snow within within a longer period of time a short period of time  No or weak wind  Strong/stormy wind  Temperatures around O°C,  Deep temperatures (below minus especially at the beginning of 8 degrees = crunching snow snow fall or when rain turns to  Slope rarely used by skiers snowfall  Strong rise of temperature  Slopes with lots of tracks, constantly being used by skiers

Critical Amount of New Snow Assessment Criteria  Amount of new snow within a certain period of time  Wind intensity – weak to strong  Frequency of ascending/descending a slope on skis Additional Snow Period Avalanche Sit. more than 12 hrs critical more than 12 hrs dangerous Standard Measures  Check avalanche rescue kit and other equipment before moving  Keep distances of at least 15 m between soldiers on slopes steeper than 30°  When skiing downslope in column formation, keep a minimum distance of at least 20m between the soldiers  Try to use easy terrain

Fig. 193: The last page of the MMS Decision Aid Manual

411 The respective training unit will issue this manual to those who have successfully completed the Military Mountaineering Course. Oder doch eher “Military Mountain Guide Course” ????

412 VII. Snow Cover Analyses

1. General

You analyse a snow cover to get information on its structure, i.e.

- its layering in general - possible weak layers and sliding surfaces, and - some aspects of its stability (rutschblock test, extended column test)

The findings thereof become part of the local assessment and of the military avalanche situation report. When analysing the snow cover, you create a snow profile and conduct - a rutschblock test - an extended column test and - a small block test

NOTE: A snow cover analysis can only produce punctual results.

The location where you conduct such an analysis will have a decisive influence on the quality of its result. Therefore, choose locations - with unfavourable/critical snow conditions - with snow depths below the average - in intersected terrain o with slope exposures assessed as unfavourable o at altitudes assessed as critical

413 - close to descents of avalanches - with an undisturbed snow cover.

ATTENTION: When choosing such a location, be aware that personnel safety goes first.

2. Snow Profile

A snow profile is used to find out details about the composition of the snow cover (i.e. its layering). Most of the time, it is created together with a rutschblock test. For a detailed documentation of the profile use the snow profile form (ANNEX V). When creating a snow profile, dig down to the ground, if possible. Avoid direct sunlight hitting the snow profile wall. Try to identify each single snow layer. For each layer you have to find out its - hardness (by hand testing) - thickness (height) - form and size of grains - temperature within the layer or at its boundaries - humidity

When creating a simplified snow profile you can refrain from - taking the temperature - measuring the humidity, and - making final written records

The “simplified snow profile” is used as part of the “extended column test” and the “small block test”.

414 When conducting a hand test, you try to identify the approximate hardness of the snow cover by pressing your hand into the respective layer in various sizes. Use the snow profile documentation form to display the results (see ANNEX V). The snow profile is used to identify possible weak layers and critical layer boundaries.

Indications of a weak layer: - Angular shapes (including surface frost and depth hoar) - large shapes (1.25 mm and more) - little hardness (4 fingers or the whole fist)

Indications of a critical layer boundary: - grains vary considerably in size (by 0.75 mm and more) - vary in hardness (by 2 hardness grades or more) - the layer is located less than 1 m deep

3. The Rutschblock Test

With a rutschblock test (RBT) it is possible to get information about the stability of the basis of the snow cover. It provides fundamental information needed for the MISTA method. When conducting an RBT, you try to achieve a basic shear fracture by exerting additional load on the snow cover. Depending on the additional load needed, you may draw conclusions about the stability.

415 Conduct the RBT as follows: - The ideal inclination for an RBT is between 30 and 35 degrees - Isolate a block of 200x150 cm within the snow cover. Dig down to the ground. (see Fig. 194).

Fig. 194: Isolating a Rutschblock (Sliding Block) - Use the following table to find out the stability by continually and evenly loading the rutschblock Additional Stability Load Remark Load Class dig out/ Spontaneous none cut out triggering step carefully partial load static on it with skis weak Full load = step fully on it simple static with skis additional

416 load Bob up and Simple to down with the triple dynamic skis one to additional four times load medium Jump up and triple to down with the quintuple dynamic skis one to additional four times load one person quintuple to jumps on it dynamic eightfold from above from additional and without outside load skis attached two persons hard jump on it tenfold dynamic from above additional from and without load outside skis attached no triggering compact possible

When conducting the RBT as a basis for the MISTA method, you write the loading level which has led to a movement of the block into the RBT reporting form (see ANNEX V) by using the numbers listed in the table below.

417 Num Type of Stability ber spontaneous,Triggering/Load while cutting, digging Class when cautiously exerting load with ski Weak when fully loading with the ski bobbing mvt. with skis bobbing mvt. with skis bobbing mvt. with skis bobbing mvt. with skis Medium Jumping with skis Jumping with skis Jumping with skis Jumping with skis Jumping from above without skis – one person Jumping from above without skis – two persons Hard No crack created

4. Extended Column Test

The extended column test (ECT) is used to find weak layers in the snow cover and to identify a possible propagation of a fracture.

You perform an ECT (see Fig. 195) as follows:

- Basically, you do the test in flat terrain. However, it may be easier to identify a possible fracture when performing the test on a slightly inclined slope. - Isolate a block with a surface of 30x90 cm and a depth of about one meter. Make sure you do not “disturb” it.

To create a “simplified snow profile”, lay the blade of an avalanche shovel on one side of the block’s surface and then exert pressure on the blade in three steps:

418 Step 1: Lay the ball of one hand on the blade. Use the wrist as a pivot and let the fingers “fall” ten times on the blade (1st to 10th “hit”) Step 2: Keep one hand and forearm upright. Use the elbow as a pivot and let the hand “fall” ten times on the shovel blade (11th to 20th “hit”). Step 3: Let one hand (plus forearm and upper arm) fall down ten times from the shoulder and hit the shovel blade with the hand/fist (21st to 30 “hit”) Look and try to identify fractures or propagations of

them.

Up to Up

approx.

Fig. 195: ECT

The following types of fractures (see Fig. 196) are possible. In reality, they will appear as combinations of various fractures.

419

Vertical Fracture No Propagation

Stepped fracture across several layers. No propagation.

Clean fracture with rough surface. Propagation is very likely.

Clean fracture with smooth surface. Propagation is very likely.

Fig. 196: Types of Fractures

Depending on the type of fracture and the number of hits needed to create it, you can roughly assess the snow cover as stable or instable (see table below).

420 Number of hits Description of needed Remark Fracture

- Column breaks through with one hit Dig/Cut (No very

- First, fracture only below the hits!) unfavourable shovel, with 2nd hit across the unfavourable to 1 to 13 hits medium-

Instable whole block favourable - Clean fracture with smooth surface unfavourable to - Clean fracture with rough surface 14 to 21 hits medium- favourable  Fracture does not extend across the

whole block 22 to 30 hits rather

 You need more than one hit to favourable create a fracture that extends across Stable the whole column  Fracture cuts the whole column in No fracture rather two, but not along a straight line favourable (stepped fracture)

NOTE: The propagation of the fracture is more important than the number of hits!

At the end of the ECT, you analyse the identified weak layers and sliding surfaces because they provide important information for further assessments.

5. Systematic Snow Cover Diagnosis (SSD)

The start point for an SSD is the basic differentiation between a slab avalanche and a loose snow avalanche. In fact, they differ by their triggering mechanisms. Whereas a loose snow avalanche – triggered by a skier – starts moving downslope from the track of the skis, a slab avalanche moves downslope in the form of a flat table. Persons triggering a slab avalanche often find themselves on it. Thus, the break-away

421 edge of a slab avalanche is most of the time located above its triggering point. Process orientation, in this context, covers reflections on procedures and processes taking place within the snow cover (also called “snow pack”). The point is to find out if there are factors within the snow cover which allow drawing conclusions from a local snow profile and using them for larger areas. On a slope, snow is often deposited on a layer of weak snow (which is the critical layer of the snow cover), and in varying thickness. There are areas where only little snow covers a layer of weak snow located close to the surface. However, there are also areas where layers of weak snow are covered with large amounts of snow, which is the case when they are located deep below the surface (see Fig. 197).

high stability low stability

critical Layer

Fig. 197: Layer of weak snow

422 The closer a weak snow layer is located to the surface, the higher is the pressure a soldier exerts on it. The stability of a snow cover is the result of the strength of weak snow layer in relation to the stress exerted on it. In case of identical characteristics of both weak snow layers, their stability mainly depends on how much pressure is able to reach each of them. The transition area from the ridge of a depression to the centre of a depression, which is most of the time covered with blown-in snow, does not carry snow covers of identical thickness. If, for example, there is a layer of depth hoar at the bottom of a depression, this layer is covered with more snow in the centre of the depression than at its edges. This means that in the centre of the depression the stability is higher than at its edges and that, therefore, it is easier to trigger a slab avalanche at an edge than in the centre area. In fact, the quality of the snow cover changes centimetre by centimetre from the edges of a depression to its centre. It is therefore decisive where you perform your measurements because it is not possible to take stability data from only one point and to use for the rest of the slope. Thus, the systematic snow cover diagnosis concentrates primarily on the processes that take place within the snow cover. In fact, such processes are not limited to one point. When you also consider the course of the weather, the altitude, the exposition and the landform, it is quite possible to use the findings made at a location away from a certain slope also for the assessment of this very slope. In order to be able to transfer processes to other locations, you need a detailed analysis of the situation of the snow cover, i.e. you primarily look for weak layers in it. In

423 case you identify such layers, you try to find out how they have been created. The answer to this question leads you to the searched process and, thus, to the subsequent considerations based on it.

The SSD is divided into three parts: - Small block test, including a “simplified snow profile” - Analysis of the weak snow layer - Evaluation of the weak snow layer

The small block test (see Fig. 198) is the start point of the SSD. For that, you isolate a 40x40 cm block and check it by slightly hitting it laterally with an avalanche shovel from top to bottom. If you provoke an initial fracture, you will be able to identify layers of weak snow. Normally, it is sufficient to dig down to a depth of one meter. You can also conduct this test on flat terrain. When working carefully, you will even in soft snow be able to identify near-surface layers of weak snow. However, it will not be possible to get a representative impression of the whole snow cover by using this technique.

424

Fig. 198: Small block test

The analysis of the weak layer concerns primarily the form of the grains and how they are bound to each other. It is not necessary to analyse the snow crystals in a very detailed manner; you can do that without using a magnifying glass or other instruments. What is important is to see if the grains are subject to restorative transformation, degrading transformation or melting transformation. Thus, the process that lies behind the information is the important part of the result.

You therefore try to find out if - a layer is very weakly bonded, - has crystals of especially big size, or - there are signs of intense moisture and, as a consequence, of loss of bonding.

425 The next step of the on-site analysis deals with weather and terrain parameters. For that, you have to answer the following questions:

- What is your current location in terms of o altitude o exposition and o landform? - How have these factors influenced the composition of the snow cover? - Has the slope been frequently crossed with skis – yes or no?

The evaluation of a weak layer is based on the comparison of the current condition of the snow cover and its weak snow layers with the five unfavourable characteristics of the weak snow layers, which are: - A weak layer breaks easily - A weak layer is thin - A weak layer is up to one meter below the snow surface - A covering layer is soft - A weak layer has big crystals

A weak layer breaks easily This is the case when you are already able to move layers of snow when cutting out a block for a block test or when hitting it slightly from the side with the blade of a shovel. The intensity of the hit is not important in this context. However, what is more important is the type of the fractured surface, as it gives us information about a possible

426 propagation of the fracture. The smoother the fractured surface, the easier a fracture can propagate along a layer, damaging the crystalline structure. In order to identify such a process, it is important that the sliding surface remains unharmed and is not destroyed by physical impacts. Concerning stepped fractures, the question of easy breaking cannot just be answered with yes or no (see Fig. 199).

Fig. 199: A clean fracture (left), and a stepped fracture (right)

A weak layer is thin When a layer of snow moves (crawls) downslope, it exerts shear stress on the weak layer below it. In case of steady downslope-directed shear stress, thicker weak layers can absorb this stress better than thin ones (thinner than 3 cm, see Fig. 200).

427

Fig. 200: Thickness of Weak Layers

A weak layer can be located up to one meter below the snow surface. The force a skier exerts on the snow cover decreases with its depth. The deeper the weak layer, the more load is necessary to still be able to disturb it. Thus, the stress a skier exerts on a snow surface and 20cm below it will decrease to 25% in a depth of 80 cm.

A covering layer is soft The softer the snow, the deeper you will sink into it. This, however, will bring you nearer to the weak layer, and you will exert more pressure on it. Besides that, in soft snow the forces created by a skier only affect a limited area around him, and the pressure created by him mainly goes downwards. The harder the layers, the more the forces affecting them will extend sidewards. In case of a crusted snow surface able to take a load, the pressure will mainly extend sidewards.

428 The crystals of the weak layer are big

The bigger the crystals of a layer of weak snow, the smaller are their contact surfaces. From the statistical point of view, the propagation of a fracture is favoured when the crystals have a diameter of more than 1.25 mm. If there is more than one weak layer, analyse them from top to bottom. When conducting a risk assessment, you follow a certain procedure, just like when analysing a snow cover. Thus, you answer the 5 key questions step by step and with reference to the type of avalanche, the likelihood of its triggering, and the additional load needed for that.

6. The Five SSD Questions

- Will there descend mainly loose snow or mainly slab avalanches? - Can such an avalanche trigger itself? - What is the role of the skier? Can a single skier trigger a slab avalanche (little additional load)? - Can an avalanche be triggered by heavy additional load? - Is the terrain mainly avalanche-free?

Do we have to expect mainly loose snow or mainly slab avalanches? By means of the “shovel test” we can quickly answer this question. When the snow layer located above a weak layer is a loose one, i.e. the snow falls apart when shaking it on a shovel, you can assume that the snow will not build up planar tension.

429 This state is called “loose snow”, and we can find it very often during cold periods or in case of intense moisture penetrating the snow. When the snow does not fall apart when shaking it, we speak of “bonded snow”. In this case, we can assume that planar tension may build up in the snow cover.

Is it possible that a slab avalanche or a loose snow avalanche is triggered by itself?

We can answer this question with “yes” if - the weak layer corresponds with the unfavourable characteristics mentioned above - the covering layer has a certain thickness, and - the weather conditions lead to an increase of the tension within the snow cover.

First example (see Fig. 201): A stable old snow cover is covered by a 2-cm thick layer of surface frost. This layer of frost is covered by 80 cm of new snow, which has piled up under the influence of wind and therefore is bonded. The systematic snow cover diagnosis conducted in the form of a block test provides the following results for the layer located in a depth of 80 cm: - the weak layer breaks easily (clean fracture) - the weak layer is thin - there is soft snow above the weak layer - the weak layer is in a depth of less than 1 m., - there are clearly identifiable crystals in the weak layer

430

Fig. 201: First example

When, after a period of snowfall, the cloud cover breaks up and the downslope movement of the snow cover increases in speed because of the sunrays and the heat, the tension within the snow cover increases as well. Thus, self-triggering of avalanches becomes possible. Also in case of continued snowfall or rain, tensions in the snow cover could increase and trigger avalanches spontaneously.

Which role does the skier play in this context? Is a single skier able to trigger an avalanche? As to the first example, we have to assume that a skier (little additional load) can trigger an avalanche. However, when do we have to assume that there will be no self- triggering of traditional avalanches, but an additional small load in the form a skier will be able to initiate a slab avalanche? This can happen when the snow cover has the

431 same structure, however with the difference that the type and the thickness of the covering layer and the weather conditions do not increase the natural tensions within the snow cover.

Second example (see Fig. 202): A stable old snow cover is covered with a 2-cm thick layer of surface frost. This layer of frost is covered with 30 cm of new snow, which has piled up under the influence of wind and therefore is bonded. This snow cover is located on a northern slope and therefore not exposed to the effects of sunlight. The small block test will lead to the same results as above. In this situation, self- triggering of slab avalanches cannot be expected. However, such a constellation may already trigger a slab avalanche in case of little additional load.

Fig. 202: Second example

432 Can a slab avalanche be triggered by a heavy additional load? Such an avalanche situation is most of the time characterized by a more condensed covering layer or a weak layer that does not break easily.

Tests have shown that - by means of intensive knocking - in case of a combination of stepped and rough fracture surfaces and - a hard covering layer the question of whether the layer breaks easily or not can normally be answered with “no”. Thus, self-triggering or triggering by little additional load is not likely.

Third example: There is a 5-cm frost layer covering restoratively transformed, angular-shaped crystals. The bonded new snow covering this layer is well-connected with the frost layer. When conducting the small block test, you will see that

- the weak layer will break easily, - the weak layer is thin, - the weak layer is in a depth of less than 1 ,m - there are clearly identifiable crystals in the weak layer, - but a solid layer able to carry loads is located above the weak layer.

In this case you can exclude that a slab avalanche will be triggered by a small additional load, as one skier alone will not have enough weight to disturb the weak layer located

433 below the frost cover. However, heavy additional loads (e.g. a falling skier or a group of mountaineers) could trigger a slab avalanche. A risk is likely to be misjudged when the covering layer is very hard and the dangerous weak layer is located only a few centimetres below it. Such risk areas you will mainly find along ridges or in transitional areas between depressions and edges of slopes.

Is this slope a mainly avalanche-free slope? Avalanches can be excluded when - there is no weak layer - a new snow layer or a wet snow layer located on the surface of the snow cover is only moderately thick, and - due to the temperature, we can exclude that the snow will start gliding on the ground

Fourth example: On a well-settled cover of old snow rain turns slowly into snowfall, increasing the new snow cover by 30 to 50 cm. You are not able to cause a fracture or to detect a weak layer by conduction the small block test. The old snow cover is well-connected to the soil. Evaluation: 30 to 50 cm of new snow can trigger small loose-snow surface avalanches. However, the triggering of a slab avalanche is not likely with such a snow cover.

NOTE: No slab avalanche without a weak layer!

434 VIII. Military Avalanche Situation Report

If there is no civilian avalanche situation report available for an exercise/an operation, you have to create a military avalanche situation report (MASR) as a contribution to the planning process. This report may cover a mission area, an area of operations, or parts of it. A civilian report differs from a military one by the databases available. The creation of an MASR consists of three phases (see Fig. 203): - Information collection - Information evaluation - Creation of an MASR

Snow Cover Weather Observations Analysis

Evaluation Effects on the Report Forms for SBT/RBT Snow Cover Reports, Observ. by Forces Development of Own Observation, Small Block a Snow Cover Reconnaissance Test (SBT) ASCS Average Snow Cover Stability Systematic Snow Cover Diagnosis + Auxiliary Matrix Creation of the MASR

MASR

Fig. 203: Phases to create a MASR

Information collection creates the preconditions for

435 further assessment. We distinguish between three essential areas of information: - Information based on weather - Information based on observations - Information based on snow cover analyses

Within this context, the previous weather situation and the expected development of the weather as well as the consequences thereof, like: - the development of a snow cover, - the effects on an already existing snow cover, - the development of weak layers, and - effects on an already existing avalanche risk are of importance.

