The Importance of Caregiver-Child Interactions for the Survival and Healthy Development of Young Children

Home , Attachment in children, John Bowlby

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ The importance of caregiver-child interactions for the survival and healthy development of young children

A REVIEW

TH AND DEVELOPMENT

CHILD AND ADOLESCENT HEAL DEPARTMENT OF CHILD AND ADOLESCENT HEALTH AND DEVELOPMENT WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION

CAH

The importance of caregiver–child interactions for the survival and healthy development of young children

A REVIEW

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■

TH AND DEVELOPMENT

DEPARTMENT OF CHILD

CHILD AND ADOLESCENT HEAL AND ADOLESCENT HEALTH AND DEVELOPMENT WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION

CAH WHO Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data The importance of caregiver-child interactions for the survival and healthy development of young children: a review. 1.Child development. 2.Caregivers – psychology 3.Psychology, Social 4.Growth – in infancy and childhood 5.Socioeconomic factors I.Richter, Linda II.World Health Organization ISBN 92 4 159134 X (NLM classification: WS 105.5.C3)

© World Health Organization, 2004 This document is not a formal publication of the World Health Organization (WHO), and all rights are reserved by the Organization. With an identification of the WHO source, the document may, however, be freely reviewed, abstracted, reproduced and translated, in part or in whole, but not for sale nor for use in conjunction with commercial purposes. Permission to use a photograph must be obtained from the original source. The authors alone are responsible for the views expressed in this publication. Cover photo: WHO Department of Child and Adolescent Health and Development Designed by minimum graphics Printed in China Contents

Photo credits iv Acknowledgements v Foreword vii

Executive summary 1

Chapter 1. Introduction: The role of caregiving in the development of children 5 Methodology for the review 5 The caregiver 6

Chapter 2. Historical background: The importance of stable, loving care for young children 8 WHO and the work of John Bowlby 8 The effects of separation from a familiar caregiver on the health and development of children 9

Chapter 3. Advances in child development theory and research: Perspectives from psychology, linguistics, neurobiology, and evolutionary theory 11 Contemporary psychological theories of how children develop 11 Psychoanalytic theory, particularly Object Relations Theory 12 Lev Vygotsky and social mediation 12 Developmental psycholinguistics 13 Developmental psychology 14 Empirical findings regarding the perceptual and learning capacities of infants 16 Recent advances in understanding the neurobiology of early experience 18 Phylogenetic perspectives on human capacities for social and cultural communication and cooperation 19

Chapter 4. The nature of caregiver-child relationships: Attachment, development and cultural adaptation 22 Attachment theory 22 Developmental changes in caregiver-child relationships 25 Features of supportive and facilitative caregiver-child interactions 28 Mutuality, synchronicity, emotional availability, and social referencing 29 Sensitivity 30 Responsiveness 31 Applicability of caregiver-child dimensions across cultures 31 Models of caregiving and parenting 33

iii THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN

Chapter 5. The impact of caregiver-child interactions on the development and health of children 36 Child development outcomes 37 Follow-up studies from early interactions 37 Psychopathology and child abuse 38 Institutional care 39 Child health outcomes 40 Prematurity and low birth weight 40 Growth and failure to thrive 41 Malnutrition 43

Chapter 6. Social and personal determinants of the quality of caregiver-child interactions 46 Socio-economic conditions 46 Child characteristics 47 Caregiver characteristics 47

Chapter 7. Improving caregiver-child interactions: Implications for intervention 51

Glossary 53 Bibliography 57

Photo credits Cover WHO Department of Child and Adolescent Health and Development Page 7 Linda Richter from the Birth to Twenty Study in Barbarin, O. A. & Richter, L. M. Mandela’s Chil- dren: Growing Up in Post-Apartheid South Africa (2001). New York: Rutledge, p. 105. Page 11 Linda Richter Page 15 Lynne Murray and Peter Cooper in Murray, L. and Andrews, L. (2000). The Social Baby. Rich- mond, Surrey: The Children’s Project, p. 53. Page 17 A.N. Meltzoff & M.K. Moore (1977). Imitation of facial and manual gestures by human neonates. Science, 198, 75-78. Page 18 Jacqueline Cidérac Page 20 Anthony De Casper Page 20 WHO Department of Child and Adolescent Health and Development Page 21 WHO Department of Child and Adolescent Health and Development Page 23 Linda Richter Page 29 Eleanor Gibson (Cornell University) Page 30 UNICEF/HQ91-0173/Betty Press Page 32 WHO/S. Sprague Page 34 Linda Richter Page 38 Jane Lucas Page 41 WHO/Armando Waak Page 41 Jane Lucas Page 44 WHO/L. Taylor Page 48 Bob Daemmrich (The Image Works) Page 49 WHO/D. Whitney

iv Acknowledgements

he author of this review was Dr Linda Richter, who is the Executive Director of Child, Youth and TFamily Development at the Human Sciences Research Council and Professor, School of Psychology, University of Natal (South Africa). Dr Richter was assisted by Dr R. Dev Griesel, Research Professor in the School of Psychology at the University of Natal, and Ms Julie Manegold, an Intern at the Human Sciences Research Council. Valuable comments and suggestions were provided by the following persons: Dr Kathy Bartlett (The Consultative Group on Early Childhood Care and Development and the Aga Khan Foundation, Geneva, Switzerland), Dr Maureen Black (University of Maryland, Baltimore, USA), Dr Meena Cabral de Mello (WHO Department of Child and Adolescent Health and Development, Geneva, Switzerland), Dr Patrice Engle (UNICEF New York, USA), Dr Ilgi Ertem (Ankara University Medical School, Ankara, Turkey), and Ms Zeynep Türmen (Intern, WHO Department of Child and Adolescent Health and Development). We gratefully acknowledge the contributions of Dr Jane Lucas (Nicosia, Cyprus), who reviewed and edited the document, and Dr Jose Martines (WHO Department of Child and Adolescent Health and Devel- opment), the project coordinator. We thank Ms Sue Hobbs for the document’s design and Ms Jacqueline Cidérac for her efforts to obtain permission to use the photographs in the document. The WHO Department of Child and Adolescent Health and Development supported this review as the second in a series to guide interventions to improve the health, growth and psychosocial development of children, particularly those living in resource-poor settings. The first in the series is A Critical Link: Inter- ventions for physical growth and psychological development (1999, WHO/CHS/CAH/99.3), available in Eng- lish, French, and Russian. For these documents and further information, please contact:

Department of Child and Adolescent Health and Development (CAH) World Health Organization 20 Avenue Appia, 1211 Geneva 27, Switzerland Tel: +41 22 791 3281 Fax: +41 22 791 4853 E-mail: [email protected] Website: http://www.who.int/child-adolescent-health