Observations can be made by - forces operating in the respective area, - reconnaissance conducted by specialists (e.g. military mountain guide team, mountain infantry platoon), and - personal reconnaissance.

Observations provide important information on the current situation of various areas. They make it possible to compare the results of several observation points and, thus, to detect different local risks caused e.g. by winds, the sun, etc. These observations are also used to reassess the currently issued avalanche risk level. It is necessary to analyse and evaluate information available, and also to interlink it in order to assess interdependencies.

436 In order to create an understandable and structured MASR based on the amount of information available, you are supposed to use

- the systematic snow cover diagnosis in conjunction with the “auxiliary matrix used for the creation of the avalanche situation report” (see margin no. Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.), and - the method for the determination of the average snow cover stability (ASCS), see margin no. 0 et seqq.

After determining the avalanche risk level, you have to complete the military avalanche situation report (MASR).

This report is divided into five parts: - Author, time of creation - General description (weather situation) - Composition of snow cover - Assessment of avalanche risk - Indications and tendency

The general description covers the development of the weather, the current weather situation, and the prevailing conditions. The composition of a snow cover informs us about the circumstances have led to the current avalanche risk level.

Besides that, the report also gives information on - the risk areas of a slope, - risky expositions, - risk areas in general,

437 - susceptibility of disturbances caused by additional load, and - favourable and unfavourable factors.

Indications and tendencies describe the expected development of the weather situation and, as a conclusion thereof, the possible development of the avalanche risk. Once the MASR is completed, the whole cycle starts again, i.e. you need to collect and evaluate new information to revise the issued avalanche risk level and MASR. Depending on the situation, you will then have to amend the existing MASR or to create a new one. To be able to create a MASR by means of a systematic snow cover diagnosis, you have to conduct a sufficient number of small block tests in a specific area. After that, you determine the avalanche risk level by using the “auxiliary matrix for the creation of the avalanche situation report” (see Fig. 204 and ANNEX V). Do not forget to make a statement on the size of the danger area and the avalanche triggering probability.

438

Fig. 204: Auxiliary matrix for the creation of an avalanche situation report.

The ASCS (average snow cover stability) method is a statistic calculation model to determine the average stability of the snow cover within a specific area. It is also used to determine the avalanche risk level, and it is the basis for the creation of the MASR. However, it is very personnel and time- consuming. For calculation you need a pocket calculator with statistics/mean value function, or a computer.

The ASCS method is divided into 4 steps: - Evaluate at least three rutschblocks in various expositions. If there is only one specific sector that needs to be assessed, you only cut out rutschblocks in this sector.

439 - Use the normalisation table. - Calculate the mean value and variance. - Determine the avalanche risk level and the stability class. From the normalisation table (see Fig. 205) you determine the x-value for each RBT. For that, you have to use the inclination of the slope and the shortcut for the load level, as displayed on the RBT reporting form (see ANNEX V).

Fig. 205: Normalisation Table

To calculate the mean value (x) and the variance (s), you use the statistics function of the calculator. Then you enter the mean value and the variance into the risk level form. After

440 that, you draw a line, starting at x=1, across the x/s point of intersection and extend it to the arc. The intersection of the straight line with the arc indicates the avalanche risk level. The same form is also used to determine and to indicate the risk potential in a detailed manner.

Fig. 206: Risk level and risk potential

In a further step, you determine the distribution of the stability classes. For that, you use the respective form (see Fig. 207 and ANNEX V) as follows:

- Enter the mean value and the variance into the diagram

441 - Draw a connecting line between point no. 5 of the x- axis and the x/s intersection point, and extend the line until it intersects with the arc. There, you will then be able to read the percentage of the “solid” stability class. - Draw a connecting line between point no. 1 of the x- axis and the x/s intersection point and extend the line until it intersects with the arc. There, you will then be able to read the percentage of the “weak” stability class. - To get the percentage of the “medium” stability class, you have to deduct the ”solid” and the “weak” values from 100 percent.

Variance “S”

“weak” part “solid” part (in %) (in %)

“weak” part

“solid” part

Correction factor

Stability Fig. 207: How to determine the stability classes

442 The higher the number of rutschblocks and the less the variance resulting from these tests, the exacter the result will be. The values obtained by calculation constitute the basis for the creation of the military avalanche situation report (MASR).

443

O. LIVING/BIVOUACKING IN THE MOUNTAINS

I. Bivouacking

1. General

Military operations pose increased physical and psychological challenges to soldiers, as they have to cope not only with operational strains but also with difficulties resulting from the terrain and the weather. Besides that, the lack of infrastructure constitutes an additional burden. Thus, soldiers must be able to set up field-expedient accommodations, away from infrastructure, in order to be protected against coldness, wetness, snow, and wind. In mountainous terrain, such accommodations are called improvised accommodations. The regulations below cover the specifications soldiers have to apply in mountainous terrain. They are a complement to the basic regulations for survival in the field which can be found in branch-specific manuals.

2. Improvised Accommodations

You set up improvised accommodations in areas that - are not exposed to objective mountain hazards, - are largely protected against wind and cold airstreams, - have a dry soil,

444 - do not collect running water during periods of rain or snowmelt, - offer terrain features and vegetation that can be exploited for building improvised accommodations, - offer sufficient camouflage, - are easy to be secured and - provide sufficient construction material.

There are two types of improvised accommodation: - the planned bivouac and - the emergency bivouac.

You set up a planned bivouac when the operation is scheduled to last for a longer period of time. If so, you have to give orders regarding additional equipment soldiers will have to take with them (e.g. tentage material, gas pocket stove, tools, etc.).

Troops may have to set up an emergency bivouac because of - the bad physical condition of the soldiers, - a deterioration of the environmental conditions (e.g. a sudden change in weather, fog), or - loss of orientation.

In such situations, military leaders also have to counter arising discourage.

When operating in mountainous areas, soldiers have to be sufficiently equipped (e.g. with bivouac sacks, sleeping bags

445 coatings) to be able to spend a longer period of time in an emergency bivouac without suffering physical harm.

446 The military leader gives the order to set up a bivouac, and he also gives instructions on the sequence of activities. You should start setting up a bivouac in time, i.e. before nightfall or at the time when the physical capacities of the soldiers start to decrease. When setting up a bivouac during rain or snowfall, make sure the soldiers wear outer clothing that protects against wetness. Also make sure that they have dry clothing to put on once they are inside the bivouac.

In detail, the military leader gives instructions on

- where to set up the accommodations, - where to store the equipment, - where to dig latrines, - where to establish supply points (e.g. for cooking), - where to take water and snow, - routes to be used and safety measures against mountain hazards (e.g. barriers, rope handrails), - the securing of the bivouac, and - the positioning and relief of guards.

The type of accommodation depends on the - tactical situation, - terrain, - season and weather conditions, - time available, and - material and equipment available.

Besides improvised accommodations (as described in various field manuals), soldiers also use

447 - accommodations made of snow and - tents to survive in mountainous terrain.

3. Accommodations Made of Snow

General

Accommodations made of snow offer sufficient protection from storms, precipitations, and coldness. Their inside temperature is passable, even when it is very cold outside. However, in such accommodations you have to enable adequate ventilation (supply with oxygen). Due to additional condensation of the snow, precipitations or snowdrift as well as the use of oxygen by the people living in the accommodation, a lack of oxygen could occur.

Concerning accommodations made of snow, only - the snow cave and - the formwork igloo are able to provide the conditions needed to maintain combat power during a longer period of time.

Snow Cave

When you want to build a snow cave, you need a sufficiently thick snow pack. Determine its depth by means of an avalanche probe. Snow scours, cornices and short ravines

448 situated at the lee side are convenient locations for snow caves.

When building a snow cave (see Fig. 208), make sure that - you have to enter it from bottom to top (“Cold sink”: the cold air settles on the bottom of the cave), - the lying platform is opposite the remaining part of the cave, - each soldier has a 60 cm wide platform available for sitting or lying, - the lying platform is sufficiently high for upright sitting, - you leave some space for stowing away the equipment - if possible at the foot side of the lying area, - the lying platform has the form of an arc, and - the walls are smooth.

449 Air Vent

Candle

Lying Platform

Reduced Entrance

Lying Platform Candle

Recess/wind protection for cooking/ equipment Cold Sink

Storage Area - Fig. 208: Snow cave

450 It may be convenient to build several snow caves, i.e. each for one squad. Normally, you start to dig from several entrances, which you all close when the cave is finished – except for one. Ensure sufficient ventilation through several vents. Mark the entrance of the cave on its top (e.g. with crossed ski poles).

Formwork Igloo

A formwork igloo can also be built when there is little snow. The basic condition for that is the creation of a hollow construction. For that, you form a casing by means of two or several soldiers and as many rucksacks as possible, and cover them with ponchos, tarpaulins or bivouac sacks. Then you heap up snow on this construction until you have reached a self-supporting layer. After that, the soldiers leave the formwork igloo, and you also remove the rucksacks. To keep the igloo stable, you continually add further snow from outside. To build a formwork igloo with covered soldiers, you need a snow pack that will still be 1 meter thick after you have tramped it down. Dig a hip-deep hole with a diameter of about 1 m into this pack and also dig out an entry shaft approx. 1.5 m away from this hole. After that, you dig a tunnel between the round hole and the entry shaft. (see Fig. 209). Heap up the dug-out snow around the round hole.

451 - Fig. 209: Formwork igloo with covered soldiers (1)

The build the formwork, two to four soldiers assemble in the round hole with their faces turned to the centre and holding each other by putting their arms put around the shoulders. Now lay tarpaulins on the backs of the soldiers that reach down to their bottoms. Then the soldiers press these tarpaulins against the round hole. Lay another tarpauling on the heads of the soldiers, then heap up snow on them and condense it. The snow cover should at least be 50 cm thick (see Fig. 210). As soon as the dome has become stable, the soldiers take away their tarpaulins and leave the hole through the tunnel.

452 Loop Tunnel

- Fig. 210: Formwork igloo with covered soldiers (2).

Now enlarge the interior of the igloo until you can stand upright in the middle of it. Bring the excavated snow outside via the tunnel and throw in on the top of the igloo (see Fig. 211).

453 Headroom

1st Step 1st Step

Snow Disposal

- Fig. 211: Formwork igloo with covered soldiers (3)

Then build lying or reclining platforms left and right of the centre corridor. They should be 50 cm above the ground (cold sink, see Fig. 212). Do not forget to flatten the walls of the igloo.

Reclining Lying Platform Platform

- Fig. 212: Formwork igloo with covered soldiers (4)

454 When building a formwork igloo with covered pieces of baggage, use as many pieces as possible, and cover them with a poncho or a bivouac sack. Then pour snow on them until you have piled up a self-supporting cover. Dig a hole at the entrance area and take out the baggage. This will make the inside of the igloo larger (see Fig. 213).

- Fig. 213: Formwork igloo with covered pieces of baggage

455 If there is no baggage available, you first have to pile up snow and condense it. Then you dig out snow, thus forming a cave.

How to behave in a snow cave and in an igloo: - Protect yourself against the cold from the ground (e.g. by means of insulating mats, tarpaulins, ropes, brushwood, or straw). - Wear dry underwear and clothing. - The head needs special protection against cold. - Do not smoke! - If possible, prepare hot food and hot beverages.

4. Tents

A tent is the fastest way of constructing a shelter. Seal the edges of the tent with snow to prevent wind from entering. Place the entrance at the downwind side (see Fig. 214).

- Fig. 214: Tent with wind protection (wall of snow)

456 ATTENTION: Use only gas, liquid and solid fuel stoves in shelters made of snow or in tents when there is sufficient ventilation.

II. Keeping the Soldiers Physically Fit

1. General

To remain physically fit during mountain operations, all soldiers have to - protect themselves against influences of the weather and - take in sufficient food and water.

Insufficient protection may result in a decrease of physical fitness, diseases and frostbite.

Mountainous conditions require an increased maintenance of weapons and equipment.

General regulations/measures on how - to remain healthy, - to keep the clothing, the equipment and the armament operational, and - to use the assigned rations you will find in the respective manuals.

Thus, these topics will later on in this manual only be addressed when referring to the particularities of operations in mountainous terrain.

457 2. Food

Increased physical strain, together with increased use of energy, – especially in case of enormous differences in temperature – requires high quality food taken at shorter intervals than at normal altitudes.

Whenever possible, take freshly prepared food instead of canned food. Try to supply your men at least once per day with warm food our have them prepare it on their own. In order to reduce the load during special operations, try to use dehydrated food (e.g. MREs).

Under physical strain, the loss of fluids will increase and, thus, also the loss of minerals. Soldiers should take some fluid every hour. Every two hours, they also should eat and drink, even if they do not feel like it. Preferably, take electrolyte drinks, cheese, and fruit juice, as they can compensate the loss of minerals. Drink snow and meltwater only after proper treatment. For details, see the respective manuals.

3. Clothing and Equipment

Clothing and equipment have to be adapted to the mission and have to be available in sufficient amount. In case of sudden change of weather, wintery conditions may also develop in summer. When carrying spare clothing with you, make sure it does not get wet.

458 Check the proper condition of your clothing and equipment prior to each operation in mountainous terrain, i.e.

- Maintain your clothing with care. - Adapt it to the size of your body. Too tight clothing will impede the freedom of movement, the blood circulation, and favour frostbite. - Put on several layers of thin clothes (onion skin system), as they provide better thermal insulation than one single layer of thick clothes.

In case of intense sunrays (direct or indirect), make sure to wear a head protection.

459 P. MOUNTAIN RESCUE

I. General

Mountain rescue comprises first aid and evacuation of wounded, injured, sick or other persons in a situation of distress.

Most of the time, rescue operations take place under difficult conditions in mountainous terrain or in an urban environment.

First Aid covers the treatment, stabilisation and proper preparation of sick and wounded for transport.

Evacuation is the transport after rescue and preparation for transport to be carried out by means of a rescue device. During the transport, medical treatment has to be maintained. A rescue operation always constitutes increased physical and psychical strain for the forces performing it. This has to be considered during the planning, execution and after-action review of a rescue operation. Such an operation also requires coordinated, considered, safe, but nevertheless quick action. Thus, rescue forces have to do their job properly and prospectively in order to avoid further danger situations and accidents.

460 Changes to standing operating procedures, and the use of non-approved mountain operations equipment are only allowed if necessary to avoid further damage. The military leader on the spot is responsible for proper assessment of the safety.

NOTE: The security of the rescue personnel goes first.

A rescue operation may last hours, even days. We distinguish between improvised and well-planned rescue.

461 II. Improvised Mountain Rescue

1. Improvised Mountain Rescue in Snow and Ice

General

Improvised mountain rescue is an operation conducted by soldiers on the spot and by using material they have taken with them (personal or mountain equipment) or that can be taken from nature. Such an operation needs prudence and the ability to improvise. Its aim is to evacuate and treat the victim quickly and with care.

Essential criteria to be assessed for the choice of the rescue procedure/rescue equipment: - Military situation - Conditions that have led to the accident - Injuries suffered - Environmental conditions.

Types of releasable fixings: - Mule knot - Slip knot - Securing of the tuber (with an overhand knot) - Netting

Mule knot, slip knot (HMS and figure eight knot) and securing of the tuber are used for mountain rescue and the construction of protected routes. They provide a releasable fixing of ropes.

462 HMS with slip knot and netting are used for the releasable fixing of accessory cords. When falling into the rope, the rescue measures will be determined by the available amount of the remaining rope. If there is enough rope left, the fallen person is lowered to a safe belay station where s/he gets treatment and is evacuated. If there is not enough rope left or if the situation requires, the rope needs to be fixed. Only after that, further rescue measures can take place, including the treatment and the evacuation of the victim.

The type of fixing depends on the abseiling and protection equipment, i.e. - HMS carabiner (see Fig. 215) - figure eight knot (see Fig. 216or - tuber (see Fig. 217)

Fig. 215: Releasable HMS fixing: HMS with mule knot (left) and slip knot (right).

463

Fig. 216: Releasable fixing: Figure eight descender with mule knot (left) and slip knot (right)

464 Fig. 217: Releasable fixing: Figure eight descender with deflection (left), and tuber with deflection (right).

The releasable fixing, made of an HMS and slip knot or netting, is used - to transfer loads during mountain rescue operations (see Fig. 218) - to anchor belay stations, and - to build protected routes.

Fig. 218: Load transfer by means of a netting (left) or an HMS with slip knot (right).

When performing rescue operations, it may be necessary to relieve the rope. For that, you have transfer the load attached to it (see Fig. 219) by - fixing the rope in a way that it can be released again (see margin no. 0)

465 - releasably attaching an accessory rope as close as possible to the abseiling/belaying device by means of a friction hitch knot or a rope clamp. - releasing the fixation of the loaded rope, and – carefully transferring the load to the accessory cord.

Fig. 219: Load Transfer

After completing the necessary tasks you fix the rope again in a way that it can be released if necessary. Then you undo the accessory cord knot and carefully transfer the load on the rope. Now you remove the cord/rope clamp.

When transferring the load with two ropes (two single strand or half ropes), the friction hitch is tied across??? both ropes (über beide Seile). When using rope clamps instead of friction hitches, use one clamp for each rope.

466 2. Downward Rescuing

Lowering

When rescuing somebody in downward direction, use abseiling/protection devices for lowering. When using a single strand rope, the braking effect will be weaker than when using two strands of rope.

For details on how to handle the abseiling/belaying devices, see chapter J of this manual (Protection Techniques).

If you use a single or a double strand rope for lowering depends on: - the material available - the type of load (one or two soldiers) - the terrain (e.g. risk of rockfall, surface of the rock, steepness), and - possible lateral movements (shear load).

ATTENTION: When lowering two persons with half ropes, use two half rope strands.

Under critical conditions (e.g. wetness, coldness, rockfall), the lowering assistant can secure the braking rope by additionally tying it with a friction hitch to the rope-up point. For attaching the rescuer and the victim, you can use an improvised Y-sling (see margin no. 0).

467 Rope Extension

If the length of one or several rope is not sufficient for the distance a person needs to be lowered, you need to extend it with another rope (see Fig. 220).

How to extend a rope: - Stop the load rope in time (2 to 3 m before its end; ends of rope are secured against running completely through the belay device or already tied to another rope) - Prepare the transfer of the load - Tie the ropes together - Insert the new lowering rope into another abseiling/belaying device and fix it in a way that it can be released again. Fix the loose end of the rope. - Open the first fixation and let the rope descend via the released friction hitch. - Transfer the load just before the end of the rope - Unhook the rope from the first abseiling/belay device. - Transfer the load to the new rope. - Open the fixation and continue lowering. NOTE: Use the same procedure for extending a two-strand rope.

468

Fig. 220: Extending a single strand rope

One-man rescue procedure

The one-man rescue procedure is used when - the victim is not or only partially able to contribute to the rescue efforts - there is no additional rescuer available

The one-man rescue procedure is ideal for rescuing persons close to the fall line. It is up to the rescuer to decide if he wants to evacuate a fallen person to a belay station as a lead or trail climber (e.g. by means of lowering, a hoist, or a rope pulley).

469 The victim is releasably attached to a belay station by means of an accessory rope which is tied to a rope-up point. Then the rope is prepared for abseiling and inserted it into an abseiling/belaying device. The rescuer and the victim connect themselves to the abseiling/belay device by means of two short webbings of same length, or an improvised Y-sling. Their length has to be adapted in a way that the victim is attached to the back of the rescuer and the rescuer is able to operate the abseiling/protection device. Below this abseiling/protection device, attach a protection as used for abseiling (see margin no. Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.). Then, the victim is tied to the rescuer by means of the accessory cord, which is fixed to his rope-up point. After releasing the protection devices, the rescuer abseils together with the victim (see Fig. 221).

470 Fig. 221: One-man rescue procedure

If abseiling is necessary beyond the length of the rope available, you have to build a new belay station. For that, the rescuer belays himself and the victim at the new belay station by using the accessory cord attached to the victim.

– Variant 1:

– You deflect the accessory cord via a locking carabiner at the belay station and fix it releasably to the harness of the rescuer (see Fig. 222)

– Variant 2:

- You deflect the accessory cord via a locking carabiner at the belay station and fix it releasably to the harness of the rescuer. In this case, the rescuer belays himself with a self-belay sling (see Fig. 223). - Then you remove the abseiling/belaying device and the protection like you do when abseiling, and - you withdraw the rope and insert it into the new belay station for further abseiling

Finally, you follow the procedure described above.

471

Fig. 222: One-man rescue procedure, variant 1: Self-belaying at the belay station

Fig. 223: One-man rescue procedure, variant 2: Modifications at the belay station completed

472 Withdrawal procedure

When a rope party has to turn back, it has to follow a so- called “withdrawal procedure”. Abseiling (see margin no. 0 et seqq) is the easiest and quickest way of withdrawal. In practice, you combine abseiling with the withdrawal procedure. We know the following withdrawal procedures: - Withdrawal by means of a running carabiner - Withdrawal by means of a self-pulley - Withdrawal by means of a self-pulley and an additional friction hitch - Withdrawal on a half rope

Advantages of withdrawal procedures: - Climbing partners are always on belay. - Belay stations can be reached in overhanging terrain and also off the fall line by means of swinging, abseiling or climbing. - You need not cast the rope.

Preconditions for the use of the withdrawal procedures: - The soldiers are no more than half of the rope length away from each other (exception: withdrawal on a half rope) - Intermediate belays are hooked in. - Both soldiers know how to follow the procedures - For deflection, you have to build a belay station.

When withdrawing by means of a running carabiner (see Fig. 224), you clip a carabiner/an express sling to the

473 rope-up point of the climbing partner above you and also to the rope leading downwards. Now the climber is no longer able to swing sidewards and will be slowly lowered down by the belayer (maintain visual/acoustic contact).

Fig. 224: Withdrawal by means of a running carabiner

Withdrawal by means of a self-pulley (see Fig. 225) is used when the soldier has to position himself (because of steepness of terrain, icy surface, unhooking of the intermediate belay, etc.). In this case, you replace the running carabiner by a friction hitch. The belayer releases as much rope as possible (maintain visual/acoustic contact). .

474

Fig. 225: Withdrawal by means of self-pulley

Withdrawals by means of a self-pulley and an additional friction hitch (see Fig. 226) is used when the soldier has to move back to the previous belay station without the direct aid of his climbing partner and under difficult conditions (e.g. overhanging terrain, storm, icy surface) and limited visibility/acoustic contact.

In this case, the lead climber hauls in the rope which is fixed to the belay station below him and ties an additional friction hitch into it. With the aid of the friction hitch and the loose rest of the rope, he then moves back to the lower belay station without swinging too much sidewards. For that, he lowers the self-pulley and pulls himself via the intermediate belays to the belay station beneath him by using the additional friction hitch.

475

Fig. 226: Withdrawal by means of a self-pulley and an additional friction hitch

Withdrawal on a half rope (see Fig. 227) is used along the whole length of the rope available. For that, the half rope is prepared as for abseiling, and the belayer fixes the ends of the rope to the lower belay station.

Now, the lead climber abseils. You also tie an additional friction hitch into the half rope that runs via the intermediate belays down to the lower belay station. For further steps, see margin no. Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden..

476

Fig. 227: Withdrawal on a half rope

3. Upward Rescuing

Loose Pulley

The loose pulley makes it possible to rescue upwards loads, and persons who are still able to act. Precondition: You need at least two thirds of the rope in use. In detail, you - lower a rope sling together with a locking biner down to the victim after having fixed the load rope, - clip the locking biner into the rope-up point and use it as a deflection device (see Fig. 228; attention: when using a double bowline knot, you have to clip it in over both rope slings),

477 - attach a friction hitch/rope clamp to the loose, upward running rope and hook in to the central load carabiner (see Fig. 228).

By pulling at the secured rope, the victim can support the rescuing efforts.

478

Fig. 228: Deflection at the victim (left) and friction hitch on the upward running rope (right)

Self-pulley

A self-pulley (see Fig. 229) makes it possible to ascend/descend up to the half of the available length of the rope. For that, - after belaying, you deflect the rope running away from the rope-up point in a locking carabiner of the belay station.

ATTENTION: When belaying with a friction hitch, you must not deflect the rope in the loop of the friction hitch.

479 - Then you tie a friction hitch into the loose rope and tie the accessory rope to the rope-up point (depending on the length of your arm). - Move the friction knot in your direction when ascending/descending. In vertical or overhanging terrain, a foot loop pinched off by one of your hands will make it easier for you to ascend.

Fig. 229: Self-pulley

When the rescuer has available at least 75% of the length of the rope, he can combine the loose pulley with the self- pulley. To increase the range, he may fix the rope deflection in advance to the loose rope.

Pulleys

Pulleys are used as ascending aids and to hoist persons and material. Pulleys constructed for the tensioning of ropes are

480 described in chapter Q of this manual (Building of protected routes)

Express Pulley

During climbing activities, the express pulley (see Fig. 230) is used as a traction aid.

To build an express pulley, you

- tie a friction hitch into the loaded rope after having fixed or clamped it. - Then you clip in a carabiner as close as possible to the friction hitch. - After that you hook the unloaded rope into the carabiner, - and then you release the fixation.

Fig. 230: Express pulley

Pulley

A pulley (see Fig. 231) is used for upward rescuing or for the hoisting of loads. For that, you

481

- fix the loaded rope (1), - tie a friction hitch into the loaded rope or attach a rope clamp, together with a carabiner(2), - then you hook an accessory cord to the central point and pass it through the carabiner (2). - After that, you hook another carabiner to the accessory rope as a backup (2), - and you install a return stop (e.g. by tying a Garda knot into the rope or attaching a rope clamp to it) and insert the rope (3). - Then you loosen the rope fixation (4), - transfer the load (4), - unhook the HMS and insert the slack rope into the return stop (5), - hook the unloaded rope coming out of the return stop into the carabiner of the accessory cord and tighten it (5). - Finally, you unhook the backup safety (6).

Do not forget to adapt the accessory cord to the terrain conditions.

482

Fig. 231: Pulley

The Prusik Method

In case the fallen climber has to rescue himself upwards, ascend is made possible by using the prusik method (prusiking or short prusiking) and the mountain guide method. For the techniques described below, you may also use rope clamps instead of friction hitches.

When prusiking (prusik climbing), you

483 - attach an accessory cord to the rope by means of a friction hitch, - tie the accessory cord to the rope-up point in a way that you can easily reach the friction hitch (= chest sling, not longer than your arm). - Then, by means of another accessory rope, you tie a second friction hitch below the first one and - pass this accessory cord behind the standard harness system and fix it to the foot by means of a girth hitch (= foot loop ascender). Then you alternately put load on the chest sling and on the foot loop by at the same time pushing the unloaded friction hitch upwards.

In overhanging terrain or when the rope has cut itself into the ground, we change from the prusik method to the short prusiking or mountain guide method.

To modify the whole system for short prusiking (see Fig. 232), you put strain on the chest sling. Then you remove the foot loop from the foot and tie it as closely as possible to the leg loops of the sitting harness. For ascending, you alternately raise you pelvis and your upper body.

484

Fig. 232: Short-prusiking

When using the mountain guide method (see Fig. 233), you tie a granny not below the first friction hitch and hang a carabiner into it. When using the mountain guide method, you have to prusik up until you have available a rope loop of at least one meter in length.

After that, you - put tension on the chest sling, - remove the foot loop from the foot and undo it, - attach a return stop to the leg loops or to the rope-up point of the sitting harness and hook the rope into it, - hook the rope coming from the return stop into the prepared carabiner, - pull the pelvis upwards by pulling the rope,

485 - relieve the friction hitch by raising the upper body, and - push the friction hitch upwards.

Fig. 233: Mountain guide method

If you do not have enough rope for a rope sling, you may exceptionally undo the knot that fixes you to the chest sling in order to have more rope available. If so, do not forget to tie a knot at the end of the rope.

Bremsknoten werden nach Möglichkeit geöffnet oder unter ständiger Selbstsicherung überwunden. Dabei

If possible, undo the braking knots or overcome them under constant self-belay. For that, you

486 - keep the chest sling hooked in and under tension, - attach a new chest sling, including a carabiner, above the braking knot and tie it to the rope-up point, - undo the lower chest sling after having transferred the load to the new one, - insert the rope into the carabiner and - continue climbing upwards.

Team Rescue

Team rescue (see Fig. 234) is the easiest, quickest and most effective way of rescuing somebody in upward direction when you have enough soldiers and enough space available. Depending on the situation, it may be necessary to use a return stop. When rescuing somebody from a crevasse as a team, you need to tie several persons to one rope. Also consider the risk of crevasse fall.

487

Fig. 234: Team Rescue

After having arrested the falling colleague, all soldiers remain where they are and keep the rope under tension. If necessary, one soldier, under self-belay, approaches the edge of the crevasse and makes contact with the fallen person. Then

488 the team rescues the colleague by pulling him slowly and constantly out of the crevasse.

ATTENTION: In order not to injure the victim, the rescue operation should be well- coordinated.

When you have a second rope team available, this team could support the rescue from the opposite edge of the crevasse. An overhanging edge of crevasse makes it easier to rescue a person.

4. Improvised Means of Transport for Rocky and Icy Terrain

General

Improvised means of transport are mainly used to evacuate persons from danger areas or over short distances. The type of injury and the position of the injured person resulting thereof have decisive impact on the means of transport to be used. Before constructing an improvised means of transport, you will have to consider:

- the route along which the person will be rescued, - the equipment and assets available, and - the number of assistants available.

Improvised means of transport include, among others:

489 - the patient carrier and abseiling seat - the rope seat, and - the rope stretcher.

The patient carrier and abseiling seat (see Fig. 235) is used to carry an injured person in flat terrain, but also for abseiling/lowering in steep terrain. It is made of one rope as follows:

- Prepare the rope: - Coil the rope by creating loops of 60 to 70 cm - Take away three loops at each end of the rope - Split the remaining loops in half so that you have two portions of rope with same number of loops on each side. - Tie the two portions together with a triangular scarf or a webbing (see below).

- Suspension device: - Fix the upper end and with a clove hitch tied around the strands of the rope. - Tie in a granny knot 60 cm above the clove hitch. - Pass the rope downwards and tie a clove hitch around the middle of the strands of the rope. - Use the rest of the rope to fix the victim.

– Seat sling: - Tie a clove hitch around the strands of the rope in order to fix the lower part of the rope. - Fix the end of the rope by tying a clove hitch around the other strands of the rope. Secure the clove hitch with a

490 knot. Make sure that the clove hitch knots are not at the lowest point because this might be uncomfortable for the victim. - am Ende der langen Schlinge (Sitzschlinge) einen Sackstichknoten knüpfen; eventuell mit einem Knoten ablängen; - At the end of the long loop (sitting loop) you tie a granny knot and maybe secure it with another knot.

- Attaching the victim to the seat - Fasten the seat to the injured person by pulling the rope loops over his thighs and - fixing him with the rest of the rope

Fig. 235: Carrier and Abseiling Seat

For the long rope seat (see Fig. 236), you coil a rope in loops. The length of the loops should be about 1.20 m, depending on the height of the rescuer and the victim. Tie the loops together in front of the chest of the rescuer.

491

Fig. 236: Long rope seat

Rope stretcher

The rope stretcher (see Fig. 237) is made of one rope. If at hand, you can also add poles.

492 Clove hitch knot

Centre of rope Shoulder width

approx. 15 cm Carrying loops

Pass rope through eye

Spacing of feet

Final fixation with clove hitch tied to the loop

Remaining rope, used to immobilize the injured person.

Fig. 237: Rope Stretcher

493 III. Improvised Mountain Rescue in Winter

1. General

488 Despite all precautions and command and control measures taken, you never can exclude the descent of an avalanche.

When buried by an avalanche, the probability to survive is increased when - avalanche rescue equipment is available and properly used (see margin no. 340), and - first aid is provided correctly and in time

When avalanche search dogs are on the spot, they have to be used first to locate the buried persons. For details see margin no. 524.

489 The so-called “survival curve” (see Fig. 238) shows the probability of survival when buried by an avalanche. It also snows the various phases when getting buried, which are:

- the survival phase, - the suffocation phase, and the - latency phase.

494

Buddy Search and Rescue

Survival ProbabilitySurvival Start of organized SAR

Latency

Suffocation Phase Survival PhaseSurvival Phase

Burial duration (in min)

Fig. 238: Survival curve when buried by an avalanche

The survival phase covers a period of 15 to 20 minutes 490 after the burial. During this time, the probability to survive is very high (approx. 90 percent), and buddy search and rescue plays an important role.

The suffocation phase covers the period from approx. 20 491 to 35 minutes after the burial. During this time, the survival probability goes down to 35 to 40 percent. During this phase, most of the buried die from suffocation.

495 492 The latency phase starts approx. after 35 min. after the burial. Those who were able to create a so-called “air pocket” may survive during this phase.

493 When you are trapped by an avalanche, the following actions may increase the probability to survive:

- Try to outrun the avalanche by speeding up (schuss- escape). - Throw away the ski poles. - Assume the crouching position before the avalanche stops, bring your arms in front of your face and try to create an air pocket as large as possible. - Stay calm to save energy. - Do not fight the need to sleep. - Trust in the provision of quick aid.

Soldiers not affected by a descending avalanche have to observe the incident (see Fig. 239) in order to keep in mind the point where the colleague was caught by the avalanche (“catch point”) and the point where he disappeared in it (“last seen point”). This will allow them to determine the likely location of the buried colleague (“burial point”), which will be the primary search area. They also should consider possible jamming areas (e.g. boulders, trees) and the direction of flow of the avalanche.

496 Entry Route

Catch Point

Last-seen Point

Flow Line

Jamming Area

Primary Search Area

Secondary Search Area

Fig. 239: Observing the descent of an avalanche

Before starting to search for a person buried by an avalanche, you should consider possible after-avalanches. If needed, position avalanche alarm posts and designate escape routes.

2. Searching Avalanche-buried People

The search consists of four phases 494 - Signal search - Rough search - Fine search - Pinpoint location

497 495 When performing a signal search with the avalanche transceiver, you search the primary area with your eyes and ears (surface search). At the beginning of this search, all searchers have to switch their transceivers to “receive” or to switch them off (depending on the type). The distance between the search strips is 20 m, to the edge of the avalanche it is 10 m (see Fig. 240). When you find equipment, leave them clearly visible at the place where you found them. If you have enough personnel, start with an area-covering signal search. Besides that, assign tasks like in case of an organised avalanche rescue operation (see margin no. 503 to 525), i.e.: - designate soldiers for avalanche transceiver search (depending on the number of search strips) - designate diggers (two per searcher, if possible).

NOTE: Mark the place where you receive the first signal.

498

Fig. 240: Signal search: One searcher (upper picture) and several searchers (lower picture)

Rough search covers the terrain from the reception of the 496 first signal to a distance of 3 m from the buried. When conducting this type of search, you

- follow the field lines until the transceiver indicates a distance of approx. 10 m.

499 - Then you slow down to be able to follow the directional arrow exactly. - In a distance of 3 m or less from the buried person, you start searching directly along the surface of the snow.

NOTE: When you start the rough search, stop turning the avalanche transceiver. The more you approach the burial site, the more you have to slow down, and more the search accuracy increases.

497 Fine searching starts no later than 3m away from the likely burial site (see indication on the transceiver). For fine searching, you move the transceiver slowly and horizontally in a very short distance from the surface. Mark the point where the acoustic signal of the transceiver is the loudest. Then turn the transceiver once again in an angle of 90 degrees to the left and to the right, thus confining the area to be searched by means of intersection (see Fig. 241).

500

Fig. 241: Confining the search area by intersection

Pinpoint location by means of a probe is the last phase of 498 the search. You start probing from the centre of the marked area. When the first probe is not successful, you continue in a grid-type pattern with probing points 15 cm away from each other (see Fig. 242). Contrary to an organized avalanche rescue operation (see chapter VI, subchapter 5 of this manual), the avalanche probe is inserted perpendicularly to the surface of the snow. When the buried is located, you leave the probe where it is. It will serve the diggers as an orientation point.

501

Fig. 242: Pinpoint searching with probe

3. Digging out and rescuing an avalanche- buried person

499 When digging out a person, try to uncover the head as quickly as possible. Check if the buried was able to create an air pocket – this is an importation indication for further treatment.

500 Start digging out in downslope direction from the probe. The distance to the probe corresponds to the burial depth. When digging out the victim, shovel away the snow over a large area.