Foreword

early 11 million children died before It blends theory with current scientific evidence N reaching their fifth birthday in the past year. from both advantaged and resource-poor Almost 40% of these children die within the first countries to describe the interactive processes that month of life. Millions of children survive but face shape this relationship during the first days diminished lives, unable to develop to their full through the early years of the child’s life. This potential. Poor nutrition and frequent bouts of relationship meets the child’s basic needs for food, illness limit the young child’s opportunities to safety, warmth, affection, and stimulation – and explore the world during a critical period for the caregiver’s need to feel effective and satisfied learning basic intellectual and social skills. Often in caring for her child. neither the caregiver nor health personnel are From recent research, the review identifies two aware of what to do to prevent or lessen the worst fundamental qualities that determine the care- effects of illness, nor how to provide compensatory giver’s ability to provide effective care: sensitivity experiences to get the child’s growth and psycho- and responsiveness to the child. These skills logical development back on track. enable the caretaker to detect the child’s signals This reiew lays the groundwork for including and to respond appropriately, in synchrony, to interventions to improve the relationship between the meet the child’s needs. caregiver and child in an overall strategy to improve Second, the review summarizes what we have the child’s survival, health, and development. learned about how a strong and supportive The recognition of the importance of the child’s caregiving relationship supports the develop- relationship with a primary caregiver has been ment of a child who is physically, intellectually limited. In the area of child health, we have tended and socially healthy, and more resilient to the to focus on the caregiver’s role in bringing the child damaging effects of poverty and violence. to the attention of health services and in imple- The review shows us what it looks like when menting treatment recommendations and follow this relationship works, and identifies the conse- up. On their side, psychologists and psychiatrists quences when the caregiver and child fail to have tended to concentrate on the caregiver’s role engage. The most vulnerable children – those who in the child’s emotional development and on are premature, low birth weight, non-organic residual themes to be addressed in the psycho- failure to thrive, and malnourished – are the ones analysis of the adult. We have failed to recognize to suffer the most from the effects of this failure the effects of the caregiver-child relationship on the on the child’s health. We also see the human cost very survival and health of children most at risk. on children living in institutions, conflict, refugee This has not always been so. This review goes camps and other settings that deprive them of back to the work of John Bowlby. In 1951 he wrote stable, caring relationships. the influential monograph Maternal Care and Finally, this review calls us to work with the Mental Health, commissioned by the World Health whole child and with the child’s closest caring Organization. Using the available empirical evi- environment. It presents a solid foundation for dence, he demonstrated that a loving, stable pa- the need to integrate interventions to promote rental relationship is as critical to the young child’s better caregiver-child interactions into the design survival and health as is food and health care. of primary health care programmes for mothers, Carrying on the work of Bowlby and others, other caregivers, newborns, and young children. this paper is important for several reasons. First, These interventions are also appropriate for it gathers a wealth of information on the nature community-based nutrition, early child care, of the interactions between the mother – or other violence prevention, orphan care and parent principal caregiver – and the child. education programmes. A response to this call has

vii THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN

implications for the training of physicians, nurses, organizational and financial support to promote child care workers, and others who assist families effective caregiver-child interactions as a funda- in caring for their children. mental condition for ensuring that children Focusing on the quality of caregiver-child survive and thrive. It is our wish that all will draw interactions as a critical aspect of the care of young upon this rich evidence to rethink the meaning children is a new direction for the World Health of our shared responsibility for the survival of Organization, UNICEF, and their international and children and a strategic investment in their local partners. We need to marshal adequate future.

LEE Jong-wook Director-General World Health Organization

viii Executive Summary

oung children are dependent on the care they was as crucial to the child’s survival and healthy Yreceive from others. In this sense, there is no development as the provision of food, child care, such thing as a baby on its own. There is always a stimulation and discipline. The lack of baby in the care of someone. All the child’s personalized care during the early years of life has physical and psychological needs must be met by a devastating effect on the child’s health, growth, one or more people who understand what infants, personality adjustment and cognitive capacity. in general, need and what this baby, in particular, wants. The child’s growth, in all aspects of health Conclusions and personhood, depends on the capacity of adults, in whose care the child rests, to under- This review brings our evolving understanding stand, perceive and respond to the child’s bids of the importance of caregiver-child interactions for assistance and support. up to the present. Following are the critical This paper reviews current theory and evidence findings: on the importance of caregiver-child relationships ■ Sensitive and responsive caregiving is a for the survival and healthy development of requirement for the healthy neurophysiologi- children from birth to three years of age. It begins cal, physical and psychological development with the seminal contribution of the World Health of a child. Sensitivity and responsiveness have Organization (WHO) in the area of caregiving. In been identified as key features of caregiving 1951 WHO asked John Bowlby to review the behaviour related to later positive health and de- impact of the separation of children from family velopment outcomes in young children. Sensitiv- and caregivers as a result of the Second World ity is an awareness of the infant and an awareness War in Europe. of the infant’s acts and vocalizations as communi- Bowlby’s most important contribution lay in cative signals to indicate needs and wants. Respon- his emphasis on the importance of the close and siveness is the capacity of caregivers to respond caring interpersonal relationships that infants and contingently and appropriately to the infant’s young children have with their primary caregivers. signals. Bowlby was convinced that an ongoing warm To ensure the child’s health and growth, relationship between an adult and a young child caregivers need to be sensitive to the physical state of the young child, to be able to judge whether the child is hungry, tired, needs toileting, or is …the care that children receive has powerful becoming sick. Responsive caregivers are able to effects on their survival, growth and develop- make these judgements because they monitor the ment…care refers to the behaviours and child’s movements, expressions, colour, temp- practices of caregivers (mothers, siblings, erature, and the like. By continuously taking fathers and child care providers) to provide account of the child’s response, they are able to the food, health care, stimulation and emotional adjust their own actions to achieve an optimum support necessary for children’s healthy outcome – for example, to comfort the child’s survival, growth and development…Not only fretfulness, put the child to sleep, and encourage the practices themselves, but also the way they the child to feed when ill. are performed – in terms of affection and In addition, the capacity of infants and young responsiveness to the child – are critical to a children to cope with biologically challenging child’s survival, growth and development. conditions, including low birth weight and illness, Engle & Lhotska (1999, p.132) is dependent on the ability of caregivers to adjust their caregiving to the special needs of the child.

1 THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN

They must compensate for the immaturity or ■ Infants and caregivers are prepared, by limits of the child’s abilities. For example, sick evolutionary adaptation, for caring interactions infants and young children need additional fluids through which the child’s potential human and food even though they lack appetite. It takes capacities are realized. The evolving biological a caring and skilled caregiver to encourage a child and social capacities of the newborn and young to eat and drink under these circumstances. child set out an agenda of requirements for Beyond survival, interactions between caregiver support from caregivers to meet the child’s full and child that are sensitive to the child’s cognitive potential for health, growth and development. The functioning, and complement and extend the infant’s brain is prepared to anticipate and depend child’s capacity to identify and act on objects in on nurturant human care. Babies, for example, the world, are essential to the child’s psychosocial are born with neurophysiological and sensory development, including the acquisition of filtering mechanisms, which enable them to focus language and cultural meaning. A stable and close on human contact and communication. From the emotional relationship, long before the infant first moments of life, they preferentially attend to learns to speak, enables the caregiver to describe the face, gestures and voice of other humans. The and mediate the child’s experiences, and lays the capacity of newborns to express simple emotions foundation for the child’s language development. through facial expressions and movements guides Loving care also provides the infant with a caregivers to understand and respond in ways that mirror reflecting a tender and sympathetic view are most helpful for infants to calm, feed, sleep, of the child’s self and of the world. Early stay alert or interact with others. experiences function as schema on which the In a matched way, all normal human beings, infant then predicts future events and encounters. young and old, male and female, have a capacity The young child who receives loving care feels to care for young children. When interacting with that he is a loved person and expects other people a young child, adults adapt the pitch and to respond to him as someone deserving of care simplicity of their language, make their actions and attention. In contrast, a child whose needs slow and purposeful, carefully watch the reactions have been neglected does not usually expect of the child to them, and make ongoing modifi- others to be kind and considerate, and frequently cations to their behaviour to engage and behaves aggressively and defensively. accommodate the child. ■ Inadequate, disrupted and negligent care ■ Factors directly affecting the caregiver and has adverse consequences for the child’s child, as well as underlying social and survival, health and development. The quality economic issues, influence the quality of of caregiving relationships has an impact on caregiver-child relationships. Barriers to the children’s health and development. These effects natural emergence of a caring relationship disrupt occur because children, whose care is less than the care a child needs. Caregiver mood and adequate or whose care is disrupted in some way, emotional state are critical determinants of care- may not receive sufficient nutrition; they may be giver behaviour, for example, with consequences subjected to stress; they may be physically abused for the child’s health and development. Studies and neglected; they may develop malnutrition; of maternal depression illustrate how self- they may not grow well; and early signs of illness preoccupation and a negative mood can disrupt may not be detected. caregiving. Faced with chronic stress or anxiety, Research on what occurs when young children the caregiver may withdraw from her infant and are placed in institutions provides powerful become inattentive to the child’s physical and evidence of the importance of supportive and psychological states. With a lack of attention and stable caregiver-child relationships for the health poor surveillance, the caregiver is not aware of of young children and their cognitive and social early signs of illness, that a child has not eaten development. Young children in group care often sufficiently during the last meal, or that no one fail to thrive, they tend to be sickly, they are has praised the child for efforts to do something demanding of attention, and they find it difficult or provided the child with guidance and limits to have normal peer relationships with other for behaviour. Chronic stress, associated with children. poverty and other environmental challenges, can also disrupt the capacity of adults to give loving care. The effects of caregiving on young children