502 If there is more than one soldier available, start digging in a distance of 1.5 times the burial depth below the probe (see Fig. 243).

Do not remove the probe!

Fig. 243: Several soldiers digging out a buried person

When you reach the buried person, uncover his head 501 immediately. Use your hands for that in order not to injure the person. Then check his vital functions.

While digging out, you can already start providing live- saving emergency treatment. In the meantime, the other

503 soldiers come closer and continue digging out the victim. Only move him as necessary and protect him from further cooling. If there is more than one person buried in an area of approx. 15 m in diameter, we speak of complex multiple burials. With modern avalanche transceivers, it is possible to simplify the search for buried persons by using the marking function, and to solve the problem without applying special search tactics. When several persons are buried close to each other (interference of transceiver signals), switch off the transceiver of the first person you have dug out and continue the search.

4. Improvised Means of Transport for the Wintery Season

502 A tied-up bivouac sack (see Fig. 244) is a means of transport that can be built in very little time. However, for longer evacuations you can only use it only to a limited extent.

How to build a tied-up bivouac sack: - Spread out a bivouac sack - Put cushioning material (e.g. pieces of clothing, insulation mats) diagonally on the bivouac sack, do not forget head protection. - Then, for protection, you cover the injured with an aluminium foil or a sleeping bag and lay him diagonally on the bivouac sack. - Now start to close the bivouac sack by means of clove hitches tied with accessory cords. Tie the clove hitches

504 over small items wrapped into the sack (e.g. snowballs, stones, carabiners). - Attach cords for pulling and slowing down the sack.

Snowballs, stones, etc., tied up with a clove hitch

Fig. 244: A tied-up bivouac sack

505 IV. Systematic Mountain Rescue

1. General

For a systematic mountain rescue operation, you form a rescue unit and equip it according to the situation they will be confronted with. Such operations may take place in a military or in a civilian environment. When the military is only providing support for a civilian rescue operation, a civilian person will be in charge of operations control. However, he will only give orders to soldiers via military leaders. Systematic mountain rescue operations have to be led by military leaders. They may use military mountain guides as advisors, if necessary. The rescue team has to be formed according to the challenges they will be confronted with. The accident site commander and his subordinate leaders should at least have military mountain specialist qualifications. The structure and the size of the elements depend on the overall strength of the rescue staff and the type of the rescue operation. Basically, you will have to form the following elements:

- Headquarters element, consisting of : o an operation commander and o an HQ team

- Rescue forces, consisting of: o an accident site commander (including an advance party) o one or several rescue elements

506 o a medical element, o one or more transportation elements, and o a supply element.

The military operation commander is in charge of the military forces. He is responsible for the cooperation with civilian authorities and organizations. The HQ element supports the military operation commander. It covers the tasks of the various functional staff sections. The accident site commander is in charge of all forces operating on the accident site and, normally, also of the advance party. Depending on the scope of the rescue operation, the military operations commander and the accident site commander can be the same person. The advance party reconnoitres the accident scene and determines the access route. It tries to get an overall view of the situation and creates the preconditions for the rescue operation. Parts of the medical support element have to be integrated into the advance party. The rescue forces conduct search, rescue and medical treatment of the injured persons and ensure their evacuation.

If needed, you also have to designate - alert posts - guides, and - resupply element(s)

507 2. Belay Stations as Part of a Systematic Mountain Rescue Operation

During a systematic mountain rescue operation, you also have to choose proper locations for belay stations. You build a belay station with regard to - the expected amount and direction of load - the terrain conditions, and - the objective risks you are confronted with.

Basically, you have to follow the principles of how to build a belay station. However, higher continuous loads can be expected when climbing as a rope team or performing an improvised mountain rescue. In case of a sharp edge load, you should use several rope rings or slings (webbings). Besides the belay stations quoted in section J (“Protection Techniques”) of this manual, you can build belay stations for systematic mountain rescue operations by means of

- spider anchoring - vehicle anchoring - anchoring in sand, gravel, grass and meadows - anchoring on trees and boulders, and - belay stations with equalisation

Spider anchoring (fig. 246) distributes the load equally to several anchors. When one anchor breaks, the others still retain the load at the same level. The slack rope between the central anchor (e.g. central load carabiner, rigging plate) and

508 the other anchors makes it possible to precisely align the spider anchoring with the direction of load.

Fig. 245: Spider Anchoring

Anchors fixed to vehicles (see Fig. 246) are used for mountain rescue and when building protected routes. Vehicles used for that

- must have a dead weight of more than 1,900 kg, - one gear engaged or the selector lever on position “P”, and - the parking brake engaged.

509 ATTENTION: The ground on which it is standing may have an impact on the retention force of the vehicle. Thus, consider security measures to be taken.

When using a vehicle as an anchor, you should consider the following (see Fig. 246): - Avoid using parts of the vehicle fitted after construction (e.g. jerrycan holder, smoke dischargers). - Do not damage the vehicle (e.g. high-pressure pipes, steering arms). - Do not run the rope over sharp edges. - Do not strain the rope by moving the vehicle. - Maybe it will be necessary to also anchor the vehicle itself.

Fig. 246: Using a vehicle as an anchor

510 Anchors set in sand, gravel and grassland rarely can be assessed as solid. Normally they are made of - anchor plates fixed with ground nails, or - iron rods driven into the ground (e.g. T-anchor principle, series construction, and equalisation).

When setting such anchors, consider the - ground, - type of terrain, and - direction of load (see Fig. 247).

wro ng

right

Fig. 247: Direction of load

511 Anchors set on grassy terrain (see Fig. 248 and Fig. 249) are made from iron bars which are at least 60 cm long and 15 cm thick. You need to drive half of them into the ground (depending on its composition). Loamy soil, or soil honeycombed with roots is ideal for this type of anchor.

Fig. 248: Anchors set on grassy terrain (series construction: left; channel construction: right)

Fig. 249: Anchors set on grassy terrain (left: fixed equalisation, right: secured equalisation)

512

Trees and boulders make it possible to set anchors quickly on wooded and rocky terrain. In doing so, make sure that - trees are of sufficient diameter and boulders have enough weight and are properly seated on the ground and - you use two rope rings (one as a backup, see Fig. 250). Order of fixation to the anchor plate: rope 1 to rope 2, rope 2 to rope 3, and rope 3 to rope 4.

Fig. 250: Tree, used as an anchor

513 An equalized belay station needs at least two anchors.

“Equalized” means that each anchor is retaining the same weight, even if the direction of load changes. For an optimal distribution of load, you should try to achieve an angle as sharp as possible (see Fig. 251).

RIG RIG HT HT

ACCEPT ABLE WR

ONG Fig. 251: Distribution of load

514 By securing one or both slings with a knot (see Fig. 252) you can avoid additional application of force in case one anchor breaks out.

Fig. 252: Equalized belay station, secured with a knot on one or on two sides

3. Releasable Systems

In addition to the systems shown in margin no. 0 et seqq, it is also possible to releasably attach - an intelligent descender (ID), and a - Kootenay rope pulley

515 The ID can be used for the tensioning of ropes (e.g. cable cars, guy ropes). For that, you have to lock it after tensioning, and to secure it with a knot (see Fig. 253).

ATTENTION: Once an ID has been used for the tensioning of ropes, it must no longer be used for abseiling from helicopters.

Fig. 253: Tensioning and a rope with an ID and securing it with slip knot

When you have to releasably fix the Kootenay rope pulley (e.g. tensioning of ropes), you have to press in the two locking splints and to secure the rope with a slip knot (see Fig. 254).

516

Fig. 254: A Kootenay rope pulley, releasably fixed

4. Standard Means of Transport

Standard means of transport are used to rescue and to evacuate patients carefully and over longer distances. Among others, we use the following ones:

- Universal transportation device 2000 - Y-sling - Oval hanger with straps - Rescue seat harness with vacuum mattress - Rescue sleigh

The UT 2000 is used for carrying or pulling loads (see Fig. 255).

517

Fig. 255: A UT 2000, in the carrying mode

When you combine (couple) two of them, they may be used as - a stretcher (up to 160 kg), - a sleigh, - an akia (rescue sledge), - a unicycle or a bicycle, - for terrestrial rescue, - HELEVAC (hoisting,) - in water, and - as an improvised stretcher

When coupling two UT 2000s, you have to secure the couplings between the tubular frames - either with an original

518 safety pin provided by the manufacturer or by means of accessory cords (see Fig. 256).

Fig. 256: Securing the couplings (left); Towing and discharging device (right)

When using the UT 2000 as a sleigh, you have to fit ski sticks and/or tethers (see Fig. 256).

Fig. 257: An UT 2000, used as a sleigh

519 Fitted with a skid system and guide bars, the UT 2000 can also be used as an akia (see Fig. 258).

Fig. 258: An UT 2000, used as an Akia

By attaching a unicycle or a bicycle system (see Fig. 259), the UT can also be used on narrow roads for the transport of materiel and personnel. In steep terrain with risks of fall, you have to protect the UT 2000.

520

Fig. 259: A UT 2000, mounted on a unicycle and a bicycle system

When using the UT 2000 for steep face rescue operations or as a means of transport in combination with a cable car, you have to consider the following: - Clip the hanging straps into one rescue carabiner or locking carabiner or anchor plate (see Fig. 260). - Attach lateral protective bars for a careful evacuation in rocky terrain (steep face evacuation). - For stabilisation, attach the UT 2000 to the pulling and braking rope by means of accessory cords (cable cars).

521

Fig. 260: UT 2000: Combining the hanging straps

ATTENTION: When using the UT 2000 for steep face evacuation, the uphill side hanging gear has to run along the inner side of the tubular frame.

- It is mandatory to attach a carabiner to the lifting hook and - to use an anti-rotation cord (see margin no. 0).

The UT 2000 can also be used for the transport of material and soldiers in standing and running waters. For that, you have to fit it with floats (see Fig. 261). When transporting a person, take care to position the head higher than the rest of the body. When using the UT 2000 for rescuing someone from a water-filled ravine, use the same hanging system as for a cable car.

522

Fig. 261: UT 2000, fitted with floats (Bw)

NOTE: Only the German Bundeswehr uses the UT 2000 as an akia in water and for hoisting operations.

The Y-sling (Fig. 262) is used for terrestrial rescue and for hoist evacuation. It allows attaching two persons with the standard harness system, a rescue seat, the water rescue loop or the rescue bag. As a rule, the rescuer attaches himself to the longer branch of the Y sling.

Fig. 262: The Y-sling

523 The oval hanger with straps (see Fig. 263) is used for winch hoisting. It allows attaching two persons with the standard harness system, a rescue seat, the water rescue loop or the rescue bag. Normally, the rescuer hooks onto the longer strap.

Fig. 263: Oval hanger with straps

Instead of the Y-sling and the oval hanger with straps, you may also use an improvised Y-sling (see Fig. 264). You can make one by tying a knot into a long sling or by using a long and a short sling. When performing a winch hoisting evacuation, you have to use a rescue carabiner as a central load carabiner.

524

Fig. 264: Improvised Y-sling

The rescue seat is used for the quick evacuation of soldiers in any terrain when they do not wear a harness. It is attached to the victim by means of suspenders. Then, you clip together the loops/rings with a rescue carabiner in front of the victim’s body (see Fig. 265).

525

Fig. 265: Rescue Seat

The water rescue loop (see Fig. 266) is used for quick picking up and transport over short distances by means of a helicopter. The rescue loop is put around the chest and under the armpits of the victim and then fixed to it. The rescuer presses together the upper arms of the victim and grasps the hand straps on the back side, thus preventing children or elderly/exhausted persons from slipping through the loop.

526

Fig. 266: The water rescue loop

The rescue bag (see Fig. 267 and Fig. 268) is only used in combination with the vacuum mattress for the evacuation of lying patients.

The hanging straps are combined in a rescue carabiner on each side of the bag and hooked onto the central load carabiner. The use of an anti-rotation cord (see margin no. 0) prevents the rescue bag from rotating.

Fig. 267: Rescue bag with hanging system for Al 3 and S-70 helicopters (left) and

527 for S-70 and UH-1D helicopters (right).

Further possible hanging systems for rescue bags to be used on other types of helicopters:

Fig. 268: Rescue bag with hanging system for Al 3 and S-70 (above) and for AB-212 and UD-1D (below)

The rescue sleigh is used for the transport of patients and consists of a flexible banner and crossbars. In addition, you need the skis and ski poles of the person to be rescued (see Fig. 269).

528

Fig. 269: A rescue sleigh (ready for use)

5. Fibre Rope Hoist

The fibre rope hoist is used for lowering and hoisting persons in steep terrain, from vertical tunnels, ditches and ravines. Normally, you use static ropes for that.

Construction and Operation of a Fibre Rope Hoist

To set up a fibre rope hoisting system, you need the following assets:

- a fibre rope hoist, - anchor material, - a hoist rope, - a backup rope (static rope, if possible), and - abseiling and protection devices

You anchor the fibre rope hoist according to the assessment of a military mountain guide. You use a rescue

529 carabiner and two single slings or one folded sling to connect the fibre rope hoist to the anchor point (see Fig. 270).

For stabilisation, you also need to additionally secure the fibre rope hoist under tension (abspannen).

Fig. 270: How to anchor a fibre rope hoist

You need at least two soldiers to operate the hoist. A third soldier is responsible for the redundancy rope.

Lowering by Means of a Fibre Rope Hoist

When lowering a rescuer with such a hoist, you wrap the hoist rope at least two times, but no more than three times around the hoist drum by inserting it from behind/above, thus keeping the rope clamp open. Do the same with the redundancy rope, but in a slack mode.

530 If you need to lower somebody/something more than one rope length, you have to prepare a rope extension, which you normally do only one time (see Fig. 271). For that, you run the rope extension knot of the hoist rope through the fibre rope hoist as follows:

- Remove the hoist rope together with the rope extension knot shortly before the rope clamp. - Insert the hoist rope with the rope extension knot between the rope clamp and the hoist drum. - Let the rope extension knot run over the hoist drum. - Open the guide roller shortly before the passage of the rope extension knot. - Close the guide roller after the passage of the rope extension knot.

Fig. 271: Prepared rope extension (schematic)

531 The passage of the rope extension knot through the redundancy system has to take place redundantly while hooking in/unhooking.

NOTE: In order to prevent the rope extension knots from entering the fibre rope hoist and the redundancy system at the same time, these two devices have to be arranged offset to each other.

Hoisting with a fibre rope hoist

When hoisting with a fibre rope hoist (see Fig. 272), you wrap the hoist rope at least three times around the hoist drum and via the clamping plate. Then insert it into the rope clamp. Pull the rope out of the hoist at its back side. Depending on the crank’s direction of rotation, you can choose between two gear ratios. Do not forget to also tighten the redundancy rope in upward direction so it won’t sag.

532

Fig. 272: A fibre rope hoist, prepared for hoisting (left), rope inserted for hoisting (right)

When you have to pass the rope extension knot through the fibre rope hoist, you have to proceed in the reverse order of lowering.

When modifying the winch from lowering to hoisting, you proceed as follows: - Attach a rope clamp to the exiting rope and transmit the load. - Modify the redundancy system so that you can take up the rope (return stop). - Modify the winch for hoisting by o wrapping the rope again several times around the drum of the hoist and o inserting the clamping disc and the rear rope clamp. - Start hoisting and remove the front rope clamp. Also take up the redundancy rope at the same time.

533 6. Rescue Procedures, Adapted to the Terrain

Downhill Rescue

A downhill rescue can be performed by means of - a hold-off rope - an anchoring rope - a rescue track

By means of the hold-off/anchoring rope, it is possible to evacuate a person carefully downhill. The aim of the two procedures is to keep the rescuer/victim away from the rock face, thus reducing the risk of rockfall.

For the hold-off-rope procedure (s. Fig. 273) you have to - set up a lowering point, - have a soldier prepare an anchor conveniently away from the bottom of the wall and operate the holding- off rope while lowering, - clip the hold-off rope into the central loading carabiner of the hanging device, - lower down the rescuer to the victim, - provide first aid and attach the victim, - continue lowering the rescuer/victim, - influence the distance to the rock face by straining and releasing the hold-off rope.

Lowering a person with an anchoring rope (see Fig. 273) is similar to a rope slide. You have to proceed as follows:

534 - Set up the lowering point. - Attach the anchoring rope releasably to a point that should be located higher than the lowering point, if possible. - Lower/abseil a soldier to the bottom of the rock face by means of the anchoring rope. This soldier will then prepare a belay station in a convenient distance. - Hook the rope pulley together with the hanging device to be used for the rescuer and the victim, as well as the lowering rope to the anchoring rope. - Lower the rescuer down to the victim. Provide treatment and prepare for evacuation. - Strain the anchoring rope after having attached the victim. - Continue lowering the rescuer/victim.

There should not be too much distance to the rock face. This, however, requires releasing the anchoring rope carefully – a process that needs to be coordinated via radio or by shouting.

535 Hold-off Rope

Attached via rope brake or pulley

Anchoring Rope

Releas ably attached

Fig. 273: Holding-off rope (above) and anchoring rope (below)

The rescue track is a procedure during which the victim has to be lowered over a distance of several rope lengths and, if possible, without delay.

Normally, the construction of a rescue track depends on the personnel and the material available, and on the terrain. The distance to the belay station depends on the length of the ropes. If possible, the belay stations should be built along the fall line.

536

For the operating team you have to build an extra abseiling track beside the rescue track.

When there is sufficient personnel and materiel available, the belay stations are built by a construction team, and each belay station of the evacuation track is manned by a lowering team.

Along a rescue track, you have to perform the following activities (see Fig. 274):

- The rescuer clips himself to a central hanger, together with the victim. For protection at belay stations, he clips a piece of rope of about 5 m to the belay station. - The first lowering team takes over the rescuer and the victim and lowers them down to the next belay station. - When the rescuer reaches the next belay station, he hands over the prepared piece of rope to the lowering team of this station. - Afterwards, the lowering team hooks the piece of rope to an abseiling/protection device and fixes it releasably. - Then you transmit the load to the piece of rope. - Now the first lowering team releases the rope until the rescuer/victim can be attached to the next abseiling/protection device by the next lowering team.

When the second lowering team is ready for further lowering,

537 - the upper lowering team removes the lowering ropes from the upper abseiling/protection device, releases the fixation of the piece of rope and transmits the loads onto the lowering ropes. - A soldier of the upper lowering team makes sure that the ends of the lowering ropes run along the abseiling track, and that - the upper belay station is taken down by other soldiers who then follow the team with the belay station material.