2 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

can persist well into adolescence in the form of conducted in developed countries, and the extent behaviour disorders, anxiety, and depression. to which the results can be applied in different On the other hand, a strong caring relationship cultural and socio-economic conditions is not can protect a young child from the effects of known. For example, comparatively little is deprivation and disadvan- known about the varieties and effects of rearing tage. The caring relationship children by more than one intimate adult, a is the strongest explanation common practice in many non-Western Caring interactions for why some children who communities. promote the health grow up under wretched ■ The link between the qualities of the and development of conditions nonetheless grow caregiving relationship and the child’s survival vulnerable children. well, are healthy, are able to and health, in addition to psychosocial They increase the be productive in school and development. The strongest empirical evidence resilience of young work, and have good on the importance of sensitive and responsive children to the relationships with other caregiving is from developed countries, where the potential damaging people. greatest effects have been demonstrated in school effects of poverty and performance and later behavioural outcomes. deprivation. ■ Nurturant caregiver- More research is needed on the direct contri- child relationships have butions of the qualities of effective caregiving to universal features across the survival and health of infants and young cultures, regardless of differences in specific children – particularly among children living child care practices. In all human groups, babies under poor and otherwise high-risk conditions. depend on warm, responsive, linguistically rich, Some potential outcomes of positive care to study and protective relationships in which to grow and include: the reduction of the frequency and develop. They cannot survive in environments severity of episodes of common childhood illness; that do not meet threshold levels of these the speed and adequacy of catch-up growth and characteristics. Caregivers in all cultures development; adherence to medical treatment and demonstrate sensitivity and responsiveness return for follow-up care; the prevention of injury towards infants and young children, although the and family abuse; and improvements in feeding form of the caregiver’s actions may vary and the prognosis for low birth weight infants and considerably from one cultural milieu to another. malnourished young children. In many areas of Sometimes these features of caregiver-child the world, additional documentation of these relationships are not so easily observed because effects on the health and growth of children, as interactions with children, or the expression of well as on their psychosocial development, will emotions, are kept private as a matter of social be key to mobilizing attention and resources to convention. This does not mean, however, that improve caregiver-child interactions. caring adults do not watch young infants, cuddle and talk to them, and stimulate babies to develop ■ The effectiveness of interventions in skills indicative of healthy growth and wellbeing. changing the basic skills in caregiving and the There are also factors that commonly affect the qualities of the caregiver-child relationship. quality of caregiving relationships and the child’s Interventions need to be designed and tested for development. For example, the positive their effectiveness in improving the basic qualities correlation between the family’s socio-economic or skills – sensitivity and responsiveness – that status and the psychological development and determine the effectiveness of caregiving, as well adjustment of the child is found in all societies. as specific care practices, for example, those included in feeding, attending to the sick child, Research priorities and stimulating the child’s language and cognitive development. The technology is now available to The review exposes several areas of much needed observe the patterns of interaction and changing research, including on: affect between caregivers and children to demonstrate how these qualitative improvements in the ■ The nature and determinants of child care relationship are likely to benefit the child. by caregivers in poor communities, especially in developing countries. As in other fields of science, most of the available research has been

3 THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN

Interventions for children: ments in caregiver-child interactions among these Promoting effective relationships groups of children benefit the child by stimulating with caring adults health and development. They are also likely to improve the impact of complementary inter- The theoretical and empirical evidence, which has ventions to reduce childhood malnutrition, low accrued since the middle of the last century, needs birth weight and other limiting conditions on the urgent application in developing countries. child. Children living under disadvantaging conditions Children who live in difficult conditions are need as much help as they can get from caregivers. dependent on the nurture of primary caregivers It is also the most effective help children can get to shield them from the most threatening features to compensate for other deficiencies in their of their environment. Warm and responsive environment. While it is beyond the scope of this caregiving extends protection to children in paper to review specific interventions, the otherwise adverse situations. evidence here has implications for designing and Conditions of chronic and worsening poverty supporting appropriate and effective interventions prevail in many parts of the world. There are to improve caregiver-child relationships.1 countless communities fraught with violence and ■ Interventions to improve caregiver-child instability. Thousands of people flee their homes interactions may be targeted at one or more of each year in search of food, safety and a better the factors that affect sensitive and responsive life. The impact of the HIV/AIDS epidemic, like caregiving. These include socio-economic the homelessness of children following the Second conditions, social support, knowledge about World War, is a crisis of human development children’s health and development, caregiver whose effects will endure for several generations emotional states, caregiver skills and character- through its impact on young children. istics of the child. It is urgent that we apply the knowledge gained ■ Interventions need to be directed at about the importance of caring relationships especially vulnerable children living in poor between adults and children to benefit children communities in developing countries. Improve- and caregivers in all of these situations.

1 An overview of interventions to promote the development of especially low-income, nutritionally-at-risk children is the subject of a separate paper.

4 Chapter1 Introduction The role of caregiving in the development of children

ll aspects of human functioning are, at least Ain part, a product of an individual’s develop- …the care that children receive has powerful mental history. Nature and nurture, genetic effects on their survival, growth and develop- endowment and experience interact in response ment…care refers to the behaviours and to contemporary external conditions and mental practices of caregivers (mothers, siblings, and motivational states, to fathers and child care providers) to provide determine the survival, the food, health care, stimulation and emotional health and development of support necessary for children’s healthy All aspects of human children (Rutter, 1989). survival, growth and development…Not only functioning are, at This paper reviews the practices themselves, but also the way they least in part, a product theoretical ideas and are performed – in terms of affection and of an individual’s empirical evidence attesting responsiveness to the child – are critical to a developmental history. to the importance of a key child’s survival, growth and development. aspect of the experience of Engle & Lhotska (1999, p.132) children that has a determining impact on their survival and healthy development – namely, their day-to-day inter- addition, over six or seven decades we have actions with their intimate and regular caregivers. progressively modified our prevailing ideas about The review is limited to the developmental period caregiving. The paper is based on a selection of from birth to three years. These early years of life the available literature and, of necessity, on more have an important influence on later experiences. recent rather than older work. Methodological and They determine the impact that later experiences disciplinary debates with respect to the inter- have on future health and development. This is pretation of research findings, of which – as in because the first three years of life are believed to any other field – there are many, are not reflected be a sensitive period in biological and social in detail. development (Bornstein, 1989a). The review proceeded from known overviews of related topics, used keyword searches in Methodology for the review Medline and PsycINFO, and combined electronic databases such as EBSCOHost, Expanded This technical report builds on previous reviews Academic and ScienceDirect. About 900 papers of closely related topics, especially those of Marian and chapters in books were consulted in develop- Zeitlin and her colleagues in their book Positive ing the framework for the report. However, deviance in child nutrition (1990); Patricia Engle because the topic cuts across several specialities and Henry Ricciuti’s paper Psychosocial aspects of and many sources, some very relevant reports care and nutrition (1995); and Peter Fonagy and might nonetheless have been overlooked. Anna Higgitt’s overview An attachment perspective There is extensive literature on the effects of on early influences on development and social early caregiver-child relationships on social and inequalities in health (2000). psychological outcomes, particularly on later The topic, the importance of caregiver-child cognitive development, social competence and interactions to survival and healthy development, behavioural adjustment. In contrast, the literature covers an enormous field. The greatest proportion on survival, growth and physical health outcomes of the subject areas of developmental psychology associated with early childhood relationships is and behavioural paediatrics are of relevance, as limited. This is probably due to lingering sus- are psychiatry, family sociology, and nutrition. In picions about mentalism, associated with the view