R 1st +P LT

R 2nd +P LT

R 3rd +P LT

R 1st +P LT Legen d: R+ Rescuer and P1 st 1st LoweringRescued Team LT2 nd 2nd Lowering Team LT3 rd 3rd Lowering Team/Installation

LT Team

538 Fig. 274: Rescue track operations

Continue the lowering cycle until you reach easier terrain. If it is not possible to occupy each belay station of the rescue track with a lowering team, you have to use the leapfrogging technique.

Upward Rescue

Gorges and intersected terrain make it difficult for the rescuer to reach the victim and to evacuate it. Already when lowering the rescuer, rockfall can put at risk the life of the victim. Also hoisting is very difficult in such terrain, especially when the rescue gear has to be held off from the rock face by the rescuer. For such operations, a cable car with crane function is ideal.

With such a system, you are able to evacuate individuals and material from gorges by letting them hang freely without contact to the rock face. The system consists of - two carrying ropes and - one crane system.

The system is constructed as follows:

- First you build a cable car (see chapter Q of this manual: “Construction of protection installations”), - then you add a crane system as displayed below:

539

Carrying ropes

Pulling ropes Crane rope

Redundancy rope

Operator’s side Operator’s releasably attached

Fig. 275: Installation of a crane system

When setting up a cable car with crane function, consider the following:

- The length of the crane cable is twice the length of the depth of the gorge plus the intervals between the anchors. - The length of the redundancy rope is the same as the depth of the gorge plus its width. - The carrying ropes have to be fixed in a way that they can be released at least on one side. - The crane rope has to be fixed on one side and to run via the fibre rope hoist on the other side. - The redundancy rope has to be secured by means of the abseiling/protection gear and the return stop.

When using this system for the transport of material, you may refrain from using a redundancy rope.

540

When you install the cable car and the crane system simultaneously, you have to prepare and fix the rope as follows:

2nd Pulling rope

Carrying ropes

1st Pulling rope Crane rope

Redundancy rope

Fig. 276: Simultaneous construction of cable car and crane system

When you have enough personnel, you can remove the fibre rope hoist from the system and replace it by personnel pulling the rope, plus a return stop.

541 V. Cooperation with Helicopters

1. General

Helicopters are used in various scenarios. Besides transportation, they also perform rescue operations. For the technical details of helicopters see ANNEX III.

During mountain rescue operations, helicopters are used for - quick, energy-saving and careful transport of rescue forces and material to the site of the accident or at least to its vicinity, - the transport of victims to further medical treatment, - the searching of larger areas to locate missing or injured persons, also by means of technical equipment (e.g. radio direction finding, thermal sights), - evacuating personnel from danger areas (e.g. avalanches, floods, wildfire, landslide) and other dangerous situations, and - hoisting operations in urban, mountainous and wooded terrain as well as from vehicles and waters

The employment of a helicopter depends on - the type of helicopter - the weather conditions and the visibility (e.g. cloud base, turbulences, snowfall, fog, wind), and - the terrain conditions (steepness, vegetation, etc.)

542 When using helicopters, you have to consider

- leeward areas, especially behind edges of terrain and ridges (e.g. foehn), - the fact that thermal and turbulences can considerably hamper helicopter operations, and - windward areas, which can create upwinds for the helicopter (e.g. foehn) NOTE: When calling for a helicopter, you should inform about the environmental conditions (e.g. weather, terrain) as detailed as possible. As a rule, in mountainous helicopters will only conduct visual flights terrain (minimum horizontal view: 800m, only outside clouds and with terrain contours visible).

Below, you will only find specific topics needed for the cooperation with helicopters in mountainous terrain. The general regulations for the cooperation with helicopters are detailed in manuals pertaining to such operations.

Characteristics of a helicopter landing site: - level and hard surface, no obstacles (size depending on the type of helicopter), - no objects able to be whirled up by the helicopter are lying around, - no obstacles along the approach and departure lane (see Fig. 277).

Ni ght 543 Da Ni y ght

Fig. 277: Approach and departure lane free of obstacles

In order to make it easier for the pilot to approach the landing site, it is of advantage to indicate the direction of wind and to mark the landing place.

This can happen - During the day by means of - smoke, - a coloured cloth, - a landing-T (marking material, coloured cloth our other objects ties fixed on the ground) with the crossbar oriented towards the wind, - a horizontal signal area (for low-flying helicopters), - marshallers

- During the night by means of: - standard marking of the approach point (in the form of a T) and the landing point (see Fig. 278), - a “Y”, turned upside down (only German Bw), - marking the approach point with vehicles (see Fig. 279), - marshallers using artificial light like a torch, glow sticks, or infrared light.

544

Direction of approach

High voltage power line

White lamp (approach point) White lamp (departure point) Approach Point Red lamp (obstacle) Green lamp (Marshaller) Chalk

Fig. 278: Standard marking of the approach and the landing point during the night

Direction of Hazard approach lights!

Hazard lights!

High voltage power line

Approach Point White lamp (departure point) Red lamp (obstacle) Green lamp (Marshaller) Chalk

545 Fig. 279: Marking an approach point with vehicles during the night

The marshaller serves as a reference point for the pilot during bad visibility (e.g. loose snow, dusty surface). You can also use sufficiently heavy rucksacks of at least 25 kg or stones, etc.

You only need to harden the landing point in case of soft snow. Normally, the marshaller positions himself with his back towards the wind.

He hast to - take off light headgear and stow it away, - put on protection glasses, - stay on the landing site until the helicopter has landed completely (the helicopter marshaller is a reference point for the pilot)

Danger Areas

In general, the areas around the main and the tail rotor as well as uphill areas are the main danger areas when cooperating with helicopters (see Fig. 280 and Fig. 281).

546 General Danger Area Approach Permitted

Danger! Danger! Keep off! Keep off!

Approach Permitted

Fig. 280: Danger areas

547

Fig. 281: Uphill danger areas

2. Tactics

The characteristics of the terrain at the accident site as well as the weather and the visibility have an influence on how to deploy and pick up the rescue team, the equipment, and the victim. For that, the helicopter pilot coordinates with the rescue operation leader and decides on the tactics to be used.

We know the following tactics: - Helicopter landing

548 - Helicopter hovering - Hoisting - Extension of the hoist rope (performed by the helicopter rescuer, hereinafter referred to as “rescuer”).

Helicopter Landing

Characteristics: - The helicopter lands directly on the accident site or close to it - Easy deployment of personnel and material - Careful evacuation of the victim

Hovering

Characteristics (helicopter is mounted on kids or wheels): - The helicopter is hovering over the accident site or lands on its skids (wheels). - Rescue gear can be thrown out of the helicopter. - Rescuers exit on the signal of the helicopter crew. - No abrupt exiting of the helicopter. Rescuers should first slowly shift the weight of their body onto a skid or a marked footrest and from there step down on the ground and assume a crouching position. - Rescuers should only jump out of the helicopter when the pilot allows them to do so. - When hovering, soldiers should only exit or enter the helicopter one by one.

549 - Wrist slings attached at the helicopter can support entering or exiting it.

When using the hovering tactics at exposed sites, you have to use self-belay slings.

Passengers exit the helicopter on a signal given by the helicopter crew. After exiting, passengers have to crouch beside the helicopter or to move away from it. When crouching, passengers have to keep sufficient distance to the helicopter in order not to get caught by its wheels or skids when it takes off. When moving away from the helicopter, consider the same danger areas as when approaching it. During the approach and landing phase of the helicopter, you have to consider the risk of being hit by stones swirled up by the downwash, or of falling.

Hoisting

Characteristics:

- The terrain prevents the helicopter from landing or hovering. - Hoisting and lowering of the rescuer. - Hoisting and lowering of medical personnel and/or victims together with the rescuer. - Restrictions due to the length of the hoist rope.

550 In case of a rescue alert, it would be of advantage to know from the very beginning if a hoist will be needed or not.

The helicopter crew and the rescuer try to get an impression of the rescue operation by flying over the accident site. In doing so, they decide on

- the procedure to be applied (direct hoisting from the air or landing at an intermediate landing site, - the additional use of sources of light (to be attached at the hook of the hoist) like glow sticks, torches etc., - the rescue gear to be used, and - possible improvised procedures.

An intermediate landing site can be used to prepare the hoist and to bring the victim on board of the helicopter

For hoisting operations, you have to comply with the following safety regulations: – The rescuer and the other soldiers have to provide their own safety when sitting in a flying helicopter (use of belts, hooked onto a rope ring or the hoist hook). - No more than two persons should be hoisted at the same time. - Only one rescue carabiner is allowed to be clipped to the hoist hook as a central load carabiner. - You may only use locking carabiners. - You have to secure the victim, if not already done by the rescue gear or impossible due to medical reasons. - The rescuer has to wear a helmet and gloves.

551

- The rescuer stays where he is until he is able to grasp the end knot of the rope. - The rescuer must never become a solid connection between the helicopter and the ground

When the terrain requires the protection of the rescuer and the victim, you have to do that with a releasably fixed HMS carabiner. On arrival of the helicopter, the rescuer releases the fixation of the self-belay and holds with his hand the accessory rope exiting the HMS. After having attached the victim to the hook of the hoist, he withdraws the rope.

For a rescue operation, the rescuer makes sure to have all necessary equipment with him, i.e.: mountaineering gear, medical kit, and radio. The composition of the equipment has to be coordinated with the helicopter pilot prior to each operation. Make sure the equipment is properly stowed to prevent it from getting involuntarily entangled with parts of the helicopter. This will also keep your hands free. When transporting a coupled (gekoppelt) UT 2000 (GE Bw) or a rescue bag, the rescuer has to fix it with his lower legs.

Downward hoisting:

- Rescuer and helicopter crew perform a radio check. - Opening of the helicopter door. - The self-belayed rescuer sits down in the door.

552 - By means of a rescue carabiner, he clips the hoist hook to the rope-up point of the rescuer. - He unhooks his self-belay. - He swings out the hoist arm (only for UH-1D, CH-53, NH-90, and AB-212). - Now the rescuer turns his face towards the helicopter and strains the rope. - Then, with his hands, he pushes himself away from the board wall and the skids of the helicopter, all the time keeping visual contact with the board technician. - At the same time, the lowering starts.

- The rescuer observes the envisaged drop site while being lowered down and asks the helicopter crew for vertical and lateral corrections, if necessary. - When he is approx. 3 m above the ground (depending on the type of helicopter), he reports to the board technician o via radio: “3m”, or o by means of the “hovering” hand signal - When the rescuer has reached the ground, he o goes to place where he has a stable footing, o waits for the hoist rope to be released, o belays himself, if necessary, and o unhooks the hoist hook - Then the rescuer gives a signal to hoist operator by holding the hook of the hoist rope clearly upwards, with the thumb stretched out horizontally. - Finally, the helicopter flies to a waiting area.

553 How to give medical treatment to a victim and prepare her/him for hoisting

- The rescuer starts giving medical treatment to the victim and informs the pilot on how much time he will need, - then he prepares the victim for evacuation. - He hooks his hanging straps and those of the victim into one rescue carabiner. - He then removes all protection devices from the central load carabiner, except for the releasable fixation and - calls for the helicopter via radio. - At the latest before hooking himself and the victim to the hoist hook, he performs a take-off check, i.e. he checks if o all locking carabiners are screwed up, o no parts can get or already have got entangled, o no other soldiers are put at risk at the evacuation site, - and then releases the fixed HMS.

Upward hoisting

- Let the hoist hook touch the ground for static unloading (especially during snowfall, rain, or humid aid)! - The rescuer checks if there is a risk of getting involuntarily entangled with the ground (e.g. by means of loose rope loops, etc.). - He then takes the hoist hook and hooks it to the central load carabiner, - releases the self-belay, and - gives a clear signal for hoisting.

554 - After that, the hoisting of the victim starts (see Abb. 282). - The victim is finally loaded into the helicopter (Exception: Alouette III), - and the rescuer and the victim are secured in or to the helicopter.

Abb. 282: Hoisting the rescuer and the victim

Due to the downwash effect, the rescuer and the victim may start to turn more or less intensely (depending on the type of helicopter) when being hoisted. In an extreme case, this may cause a rotational trauma or unconsciousness.

The use of an anti-rotation cord (accessory cord with a releasable carabiner; GE Bw only) will prevent this. When handling such a cord, do it only sideward of the helicopter, and put on gloves first (see Fig. 283).

555 If possible, keep visual contact with the pilot.

approx. 30- 45°

Fig. 283: The handling of an anti-rotation cord

Extending the Hoist Rope

You need to extend the hoist rope when it is too short. For that, you need a static rope and a special device.

In addition, the helicopter crew and the rescuer have to be specially trained for extending a hoist rope. In combination with a hoist rope, the evacuation distance can be extended to 55 m (usable part of the rope). You have to follow the same safety regulations as when performing normal hoisting.

Currently, we can use the following types of helicopters for the hoist rope extension tactics: – Al 3, – CH-53, – NH-90,

556 – UH-1D.

Depending on the type of helicopter, necessary preparations are conducted - before taking off, - on board of the helicopter when approaching the evacuation site, or - at an intermediate landing site.

For extending the hoist rope, you need the following additional material:

- Abseiling gear PETZL ID, brake plates/shunt (Bw only), - rope bag with weights, - 60 m static rope, - at least 3 rescue carabiners, - one carabiner for the rope bag, and - 2 slings

Rescuer’s gear: - Chest/seat harness, - leather gloves, - helmet with radio set, - appropriate rescue gear, and - personal equipment (depending on the area and type of operation)

For the extension of the hoist rope, you have to apply the following safety regulations (extract form the SOP):

557 - Use only specifically trained personnel. - Do not extend ropes for cable car or chairlift evacuations. - Make sure you have sufficient radio contact. - Brief your men before starting to extend the rope. - Take place in at least two training sessions per year on this topic (AAF).

Extending a hoist rope from (ab) a hooked-in static rope when lowering (rough description, for details see the respective SOP):

- Make sure the rescuer is secured by means of self-belay and the necessary gear for extension is at hand (see Fig. 284). - Fly to the accident site. - Open the doors. - Start hovering. - Release the rescuer’s self-belay. - Swing out the hoist arm (UH-1D, CH-53, NH-90). - Rescuer checks the proper functioning of abseiling gear. - Checks radio contact with the helicopter. - Lowering operation starts. - Pilot gives order to rescuer: “Hoist rope out, continue abseiling!” - Rescuer reports: “I will continue abseiling”. - Rescuer reports altitude above ground (starting with 10 m). - When 5 m above ground, he counts down meter by meter. - Rescuer reports “ground contact”.

558

Fig. 284: An extended hoist rope – ready for lowering

When it is not possible for the rescuer to directly pick up the victim, he unhooks himself from the rescue gear. If more time is needed, the on-board technician can withdraw the static rope into the cabin.

ATTENTION: Extending a hoist rope may provoke strong pendulum movements.

Extending a hoist rope when hoisting (rough description, for details see the respective SOP):

- Call for the helicopter via radio.

559 - The rescuer hooks himself and the victim o into the abseiling gear (which is rescued by a granny knot) or o into the overhand knot sling (Bw, when using the GIGI, see Fig. 285). - The rescuer conducts a take-off check. - The rescuer reports “Ready for hoisting!” (Bereit zur Aufnahme!) - The on-board technician retracts the rope. - The helicopter flies to the intermediate landing site. - The rescuer reports, especially during the approach/drop phase, the altitude above ground, and obstacles. - Set down the rescuer/victim by slowly lowering the helicopter. - The rescuer reports “Soil contact!” - The rescuer unhooks himself and the victim. - Then he reports “Unhooked!” - The board technician drops the static rope.

560

Fig. 285: An extended hoist rope – ready for hoisting

3. Emergency Procedures

Emergency procedures are used when a hoist or an extended hoist rope cannot be used in a common way, i.e. when

- the hoist has a breakdown - there is a radio loss, or - the hoist rope/static rope has got stuck on the ground.

561

In case the hoist has a breakdown, the rescue operation has to be cancelled.

A radio loss - has to be signalled by a prearranged arm or hand sign. - Then, the rescue operation has to be continued by using prearranged signs or - to be cancelled.

When the hoist rope/static rope gets caught on the ground,

- you have to assess the situation while the helicopter is still hovering. - The rescuer (or the on-board technician, after the lowering of the helicopter) detaches the rope, - or blasts away the hoist rope or - cuts off the static rope.

NOTE: Hoist evacuation and hoist extension need close cooperation and communication between the rescuer and the helicopter crew, a detailed briefing prior to the operation, and a clear assignment of tasks.

4. Standard Arm-and-Hand Signals

562 Contact with the helicopter is maintained via radio or arm- and-hand signals. For mountain and helicopter rescue operations, we use the following standardized signals:

Do not land; we do not need your help Day: Stretch your right arm obliquely upwards and your left arm obliquely downwards Night: Like during daylight. Use glow sticks to extend your arms.

Please land, we need your help Day: Stretch both arms obliquely upwards Night: Like during daylight. Use glow sticks to extend your arms.

I will comply; I have understood what you want Day: Lift hand, stretch thumb upwards Night: Like during daylight. Use glow sticks to extend your arms. Crew: Flash once

Move forward Day: Lift your forearms and spread them to shoulder width. Turn the palms backwards, at shoulder height, and move them repeatedly upwards and backwards.

563 Night: Like during daylight. Use glow sticks to extend your arms.

Stop Day: Cross your arms above the head with the palms pointing forward. Night: Like during daylight. Use glow sticks to extend your arms.

Move backward Day: Let your arms hang down by your sides with the palms pointing forward. Swing them repeatedly upwards to shoulder height. Night: Like during daylight. Use glow sticks to extend your arms. Hovering Day: Stretch your arms horizontally sidewards, palms down. Night: Like during daylight. Use glow sticks to extend your arms.

Vertical upward movement (Climb while hovering) Day: Stretch out your arms horizontally sidewards and

564 start wigwagging with upward- turned palms

Night: Like during daylight. Use glow sticks to extend your arms.

Move to the left Day: Stretch out your right arm horizontally and into the direction you want the helicopter to move. Swing the other arm repeatedly over the head. Night: Like during daylight. Use glow sticks to extend your arms.

Move to the right

Tag: Stretch out your left arm horizontally and into the direction you want the helicopter to move. Swing the other arm repeatedly over the head. Night: Like during daylight. Use glow sticks to extend your arms.

Downward movement (Descend while hovering)

565 Day: Stretch out your arms horizontally and sidewards. Turn your palms downwards and start wigwagging. The speed of your moving arms is an indicator for the rate of descent. Night: Like during daylight. Use glow sticks to extend your arms.

Landing (Ground contact) Night: Let your arms hang down and cross them in front of your body. Night: Like during daylight. Use glow sticks to extend your arms.

566 VI. Organized Avalanche Rescue

1. General

The success of an organized avalanche rescue operation 503 is mainly influenced by the efficiency of its planning, organization, and execution. An organized avalanche rescue operation will most of the time only become effective after 90 to 120 minutes. Many of the buried die within this period due to a combination of hypothermia and suffocation.

2. Equipment and Material

All soldiers operating in an avalanche area are equipped 504 with the avalanche emergency kit (see margin no. Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.) and the necessary mountain equipment.

The need of additional equipment has to be assessed by the person in charge of the rescue operation. As a guideline, you may use the TOE of an avalanche rescue platoon (see ANNEX I).

3. Deployment of the Rescue Personnel

The rescue personnel will operate with parts 505 - in the valley - in the avalanche area, and - on the avalanche cone For details see Fig. 286 and Fig. 287.

567 Valley Landing Site

Flight Manager

Rescuer (ready for take-off)

Registration

Avalanche peep checker (for avalanche rescue)

Radio Vehicle

Vehicle Park

Officer in charge (OIC) and Assistant

Rescue Equipment depot Team Fig. 286: Organization of the rescue forces deployed in the valley

568 Avalanche Dog

Avalanche Warning Post

Accident Site Commander Search for ???? Clerk Avalanche K9 Leader Avalanche Dog

Medical Depot Helo Landing Site

Reporting Point Guide

Probers Troops Assembly Area

Diggers

Dogs Rest Area Material Depot Fig. 287: Organization of the rescue forces deployed in the area and on the cone of the avalanche

Marking (see Fig. 288) of e.g. 506

- ski tracks entering the avalanche area (entrance tracks), - objects found, - the edge of the avalanche, and - the area already searched

will make the rescue operation easier. Remove the markings only when you have found all buried persons.

569 Suspect Slope Warning Post (if needed)

Escape Route

Probed Area Edge of Avalanche Found Objects Entrance Tracks

Fig. 288: Markings around an avalanche cone

4. Organized Search on an Avalanche Cone

507 Such an operation is conducted by means of - signal location in the primary search area by using – eyes and ears (see margin no. 495), – the avalanche transceiver (see margin no. 496),

570 - probing – Rough probing – Fine probing - digging of search trenches

Probing needs time but is nearly always successful when 508 properly performed. You should use thin gloves, if possible. We use rough and fine probing techniques.

For probing, you form a search cordon. For better 509 coordination (maintain the direction and the distance between the insertion of the probes) the use of the grid probing kit (Rastersondiersets) may be of advantage.

5. Performing a Probe Search

The soldiers of a search cordon line up shoulder to 510 shoulder. They only act on order. Probes have to be inserted vertically.

When advancing the cordon, make sure that the soldiers 511 are at the same level. Mark the leftmost and rightmost probe insertions.

When performing a rough probing (see Fig. 289), search 512 within a grid of 60x60 cm. For that, you insert the probe on the command “Insert!” between the tips of your feet or at the marking of your grid probing kit. Insert your probe as deep as possible and leave it in this position so that the leader of the search cordon can

571 check the depth.

Fig. 289: Rough probing

513 When a searcher has the impression to have located something that is buried, he shouts:

“Found, digger!”

and leaves the probe inserted in the snow for orientation. The digger team, which is equipped with additional probes and making material, follows the search cordon and starts digging. The prober takes the spare probe of the digger team.

The cordon immediately continues its search by

514

572

pulling out the probe and, on the command “Step!”, moving one step forward. After that, the cdr checks proper alignment within the cordon.

Fine probing lasts four to five times longer than rough 515 probing. Normally, the avalanche cone is searched two times by rough probing before fine probing starts. The second rough probing is conducted with the cordon moving 30 cm ahead and 30cm to the left of its first search pattern (see Fig. 290).

2nd Round

1st Round

Fig. 290: Staggered rough probing

When conducting a fine probing (see Fig. 291), the cordon 516 follows a grid with squares of 30x30 cm. On the command - “Left!”, the probe is inserted ahead of the tip of the left foot, on the command - “Centre!”, it is inserted between the tips of the two feet, and on the command - “Right!”, it is inserted ahead of the tip of the right foot.

573

Further activities are the same as during “rough probing”.

Fig. 291: Fine probing

As a rule, probing continues until all buried victims 517 have been located. Depending on the status of the rescue team and the environmental conditions, the commander should order breaks or, if necessary, replace rescue forces in time. The digging of search trenches is very time-consuming and requires a lot of manpower. Thus, it is the ultimate means used for searching buried people. If so, trenches should run in the direction of flow of the avalanche, with a distance of 5 m between them.

Search trenches may only be dug when there is no risk of after avalanches.

518

574 Buried individuals are dug out and evacuated by teams designated for this task. For details see margin no. 499 et seqq. (buddy aid). Evacuation takes place according to instructions given by 519 qualified medical personnel. If EVAC is not possible, the victim should be given shelter against the influence of bad weather.

The search operation has to be interrupted when 520 - the lives of the rescue forces are at risk, or - the rescue forces are exhausted and cannot be replaced.

The operation must be stopped when 521 - all buried individuals have been dug out, or - on order.

6. Cooperation with Civilian Rescue Organisations

When cooperating with civilian rescue workers, further 522 search assets like - the Recco system and/or - avalanche dogs may be used.

The Recco system is a combination of reflectors sewn 523 mainly into the clothing of the rescuers and the corresponding location device, which makes it also possible to locate avalanche search devices.

575

524 When avalanche dogs are available, their use is first priority.

However, you have to consider the following:

- The use of dogs should be coordinated by the commander of the search operation in cooperation with the avalanche K9 leader.

When searching an avalanche, try to avoid unnecessary contamination (including its immediate surroundings, e.g. by food, faeces, POL).

7. Avalanche Search during Limited Visibility/Darkness

525 Such an operation requires additional sources of light like e.g. - Illumination kits (strong spotlights), - vehicle lights. - torches. - NVDs - headlamps, and - glow sticks ATTENTION: Limited visibility/darkness can make it difficult to predict/notice after avalanches.

576

Q. PROTECTED ROUTES

I. General

1. General

Obstacles and difficult terrain to be negotiated during 526 mission accomplishment can be made surmountable by means of protected routes if it is not possible to bypass them.

We know the following types of protected routes: 527

- Routes used for ascend/descent - Routes used for crossing terrain cuts and steep steps

Depending on the terrain, you can use combinations of various types of protected routes (see Fig. 292).

577 Protected routes for ascent and descent Protected routes built to overcome terrain cuts and steep steps

Fig. 292: Types of protected routes

578 Protected routes used for ascent/descent: 528 - Rope railings - Anchor points - Fixed rope - Via ferrata (klettersteig)

Additional aids like knotted ropes, wrist sling ropes, rope ladders, beams and planks can ease your ascent/descent.

Protected routes used for the crossing terrain cuts and 529 steep steps: - Ropeways: o Rope slide o Transportation line - Rope bridge - Rope footbridge

Rope railings, fixed ropes, klettersteigs, rope bridges 530 and rope footbridges can be crossed without supervision after appropriate training.

2. Reconnaissance

Obstacles and difficult terrain have to be reconnoitred 531 before being negotiated. Reconnaissance is conducted to get information about

- possibilities to build a protected route, - manpower needed, - material needed,

579 - approx. time needed for the construction and the crossing of a protected route, and - equipment needed to move along the protected route.

The time needed to build protected route depends on 532 - the difficulty of the terrain, - the length of the protected route, and - the personnel available, including its training status.

Thus, construction times may vary considerably.

3. Safety Regulations

When building a protected route, consider the following:

– Soldiers must be protected according their qualification when working in terrain with risk of fall (see margin no. Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden. et seqq.). - Anchors set at the beginning and the end of a protected route must meet the criteria of belay stations (see margin no. 0). - The sectors between the beginning and the end of the protected route have to be fixed to anchors. - Protected routes need to be checked regularly. - When ropes are put under tension, the anchors may be loaded additionally by approximately 1 kN. In case of too much tension exerted on the rope, sudden load or swinging, the strain can double or quadruple. - In case of a double deflection (pulley used for the tensioning of ropes), no more than 3 soldiers should be

580 used to tension the rope (see margin no. 536). Also do not use return stops with sharp edges. - When ropes (carrying ropes, pulling ropes or braking ropes) are deflected, keep the angle as low as possible: if necessary, secure the deflection under tension.

For additional safety regulations see the details on protected routes construction.

When moving along a protected route, consider the 533 following safety regulations:

- Brief all soldiers how to behave before using them. - Use the standard harness system. When free hanging can be excluded, you may use improvised chest/seat harnesses. - Klettersteigs (viae ferratae) may only be used when wearing the standard harness system.

You can tension a rope by means of double deflection (see 534 Fig. 293) with our without the use of a return stop.

As a return stop you have to use the - Kara eight, - Luttensee clamp (see Fig. 294), and - abseiling and protection device with plate function

581

Fig. 293: Tensioning of ropes by means of double deflection

535 Deflections on a loaded rope are built by means of a tensioning knot or a friction knot.

The releasable fixation is placed next to the tensioning knot or, when using a friction knot, next to the anchor.

582

Fig. 294: Tensioning of ropes by means of a return stop (Luttensee clamp).

For the tensioning of ropes up to a length 20 m you use one 536 soldier, for ropes of up to 50 m you use two, and for ropes of more than 50 m you use three soldiers.

NOTE: Tensioned ropes may only be re-tensioned once. When not using the ropes for a longer period of time, release the tension.

4. How to Tie in for Moving Along a Protected Route

For moving along a protected route, you either 537

583

- tie in for moving along a rope railing or you - tie in for moving along a klettersteig

538 For rope slips and rope bridges (footbridges), you tie in as you do for rope railings (see Fig. 295).

For that, you have to use the - standard harness system, - an accessory cord and two carabiners (of which at least one must be a locking carabiner), or - two slings and two carabiners (of which at least one must be a locking carabiner).

539 The ends of an accessory cord (long version) are tied together by an overhand knot, passed through the tie-in point and secured with an overhand knot (see Fig. 295). At each end, you fix a carabiner. If necessary, you hook a rope clamp into the locking carabiner and, for transport reasons, you attach it to the accessory cord by means of the clamp. Then you tie two slings (long or short version) to the rope- up point by means of a bowline knot and clip in two carabiners at their ends.

584

Fig. 295: Tying in to a rope rail

When tying in to a klettersteig (see Fig. 296), you use 540

- the standard harness system and - the klettersteig set, which you tie to the harness by means of a bowline knot.

585

Fig. 296: Tying in to a klettersteig

5. Special Regulations for the Construction of Protected Routes

541 Protected routes may only be built and operated by - military mountain guides (MMGs) - military mountain specialists (MMSs), and - manufacturers of protected routes.

542 Only an MMG may use additional soldiers with mountaineering qualifications (e.g. the members of a mountain infantry platoon) for the construction and use of a protected route.

586

An MMS may build and operate 543 - fixed ropes and - rope railings up to UIAA level III+ o as a rope team from bottom to top or, o when abseiling, from top to bottom.

The manufacturer of a protected route may only build 544 such routes from top to bottom, and only in wooded terrain.

587 II. Protected Routes Built for Ascent/Descent

1. Rope Railing

545 A rope railing makes it possible for the troops to cross difficult terrain safely and quickly together with their weapons and equipment. For that, you use the “rope railing tie-in method” (see margin no 538).

546 Depending on the situation, a rope railing can be built - by a rope team or - by a single soldier from bottom to top or vice versa.

For that, you can use dynamic ropes (single ropes or half ropes) and static ropes.

547 When moving as a rope team, you build a rope railing from bottom to top, just like when climbing as a two man rope team. The second climber - fixes one end of the rope to be used as a railing to an anchor point, - carries the rest of the rope stowed in his rucksack and - fixes it to anchor points along the intended route.

He does the same when building a rope railing from top to bottom. However, in this case the second climber belays himself with the rope running down from the top.

A single soldier building a rope railing may be protected or not, depending on the terrain and the conditions given.

588

When a single soldier builds a rope railing from bottom to top, it is convenient not to protect him.

When a protected soldier builds a rope railing from top to bottom, he may either - use the abseiling method or - descend along a rope by using friction knots.

When building a rope railing, consider the following: 548

- Start point and end point should be located on easy terrain. - If possible, avoid vertical sections (easiness of walking, reduction of arrest impact, risk of rockfall). - The distance between anchor points should not exceed 5 m. - When using the rope railing to support advance, keep the rope under tension. - Damage to the outer layer and the core of the rope caused by friction can be reduced when keeping the rope slack, cutting off/smoothing sharp edges and laying a protection beneath the rope. - When traversing a section of terrain, the rope should run at chest height and along a route offering footsteps. - In difficult terrain, assets like beams, planks, ladders, and wrist slings can ease movement. For fixing the rope to anchor points you use (see Fig. 297): 549 - the clove hitch - the friction knot

589 - the figure eight knot, or - the overhand knot attached to a hook’s eyelet.

Fig. 297: Fixing the rope to an anchor point

550 When moving along a rope railing, you

- have to clip both carabiners to the rope, - should not change the position of all carabiners clipped to an anchor point at the same time, but one after the other, - have to make sure that only one soldier is moving along the rope railing between two anchor points,

590 - have to keep the distances sufficiently large in order to prevent the follow-on climbers from being injured by the leader in case he falls, - should use experienced mountaineers for support at challenging locations, - use a rope clamp for steep sections; the second carabiner has to be clipped to the rope (see Fig. 298).

Fig. 298: Moving along a rope railing by means of a rope clamp

591 ATTENTION: When using a rope clamp in combination with an anchor point, clip in the carabiner first and then attach the rope clamp.

551 You can take down a rope railing with or without protection, depending on the terrain and the conditions given.

552 When taking down a rope railing with protected soldiers (see Fig. 299) from bottom to top, one soldier belays himself to the rope (by means of a rope clamp or a friction knot) and then climbs to one anchor point after the other, thereby unhooking the rope.

He either - withdraws the rope in the form of slings he puts around his upper body, binding them off at regular intervals or - he lets the rope hang freely and ties in knots at regular intervals, considering the danger of entanglement.

The available rope can then be passed forward and used for the building of a protected route, if necessary.

592

Fig. 299: Taking down a rope railing when protected by a rope clamp

Taking down a rope railing from top to bottom is a special 553 procedure on the use of which only an MMG may decide. If necessary, he has to designate qualified soldiers for that.

Unprotected removal of a rope railing takes place 554 analogously to protected removal (see margin no. 0).

2. Anchor Point Route

An anchor point route (see Fig. 300) is used when 555 - the construction of a rope railing would take a unjustified amount of time and - there is no risk of falling.

When moving along a protected route, soldiers have to 556

593 use the “rope team tie-in method” (see margin no. 0). For that, - the first soldier hooks the rope that leads to the soldier behind him to each of the anchor points; - the soldiers following him unhook the rope from each anchor point in front of them and hook the rope again into each anchor point after they have passed it. - The last soldier unhooks the rope from the anchor point he has passed.

Attention: The rope should be hooked to at last two anchor points all time.

Fig. 300: Anchor point route

3. Fixed Rope

557 Fixed ropes are mainly used for crossing steep, grassy or rocky sections of terrain, or snow and ice flanks close to the fall line. For that, a rope is fixed to anchors at the beginning

594 and at the end of the protected route. Intermediate anchors are reduced to a minimum. For ascending you use a rope clamp or a friction knot. When using a clamp, protect it against unhooking itself from the rope. You can descend on a fixed rope by abseiling or by using a friction knot.

NOTE: It is not allowed to use a rope clamp for descents.

4. Viae Ferratae (Klettersteigs)

Viae ferratae are ascents protected with steel ropes, iron 558 ladders, iron pins and artificial steps. Their importance for military operations is low. However, they save the time- consuming construction of protected routes and therefore they are often used for training reasons. For moving on a via ferrata, you use the “via ferrata tie-in method” (see margin no. 540).

On a via ferrata, a steel rope serves for protection and 559 movement. You have to clip in both carabiners of the via ferrata set. Terrain, weather, load and physical condition of soldiers can require additional protection.

5. Additional Aids

Knotted ropes and wrist sling ropes (see Fig. 301) are 560

595 used to cross short steeps sections (2 to 3 m), or for the construction of a protected route. For that, you tie knots and slings, or a double accessory rope into a (piece of) rope every 20 to 30 cm.

Fig. 301: Knotted rope (left) and wrist sling rope (right)

561 Ladders (rope ladders, aluminium ladders or ladders with plug rungs) can make it easier to cross difficult terrain. Rope ladders are made of wooden poles and ropes. If needed, you may also build a rope railing for protection purposes. In order to make movements easier, you can attach wooden spacers and/or fix the ladder under tension. Long spacers will prevent the ladder from turning (see Fig. 302).

596

Fig. 302: Rope ladder with rope railing and wooden spacer

For the crossing of difficult terrain, you may integrate 562 beams and planks. Do not forget to fix them properly!

597 III. Protected Routes, Used for the Crossing of Terrain Cuts and Escarpments

1. Ropeways

Ropeways are used to move soldiers, equipment and material in a time-saving way horizontally, or to overcome a difference in altitude. We distinguish between two types of ropeways: zip lines and transportation lines.

When building a ropeway, you have to consider the following: - For the transport of individuals, you normally use two single or static ropes and four half ropes as carrying ropes (exception: zip lines built with one carrying rope, see margin no. Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden. et seqq). - For the transport of material and equipment, you have to use one single or static rope, or two half ropes as carrying ropes. - Whenever possible, try to use static ropes because of their shorter elongation. - Fix the carrying ropes in a way that they can be released at least at one end. - When the ropeway is ascending/descending, you have to install a braking system (see margin no. 0et seqq) or a hauling rope (depending on the terrain). For details see margin no. 1122. - When the ropeway runs horizontally, you have to attach a hauling rope for either direction. - Check the brake system prior to first use.

598 - If necessary, also attach safety systems at the entrance/exit of the ropeway. - Check the proper attachment to the cable and the brake system prior to each use/start of the ropeway. - Do not jump into a zip line.

When anchoring a ropeway, attach each carrying rope separately to a central carabiner. When using half ropes, fix two strands to the central carabiner, depending on the equalisation.

When using a tree as an anchor point, make sure that it is stable enough. Also consider the height at which you attach the rope (leverage effect). If necessary, fix the anchors with a rope stretched in the opposite direction of the pull. For anchoring the rope in rock, use natural anchors or bolts. When using bolts, you have to attach the two carrying ropes to at least three bolts (see Fig. 303).

599

Fig. 303: The anchoring of carrying ropes

For ropeways you either - let the carrying ropes run on top of each other (keep at least carabiner distance between them) or - laterally close to each other.

You can fix the material/soldier to the ropeway - by means of a hanging system or - by directly attaching them to the carrying ropes, using the “via ferrata tie-in method” (see margin no. 538).

When using a pulley for personnel transport, you have to install a redundant hanging system to which you hook the braking/hauling rope (see Fig. 304)

600

Fig. 304: Hanging system made of pulleys, used for the transport or personnel (left) and material (right).

Soldiers are either hooked to the ropeway by - attaching the hanging system directly to the tie-in point or - when using the “via ferrata tie-in method” (see margin no. 538) , by o clipping the two carabiners to the hanging system or o to the carrying ropes (see Fig. 305).

601

Fig. 305: Attaching loads to a hanging system by means of the “via ferrata tie-in method” (left), or directly to the carrying rope (right)

ATTENTION: Frequent use, quick lowering and dirty ropes may lead to damage of ropes or cause friction burning, especially when using aluminium carabiners.

ATTENTION: Do not touch the carrying ropes while the ropeway is moving.

When using the UT 2000 or other means of transport (e.g. a recovery bag or a wheeled stretcher), they have to be attached by using the hanging devices built for that. You can stabilize the UT 2000 by fixing an additional accessory cord to it (see Fig. 306).

602

Fig. 306: An UT 2000 with central hanging mechanism and an additional accessory cord

Zip Line

Zip lines are used to transport soldiers, equipment and material obliquely from top to bottom.

We distinguish between - standard zip lines and - zip lines fitted with a carrying rope

For zip lines, a braking system is mandatory. Make sure that the inclination of the line is not too steep and that the load is carried by carrying ropes.

Depending on the degree of inclination, we distinguish between:

603 - braking by means of an accompanying brake rope, - braking by hitting a braking element, and - continuous automatic braking in case of a sufficiently long braking distance (sagged rope). NOTE: When using pulleys, only use the “accompanying brake rope system”.

The accompanying brake rope system is used to carefully decrease the speed of a soldier moving by means of a zip line. For that - the brake rope is attached to the hanging mechanism (see Fig. 304– left) or hooked to both carrying ropes with a rope connector located ahead of the self-locking carabiners (in the direction of movement). In addition, you also have to hook a backup piece of rope to the carrying ropes by means of a rope connector ahead of the self-locking carabiners (see Fig. 307).

Fig. 307: Braking by means of an accompanying brake rope

604 Depending on the load to be expected, you can use - an HMS - a figure eight - a tuber, or a - carabiner-kinked rope protection (Karabinerknicksicherung) for braking. In order to obtain a weaker braking effect, you can use a figure eight descender or a tuber as shown below (Fig. 308).

Fig. 308: A tuber (left) and a figure eight descender (right), used as a brake on a zip line.

The braking rope can be cut to length and fixed in a way that the soldier using the zip line is stopped automatically in case of human failure. The operator of the brake should use (leather) work gloves, if possible.

605 When braking by intentionally hitting a braking element (see Fig. 309), a locking carabiner with a piece of rope attached to it is hooked to the carrying ropes at the end Auslauf) of the zip line. It is operated by a soldier who holds back the rope running via a deflection (e.g. tree, hook) and releases it carefully before the soldier hits the braking element, in order to “soften” the braking process. Make sure that the braking element is sufficiently away from the end point. Do not forget to test the proper setting of the brake system before using the zip line/transportation line: - Slow down the load by means of an accompanying brake rope during the first ride. - During the second ride, you slow down by hitting a braking element (including a redundant braking rope from above) - During the third ride, you slow down by hitting a braking element.

Fig. 309: Slowing down by hitting a braking element

606 Automatic braking requires a sufficient braking distance (sag of the rope) and a slight inclination of the zip line. The soldier is automatically stopped ahead of the landing point by the sagged carrying ropes. This method does not permit further influence on the braking of the load. Thus, you should be very careful when building such a system, and check it before use.

Order of checks performed on the braking effect of the sagged rope: - First to third ride: see margin no. Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.. - Fourth ride: Automatic braking when sufficient braking distance is given (sag of the rope).

A zip line built by means of a carrying rope is something special. It is used for the hasty crossing of obstacles – especially wooded terrain and waters. Construction, use and taking down of a zip line made of a carrying rope (see Fig. 310): - Set an anchor. - Lower a soldier who then anchors and tensions the “lowering rope” (which becomes a carrying rope). - Slow down the movement of the soldiers. - Convert the zip line for the automatic slowing down of the last soldier. - Haul in the rope.

607

Lowering of the first Zip line ready, soldier slowing down of soldiers

Conversion for Hauling in of rope automatic slowing down of last soldier

608 Fig. 310: Building a zip line with a carrying rope, uphill anchoring Transportation Lines Transportation lines are used for the horizontal or the oblique upward transport of soldiers, equipment, and material.

When performing a horizontal transport, you have to attach a pull rope and a haul-in rope. When pulling loads obliquely upwards, you have to attach a pull rope, which is hauled in by means of team pull, a pulley or a fibre rope winch. When using the team pull, you have to install a return stop.

Transportation lines extending across several sections (see Fig. 311) require a lot of personnel, material, and time.

They can be built by - deflected carrying ropes and/or - carrying ropes crossing each other.

609

Fig. 311: Transportation lines extending across several sections, either deflected (above) or crossing each other (below)

When deflecting a rope you have to make sure that - the deflections for carrying ropes are releasably attached and - the hauling/braking ropes are deflected or again hooked in close to the deflection.

When using ropes that cross each other, make sure that - the single sections can be released, - the carrying ropes of next section are located below (unterhalb - von was?), and

610 - the hauling/braking ropes are deflected or again hooked in close to the deflection.

2. Rope Footbridges

Rope footbridges make it possible to cross obstacles like ravines or ditches. When moving on a rope footbridge, use the “rope railing tie-in method”.

We distinguish between - single-rope footbridges and - double-rope footbridges

The type to be used depends on the distance to be overcome and the sag of the rope.

A single-rope bridge is built in the same manner as a transportation line, i.e. with carrying ropes running close to each other (see margin no. 0). The soldier crossing the bridge hooks himself onto the carrying ropes by means of the locking carabiner attached to the rope-up point. Then, a self-belay sling is hooked in as a backup protection (see Fig. 312).

611

Fig. 312: Single-rope footbridge, directly attached to the carrying ropes

The double-rope footbridge is built like the single-rope footbridge, but with an additional foothold rope. For moving along it, attach the self-belay to the handhold/protection rope (see Fig. 313).

612 Fig. 313: Double-rope footbridge, attaching of the self-belay

When a double-rope footbridge is built to cover a larger distance, the handhold and the foothold ropes can be tied together by means of accessory ropes. For that, we know two variants:

- Variant 1: - Tie together the handhold and foothold ropes by means of an accessory rope at the beginning and at the end

-Variant 2: - Tie together the handhold and foothold ropes with an accessory cord at the beginning and at the end. - You may use additional cords between the beginning and the end of the bridge. - Attach a redundant protection rope above the handhold ropes.

3. Rope Bridges

A rope bridge (see Fig. 314) makes it possible to cross larger obstacles. If possible, use two foothold ropes for such a bridge. For moving on it, use the “rope railing tie-in method” (see margin no. 538).

Tie accessory cords to the foothold rope by means of a prusik knot, and fix them to the handhold ropes running at shoulder height.

613 For stabilisation, you can anchor the foothold ropes with additional ropes. Right above the handhold ropes, you have to attach a redundant protection rope. It runs at head level between the two handhold ropes.

Fig. 314: Rope bridge

In flat terrain (e.g. when crossing crevasses), you have to attach handhold and foothold ropes to trestles and to anchor them. (see Fig. 315).

614

Fig. 315: A footbridge, used to cross a crevasse

Fix the trestle to the ropes in a way that it can still move (see Fig. 316).

Fig. 316: Fixing and anchoring of trestles

To protect the ropes from damage, attach planks or ladders when crossing a bridge with crampons (see Fig. 317).

615

Fig. 317: Planks, used for the protection of the ropes (P = prusik knot)

616 R. THE MILITARY MOUNTAIN GUIDE TEAM (MMGT) - SPECIAL TECHNIQUES

The basics for this section are still in the state of development/approval and therefore not yet available.

617 ANNEX I

The Avalanche Rescue Platoon (ARP) Table of Organisation and Equipment (TOE) -Draft Version

The ARP consists of a - Plt Ldr - Plt HQ (Dep Plt Ldr, Plt Sgt/Supply NCO, Medical NCO/Critical care paramedic) - One special ops/search squad (Sqd Ldr, Dep Sqd Ldr, 6 soldiers with mountain qualification, including one vehicle driver). For special mountain-related tasks (e.g. abseiling, anchoring), this squad is equipped with additional assets. - Two search squads (Sqd Ldr, Dep Sqd Ldr, 6 soldiers, 1 driver). Depending on the type and the duration of a mission, additional personnel may be necessary.

Qualifications needed – HBF/HBFG: - Military mountain guide (MMG)/assistant military mountain guide (AMMG): - Plt Ldr, Dep Plt Ldr, Sqd Ldr (special squad/search squad) - Military mountain specialist (MMS): – Plt Sgt/Supp NCO, Medical NCO/critical care paramedic, Sqd Ldr/search squad

618 - High-mountain specialist (HMS), Austrian Armed Forces: - Dep Sqd Ldr/search squad, members of the special/search squad – TGebA-Wi: Technical mountain equipment for wintery conditions - Members of the search squad, signaller/messenger, driver.

Material scheduled for the avalanche rescue platoon (stored in a magazine) - See equipment scheduled for avalanche rescue/disaster relief platoons - Additional equipment (proposal): - Communication equipment (mobile phones and radio sets) - Spare batteries, avalanche transceivers (“peeps”), headlamps - 20 Gas cartridges - 4 Spare skis/sticks/skins - 6 Cutting picks - 3 Two-man saws - 6 Axes - 9 Pointed shovels - 9 Steel plate shovels - 1 Squad tent (plus heating material) - Medical equipment

619 ANNEX II

KNOT TECHNIQUES

For military mountaineering it is absolutely necessary to be familiar with knot techniques and rope management.

You have to use knots for - roping up (tying in), - abseiling/lowering, - rescuing, - the building of protection installations, - protecting, and - rope extensions.

The various knots can be used for one or for several purposes. They can be tied (on a bight) or threaded (follow- through knot). You have to tighten the knots firmly and to check them. Below, you will find a description of various knots.

Figure Eight Knot The figure eight on a bight (see Fig. 318) is used for - roping up, - building a belay station, - self-belaying, and - mountain rescue operations.

620

Fig. 318: Figure Eight Knot on a Bight

The figure eight follow through knot (see Fig. 319) is used for - roping up and - connecting tubular slings together

Fig. 319: Figure Eight Follow Through Knot

621 Double Figure Eight Knot

The double figure eight knot (see Fig. 320) is used for - mountain rescue operations and - the setting of anchors.

Fig. 320: Double Figure Eight Knot

Girth Hitch

The girth hitch on a bight (see fig. 322) is used for - the setting of anchors and - mountain rescuing

622

Fig. 321: Girth Hitch on a Bight

623 Figure Eight Block

A figure eight block (see Fig. 322) is used for mountain rescue operations.

Fig. 322: Figure Eight Block

Secured figure eight knot The secured figure eight knot (see Fig. 323 and Fig. 324) is used for mountain rescue operations.

Fig. 323: Secured Figure Eight (GE Bw)

624

Fig. 324: Secured Figure Eight (Austrian Armed Forces)

Double Bowline Knot The double bowline knot, tied or on a bight or re- threaded (see Fig. 325) is used - for abseiling and - the building of a belay station.

625

Fig. 325: Double bowlines, tied on a bight (above), and re-threaded (below)

Garda Knot

The Garda knot (see Fig. 326) is used as a return stop - in mountain rescue operations and - for the building of protected routes.

Fig. 326: Garda Knot

626 Geflecht Braiding

The braiding (see Fig. 327) is used for - mountain rescue, - the building of protected routes, and - the setting of anchors.

Fig. 327: Braiding

Italian Hitch (aka Munter Hitch or HMS)

The Italian hitch (see Fig. 328) is used - for climbing as a rope team and - for the setting of anchors.

627

Fig. 328: Italian Hitch (Munter Hitch, HMS)

Kara Eight Loop

The kara eight (see Fig. 329) is used as a return stop (stopper), but only together with an “offset eight” (Bw: figure eight) when building a protected route.

628 Fig. 329: Kara Eight

Bachmann Knot (Bachmann Hitch)

The Bachmann knot (see Fig. 330) is used for - mountain rescue and - moving along fixed ropes

Fig. 330: Bachmann Knot

The Klemheist knot (see Fig. 331) is used for - mountain rescue, - moving along fixed ropes, and - the building of protected routes

629

Fig. 331: Klemheist Knot The Luttensee klemme (see Fig. 332) is used as a return stop (stopper) - for mountain rescue and - for the building of protected routes

Fig. 332: The Luttensee Klemme Above: how to insert, below: how to release

630

Clove Hitch

The clove hitch on a bight (see Fig. 333) or threaded (see Fig. 334) is used

- for self-belaying when climbing in a rope team, - for the building of protected routes, and - for mountain rescue.

Fig. 333: Clove hitch on a bight (left: without, right with carabiner)

631

Fig. 334: Clove hitch, threaded

632 Package Knot

The package knot (see Fig. 335) is used - to tie together ropes of different diameters and - to tie together accessory cords and webbing material

It is used to knot together Dyneema and Kevlar material.

Fig. 335: Package Knot

Prusik Knot (aka Prussick Knot) The prusik knot (tied on a loop, see Fig. 336 or re- threaded, see Fib. 337) is used for - mountain rescue and - the building of protected routes

The re-threaded prusik has to be secured with a knot.

633

Fig. 336: Prusik knot, tied on a loop

Fib. 337: Prusik knot, re-threaded

Granny knot

A granny knot (see Fig. 338 to Fig. 340) is used - for tying two ropes together, - as a knot at the end of a rope, and

634 - as a braking knot.

Fig. 338: Granny knot (drop-shaped, tied on a bight)

Fig. 339: Granny Knot (drop-shaped, threaded with a single strand of rope). The upper left part corresponds to an ordinary lay”

635 Fig. 340: Granny knot (ring-shaped, threaded with a single strand of rope)

Slip Knot with Safety Hitch The slip knot with safety hitch (see Fig. 341) is used - for mountain rescue and - for the building of protected routes

Fig. 341: Slip knot with safety hitch

Stone Knot

The stone knot (see Fig. 342) is used for - mountain rescue, - abseiling, and - the building of protected routes

636

Fig. 342: Stone Knot

Abbund (Wasserklang) Fixation (Slip Knot) The fixation (slip knot, see Fig. 343) is used for - mountain rescue and - the building of protected routes

Fig. 343: Fixation (with Slip Knot)

637 Macramé Knot

The macramé knot (see Fig. 344) is used for abseiling and as a command and control measure. It is only used by MMGs.

Fig. 344: Macramé

Butterfly Knot

The butterfly knot (see Fig. 345) is used for

- roping up on glaciers and

638 - as a braking knot

Fig. 345: Butterfly Knot

Taut Line Hitch Knot

The taut line hitch knot (see Fig. 346) is used for the building of protected routes.

639

Fig. 346: Taut Line Hitch Knot

640 Bight (see Fig. 347)

Fig. 347: Bight

Loop (see Fig. 348)

Fig. 348: Loop

641 ANNEX II

Mountaineering Gear

I. General

To fulfil missions in alpine terrain and in urban areas, we need special equipment (mountaineering gear) and additional assets. You can get an overview of the mountaineering gear in use via the logistics channel. For details, go to the homepage of the Austrian Mountain Warfare Centre/Mountaineering Gear. To make sure soldiers can handle such gear properly and without risk, they need to get appropriate training. As the soldiers’ safety, health and lives depend on the mountaineering gear, this gear is subject to severe norms and testing criteria. The need of clear directives concerning its storage, use, duration of use and proper maintenance is associated with that. The Armed Forces are only allowed to procure mountaineering gear that meets - the CE (certificate européen) and the - EN (European norm) However, for certain products, the UIAA norm (Union Internationale des Associations d’Alpinisme) requires higher standards than the CE and the EN. UIAA standard is not mandatory, but most of the manufacturers of mountaineering gear try to meet it. Thus, e.g. climbing ropes are checked by means of the UIAA norm fall (see Fig. 349). This is a fall test for ropes.

642 The fall is arrested statically, and the fall factor is 1.78. The UIAA fall is used to determine the - number of falls, - impact force (see margin no. Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.), - rope elongation on impact (see margin no. Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.), - static elongation (see margin no. Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.), and the - displacement of the rope sheathing,

643 Height of Fall Impact Forces Absorbed Half rope: 8 kN (max) Single rope: 12 kN (max)

Falling Weight Half rope: 55 kg Single rope: 80 kg

Dynamic Elongation: 40 % (max)

Fig. 349: UIAA Norm Fall

644 Number of Falls

The number of falls is the amount of falls a rope can bear before breaking. It is the most important quality indicator of climbing ropes. Single and half ropes must be able to bear at least 5 norm falls before breaking. Single ropes designed to bear more than 10 norm falls are called multi-fall ropes. Single ropes are loaded with a falling weight of 80 kg, half ropes with a falling weight of 55 kg on one strand. For twin ropes you check the double strand. It must be able to bear at least 12 norm falls with a weight of 80 kg.

Sheath Displacement

Sheath displacement is the movement of the rope’s sheath in relation to the rope’s core. For a 2 m rope it should not exceed 40 mm.

II. Storage

Mountaineering gear should be stored apart from other equipment, if possible. As a rule, you should only store mountaineering gear which is ready for use.

III. Checks, Care, and Maintenance We know the following types of checks:

- Check prior, during, and after use

645 - Check conducted by the personnel responsible for storage - Recurring checks

Checks prior, during and after use have to be performed by qualified personnel (MMG, MMS, manufacturer of protected routes). The checks are meant to find out, by means of visual inspection or a function test, if the mountaineering gear is still meeting the safety criteria. Gear which does not meet these criteria has to be marked, and the nature of damage has to be reported to the personnel responsible for the administration and the storage of the gear.

In addition, each soldier has to check his personal mountaineering gear prior to, during, and after each use.

The personnel responsible for storage have to check the gear after it has been turned in.

These personnel also have to perform a yearly check on the mountaineering gear (AAF).

For details concerning - the execution of such a check performed by the storage personnel and concerning the yearly inspection, - the mountaineering gear to be checked, and - the instructions on cleaning and maintenance see Annexe 3 of the AAF field manuals pertaining to this topic (“Mountaineering Equipment – Administrative Rules and Regulations”). You can also

646 find them on the homepage of the AAF Mountain Warfare Centre (“Mountaineering Gear”).

Mountaineering Gear Things to be checked (if applicable) - Cleanliness - Compliance with maximum period of use by checking the marking that indicates the year of production - Readability of this marking - Mechanical damages like cuts, fibre tears, and signs of strong wear – Traces of thermal influence Mountaineering gear – Chemical influence made of synthetic fibres - Sufficient flexibility - Hardening – Traces of knots or other squashing - Discoloration and bleaching - Length - Uniform composition - Big difference in length between the core and the sheathing of the rope - Integrity of the seams (tears, dissolving of the seam) and the harnessing material

647 Mountaineering Gear Things to be checked (if applicable) - Completeness and functionality of locking mechanisms, adaptation and fastening systems - Cleanliness - Oxidations Metal Mountaineering - Visible tears Gear - (strong) deformations - Damages - Functioning of moving parts - Status of connections, rivets, bolts or welding - Status of sheath and toothing - Sharpness of the prongs - Functionality of the bindings - Cleanliness - Compliance with maximum period of use by checking the year of production Synthetic - Status of straps and belts Mountaineering Gear - Completeness and

functionality of locking mechanisms, adaptation and fastening systems - Damage (e.g. cuts, fissures, notches, strong abrasions).

648 Mountaineering gear made of synthetic fibres needs careful maintenance. After each use it has to be checked for damage and to be hung out in a dry, dark and airy room without protective cover.

Damages have to be marked and to be reported when handing in the gear. Mountaineering gear made of synthetic fibres may be damaged by - thermal, - mechanical (e.g. sharp edge load, rockfall), and - chemical (e.g. acid) influence.

When such gear gets wet, it must not be dried under influence of heat or direct solar radiation.

You have to eliminate gear made of synthetic fibres when - the core of the rope is exposed due to a damaged sheath, - the core or the rope is damaged or is not evenly thick, - the sheath is roughened or worn, - the gear was in contact with chemical substances, - the gear was subject to an extremely hard fall (margin no. Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.), - the gear shows signs of melting, and - the allowed period of use has been exceeded.

649 Via Ferrata Kit

Via ferrata kits have to be checked before use. When discovering damages at the damping element (safety seam), they must not be used any longer and have to be eliminated.

IV. Period of Use

For details see the pertaining national regulations.

ATTENTION: Mountaineering gear made of synthetic fibres has to be eliminated 10 years after the year of production, at the latest – independently of its condition.

V. Special Mountaineering Gear Ropes and carabiners are something special because they are available in a lot of forms. Particularities will be addressed below.

Ropes

Ropes consist of a core and a sheath (see Fig. 350). The core of a rope is composed of several bundles which consist of a multitude of fibres. The core is the part of the rope which carries most of the load.

The sheath protects the core and supports its load carrying function.

650

Fig. 350: The core and the sheath of a rope

Both ends of a rope are fitted with a banderole which gives information on the type, diameter and length of the rope (see Fig. 351).

651

Fig. 351: Labelling at the ends of a rope Top: static rope. Centre: single rope. Bottom: half rope.

For military mountaineering we use - static ropes and - climbing ropes.

Static ropes (technically seen they are semi-static ropes) are used for the construction of protected routes and for mountain rescue.

NOTE: When extending a hoist rope, you may only use static ropes intended for that!

652 Climbing ropes are dynamic ropes and are mainly used when climbing as a roped-up team. However, they are also used for the construction of protected routes and for mountain rescue.

We differentiate between the following climbing ropes: - Single ropes and - half ropes. Single ropes are used in the form of a single strand.

Half ropes are used in the form of a single or a double strand, depending on the type of mission. This results in higher edge stability and the possibility to use the whole length of the rope for abseiling.

In military mountaineering, we do not only differentiate between various types of ropes, but also between

- climbing ropes and - training ropes (Bw).

Climbing ropes do not have a special labelling and do not have the original banderole of their manufacturer. Climbing ropes of the Bw are additionally fitted with a white label showing the rope number.

In the AAF, we have climbing ropes of the following lengths:

- 50 m single rope

653 - 30 m single rope - 50/60 m half rope - 30 m half rope.

Besides that, we have leftover strands of ropes (single and double ropes) up to a length of 10 m.

ATTENTION: Leftover strands of ropes have to meet the same criteria as climbing ropes (e.g. period of use).

Training ropes (Bw) are ropes that can be used like climbing ropes. They are fitted with a shrunk yellow label showing the rope number and an “A”, which stands for “Ausbildung” (in English: “Training”). Training ropes are available in the lengths of a single rope and/or a half rope.

In the Bw, a logbook is maintained for each rope. Among others, such a book contains the following information:

- Number of the rope - Type of the rope (single or half rope) - Purpose of use (e.g. climbing rope) - Year of production - Type of use - Length of the rope

Carabiners

For mountain training, we use

654 - locking carabiners, - normal carabiners, and - other types of carabiners

Locking carabiners

Depending on the locking system, we differentiate between (see Fig. 352) - climbing carabiners with screw lock (screw carabiners), - twistlock carabiners, - safelock carabiners, and - HMS carabiners

Fig. 352: Screw carabiner (top left), twistlock carabiner (top right), safelock carabiner (bottom left), and HMS carabiner (bottom right).

655 ATTENTION: When using a carabiner for self-belaying or the belaying of a fellow climber as well as during mountain rescue operations, always tighten the screw lock and check the lock. Exception: When moving on protected routes.

Normal Carabiner

The normal carabiner is also called climbing carabiner without screw lock or snap carabiner (see Fig. 353).

Fig. 353: Snap carabiner

656 NOTE: Avoid traverse, bending and other loads when the snap carabiner is open (reduction of breaking load values).

Other Types of Carabiners (see Fig. 354):

- Swivel carabiners and - Rescue carabiners

Fig. 354: Swivel carabiner (left) and rescue carabiner (right)

The technical data of a carabiner you can read from its closed spine (see Fig. 355).

Fig. 355: The technical data of a carabiner (example)

657 ANNEX III

Technical Data of Helicopters

I. Agusta Bell UH-1D

Fig. 356: Agusta Bell UH-1D

Length 17.42 m Height 3.95 m Engine Power 1 x 1 044 kW (1,419 PS) Maximum Speed 220 km/h Cruising Speed 160 km/h Autonomy 2:30 hrs With 1 inner tank: 4:15 hrs With 2 inner tanks: 6:00 hrs Service Ceiling 4,145 m Rotor Diameter 14.68 m Deadweight Approx. 2,650 kg

658 Max. Take-off Weight 4,310 kg Max. Additional Load 1,050 kg Max. Length of Hoist Cable 45 m Hoisting Capacity 275 kg Crew 3 + 10

659 II. Sikorsky CH-53

Fig. 357: Sikorsky CH-53

Length 26.87 m Height 7.59 m Engine Power 2 x 2 890 kW (2 x 3,929 HP) Max. Speed 296 km/h Cruising Speed 240 km/h Autonomy 1:40 hrs Service Ceiling 7,000 m Rotor Diameter 22.02 m Deadweight 12,650 kg Max. Take-off Weight 19,050 kg Standard Load 5,500 kg Crew 4 + 36 Hoist Outboard hoist possible

660 III. NH-90

Fig. 358: NH-90

Length 19.65 m Height 5.23 m Engine Power 2 x 2 507 kW (2 x 3,408 HP) Max. Speed 291-330 km/h (depending on the type) Cruising Speed 245-260 km/h (depending on the type) Autonomy 4:30 h, with add. tanks 6:00 h Service Ceiling 6,000 m Rotor Diameter 16.30 m

661 Max. Take-off Weight 10,500 kg Crew 3 + 20 or 12 stretchers Hoist Outboard hoist possible

662 IV. SA-316 “Alouette III” (Al 3)

Fig. 359: SA-316 “Alouette III”

Length 12.82 m Height 3.09 m Engine Power 647 kW (880 HP) Max. Speed 210 km/h Cruising Speed 160 km/h Autonomy 2:40 h Service Ceiling (w/o oxygen) 4,000 m Rotor Diameter 11.02 m Deadweight 1,300 kg Max. Take-off Weight 2,200 kg Payload 750 kg Max. Length of Hoist Cable 25 m Hoisting Capacity 200 kg

663 Crew 2 Max. PAX 5

664 V. Agusta Bell 212 (AB-212)

Fig. 360: Agusta Bell 212

Length 17.39 m Height 3.19 m Engine Power 2 x 662 kW 2 x 900 HP) Max. Speed 234 km/h Cruising Speed 162 km/h Autonomy 2:20 h with add. tank 3:10 h (no hoisting ops) Service Ceiling (w/o oxygen) 4,000 m Rotor Diameter 14.63 m Deadweight 3,000 kg Max. Take-off Weight 5,080 kg (IFR Configuration 4,763 kg)

665 Payload 1,000 kg Max. Length of Hoist Cable 70 m Hoisting Capacity 272 kg Crew 3 Max. PAX 12

666 VI. Sikorsky S-70A-42 „Black Hawk“(S- 70)

Abb. 361: Sikorsky S-70A-42 „Black Hawk“

Length 19.76 m Height 5.34 m Engine Power 2 x 1 427 kW (2 x 1 940 HP) Max. Speed 357 km/h Cruising Speed 240 km/h Autonomy 2:10 h with 2 external tanks 5:20 h (no hoisting ops) Service Ceiling (w/o oxygen) 4,000 m Rotor Diameter 16.36 m Deadweight 5,800 kg Take-off weight 9,966 kg;

667 with external load up to 10 650 kg Payload 1,814 kg on board or 4,077 kg external Max. Length of Hoist Cable 80 m Hoisting Capacity 272 kg Crew 3 Max. PAX 19

668

ANNEX IV

Difficulty Rating

I. Rock

To be able to compare the difficulty of various climbing routes, we use so-called difficulty scales, in Germany and Austria normally the UIAA scale or the French scale.

The UIAA scale is a difficulty scale ordered by levels of difficulty. It is written in Roman or Arabic numerals and is an open end scale that extends from difficulty level I to (up to now) difficulty levels XI+/XI. A fine graduation takes place at level III and higher by adding a plus (+) or a minus (-). A (+) indicates the upper end of a difficulty level, a (-) its lower end.

Difficulty Level I: Few difficulties, simplest form of rock climbing, hands used for balancing, climber needs a sure foot and no fear of heights.

Difficulty Level II: Moderately difficult, three-point hold is necessary.

Difficulty Level III Medium difficulties, intermediate belaying recommended at exposed locations. Vertical sections or overhanging sections with good holds already require physical strain.

669 Good and experienced climbers can climb such sections without rope belaying.

Difficulty Level IV Bigger difficulties, considerable climbing experience required. Longer sections need several intermediate belays. Also experienced climbers won’t climb without rope belaying.

Difficulty Level V: Big difficulties, increasing number of intermediate belays required. Climbers need increased physical fitness, climbing skills, and experience.

Difficulty Level VI: Extreme difficulties. Such a climb requires skills above the average, and excellent physical fitness. Climbers may often be at exposed locations, together with small belay stations. Normally, sections of such difficulty can be mastered during good environmental conditions. Often, it is combined with artificial climbing: A0 to A4.

Difficulty Level VII: Extraordinary difficulties. Such terrain requires increased training and improved equipment in order to be able to master it. Also excellent climbers have to undergo training adapted to the type of rock to be climbed. Besides acrobatic climbing skills, they also have to be familiar with sophisticated protection techniques.

Difficulty Level VIII and Higher:

670 Here, a verbal definition is difficult, problematic and not absolutely necessary. In fact, this level describes difficulties higher than those mentioned above – difficulties that put ever increasing demands on the climbing skills and the physical fitness of the climber.

The French scale is expressed in Arabic numerals, together with letters (a, b, or c) and maybe a “+” symbol. Currently, it extends as far as to 9b+. Example: 7a is easier than 7b; 7a+ is somewhere between them.

Comparison of Difficulty Levels

UIAA French Scale Scale I 1 II 2 III 3a III+ 3b IV- 3c IV 4a IV+ 4b V- 4c V 5a V+ 5b VI- 5c VI 5c+ VI+ 6a VII- 6a+ VII 6b/6b+ VII+ 6b+/6c VIII- 6c+

671 VIII 7a VIII+ 7a+/7b IX- 7b/7b+ IX 7c IX+ 7c+/8a X- 8a X 8b X+ 8b+/8c XI- 8c+ XI 9a

Aid climbing requires the use of aiders, pitons and further technical assets. For aid climbing, we drive pitons into the rock or drill holes into it, allowing us to climb featureless walls (faces). The rating scale for aid climbing ranges from A0 to A5 (a stands for the French word “artificiel”). A0 corresponds in principle to free climbing, using sometimes belay points as handholds and footholds. Level 5 routes, however, require the constant use of artificial climbing aids.

The Aid Climbing Difficulty Rating Scale A A belay point is used as a handhold or a foothold. 0 A Use of an aider 1 A Use of two aiders 2 A Pitons of bad quality; use of two aiders 3

Like A3, but under worse conditions. Climbing sections require A power, courage, and endurance. Belay points are difficult to be built. 4

672

Climbing takes place (only) along artificial holds. Most of the A time, these holds are of such bad quality that a fall will only be 5 arrested by the belay station.

II. ICE

Difficulties during ice climbing are rated with the seven- step WI scale. “WI” stands for “Water Ice”. The real difficulty of icefalls depends on factors like ice formations, temperature and solar radiation. These factors may change the indicated difficulty levels (up to 1.5 degrees).

Steep- Sc ness Qualit Belaying Other ale (in y of Ice Possibilities Degrees)

40 – Easy to WI 60 belay 1 WI 60 – Comp Easy to

2 70 act Ice belay Alternati WI 70 – Comp Easy to ng steep and 3 80 act Ice belay flat sections Short Short sections WI Easy to sections of 80 with 4 belay vertical ice tubular possible ice

673 possible Short sections Longer WI 85 – with Easy to vertical 5 90 tubular belay sections ice possible Tubula

r ice and Sometimes WI 90 free- difficult to 6 standing belay

ice pillars Thin, free- WI standing Very over- 7 ice pillars, difficult to hanging free- belay hanging ice

674 III. Viae Ferratae (Klettersteigs)

For viae ferratae, there is no officially recognized difficulty rating. They use various four to six-step scales. In the German- speaking countries, a graduation from A to F has become usual. Difficulty: Simple Terrain: Flat to steep, largely rocky or dotted with rocks. There may be exposed sections. A Protection: Wire ropes, chains, iron clamps, and sometimes short ladders. Mainly viable without protections. Preconditions: A safe foot and a head for heights are recommended. Difficulty: Simple to moderately difficult. Partially physically demanding and exhausting. Terrain: Steep rock, sometimes only small footholds; exposed sections have to be expected along the route. Protection: Wire ropes, chains, iron clamps, pegs, longer B ladders (also vertical). Terrain can be crossed without protections. Preconditions: Like A-level, but better physical condition and endurance required concerning the use of arms and legs. Difficulty: Most of the time difficult, physically demanding, and exhausting. Terrain: Steep to very steep, most of the time no footholds. Very often exposed sections of considerable length. C Protection: Wire ropes, iron clamps, pegs, often longer and even overhanging ladders. In vertical sections sometimes only one wire rope. Not viable without using the permanently installed protection devices. Preconditions: Good physical fitness.

675 Difficulty: Very difficult, physically demanding and exhausting. Terrain: Vertical, often also overhanging; most of the time very exposed. Protection: Wire rope, iron clamps, pegs (most of the D time very distant from each other), at exposed and steep locations often only one wire rope. Preconditions: Like C-level. Climber needs good physical fitness, sufficient power in arms and legs. There may be longer vertical or even overhanging sections. Difficulty: Extremely difficult, very demanding and exhausting. Terrain: Vertical to overhanging, permanently exposed, only small footholds. Sometimes friction climbing is required. E Protection: Like D-level, but more often combined with climbing. Preconditions: Very strong hands (fingers), arms and legs. Increased level of physical fitness and mobility. There may be long sections where most of the weight needs to be held by hand only. Difficulty: More than extremely difficult. Physically very demanding and extremely exhausting. Good climbing skills are absolutely necessary. Terrain: Primarily overhanging and exposed. Very small F footholds, maybe friction climbing will be necessary. Protection: Like E-level, combined with climbing. Preconditions: Like E-level. However, good climbing skills are mandatory.

676 IV. The Seriousness of a Climbing Route

In rock climbing, the term seriousness covers the protection-related and psychological requirements, and the riskiness of a climbing route.

The seriousness concept comprises several aspects. An essential criterion is the quality of protections used.

In case of a fall, the risk of getting hurt is the higher, - the bigger the distances between anchors, - the worse the quality of these anchors, and - the higher the challenges for the climber concerning the use of mobile protection devices. are.

Other factors: The lack of possibilities for a quick withdrawal, and objective hazards like rockfall or icefall, which are also part of the seriousness assessment.

Currently, we still do not have a generally recognized and normed seriousness scale. However, depending on the country, the mountain ranges, and specific literature, various drafts of such a scale have developed so far.

677 ANNEX V

Forms

I. Snow Profile

Snow Profile

678 Fig. 362: Snow Profile Form, Front Side

Clouds Consistency Test/Hand Cloudless Very weak (fist) Slightly cloudy Weak (4 fingers) medium-hard Cloudy (1 finger) Very cloudy Hard (pencil) Very hard Covered (knife blade) Fog Layer of ice

Grain Shape Grain Size Fresh Snow very fine-grained filthy fine-grained round-grained medium-grained sharp-edged coarse-grained very coarse-grained Depth hoar Wetness round grains (due to melting and freezing) dry Hoar frost slightly humid Layers of hard snow humid and ice wet very wet Remarks: Fig. 363: Snow Profile Form, Back Side

679

Fig. 364: A filled out Snow Profile Form (Example)

680 II. Rutschblock Test- Report Form

Fig. 365: A Rutschblock Test Report 681

Fig. 366: Completed Rutschblock Test Report Form (Example)

682 III. Auxiliary Matrix for the Preparation of a SITREP

Fig. 367: Auxiliary Matrix for the Preparation of a Situation Report

683 IV. Weather Protocol

Fig. 368: Weather Protocol

684

Fig. 369: A Filled Out Weather Protocol Form (Example)

685

686