5 THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN

that physical, rather than psychological, factors instead of mother, loses something essential to the are likely to act causally on the child’s survival core activities of what mothering care involves and and healthy development. Consequently, much which is precisely what young children need. The of the literature cited in this report on the effects word caregiver does not capture the continuity of early caregiver-child relationships on children’s and emotional commitment to a child that is part survival and health tends to be more indirect. of parenting, and thus potentially obscures what As in all other fields of science, most of the might be latent features of childcare that are available research has been conducted in critical to healthy development. developed countries, and it is not known to what Nevertheless, the term caregiver is preferred degree the knowledge because many young children are not looked after generated can be applied by their biological mothers. Furthermore, with This review exposes areas in different cultural and the exception of the earliest days of life, the care of much needed research, socio-economic con- of young children is not limited to one person. especially on the nature ditions. Published work Infants and young children frequently have several and determinants of child from the United States key caregivers, as occurs in many African societies, care by caregivers who are and Europe tends to take as well as in situations in which fathers, other subjected to chronic place within a tradition of relatives, siblings and friends participate actively stressors in their poor sustained research on a in the care of young children. There is no evidence communities. topic and is therefore that biological mothers are more capable of caring progressive. It is of for young children, apart from their role in generally good quality breastfeeding, than fathers or other people who and is subject to replication and validation by have a stable presence and are emotionally researchers from different ideological and committed to the wellbeing of the child (Parke, theoretical standpoints. 1978). In comparison, work done in developed There are other ways in which the term care- countries is frequently conducted by visitor giver, as a single individual responsible for the care scientists with little knowledge of local priorities of one or more young children, may distort our and culture. It tends to be once-off and is not understanding of the effects of caregiving on sustained. As a result, comparatively little is children. Firstly, responsive caregiving by one known about important issues of child care in person is frequently dependent on the caregiver’s non-Western cultures, including the varieties and supportive relationships with other people in the effects of the rearing of children by more than caregiver’s intimate social group. In addition, the one intimate adult (polymatric child-rearing). In qualities of the caregiving relationships young this respect, the review exposes areas of much children have with different people vary. The needed research, most especially the nature and differences may serve to compensate for a determinants of child care by caregivers subjected deficiency in a primary relationship, if and when to chronic stressors in poor communities in it does occur (Hewlett, 1992; Rutter, 1979). undeveloped countries. Several international agencies have incorporated a focus on early child development and The caregiver caregiving into their frameworks of action for The word caregiver as used in the paper denotes social development. For A caregiver is the person the people who look after infants and young example, the World Bank who looks after infants children. However, there is considerable contro- has committed support and young children. versy about the most accurate and appropriate for interventions to term by which to denote the wide variety of people improve early child involved in regular child care. Some advocate the development on the basis of the fact that the term parent or parenting to denote long-term quality of the first few years of a child’s life has a family care. Parenting embodies past and future multiplier effect on society (Keating & Hertzman, perspectives and deep emotional involvement in 1999; Young, 1996). The arguments outlined in the rearing and socialization of a young child. In the Bank’s documentation stress both the these ways, it is distinguishable from the motives economic and the neurobiological evidence for and activities of people involved in short term or this support. For example, Mary Eming Young professional care of children. Call (1984), for argues, “Fogel, the 1993 Nobelist in economics, example, argues that the term caregiver, used states that the quality of early child development

6 1. INTRODUCTION: THE ROLE OF CAREGIVING IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN

has a significant effect on Caregiving behaviours are the quality of popu- mediators between social, lations and influences health and caregiver health outcomes in later attributes and the child’s life” (Young, 2002, p.3). survival, growth and Further, “inadequate and development. They are a inappropriate social and key determinant of the emotional experiences in quality of the environment the early environment provided for children. can compromise higher level neural systems that provide the information needed to bond, imitate and generally respond in socially appropriate ways” (p.4). UNICEF has made considerable effort to incorporate care into its programming with its diagrammatic representation of the role of care (Engle & Lhotska, 1991; Engle, Pelto & Bentley, 2000; Richter, 1998). Shown below, in Figure 1,

LINDA RICHTER/BIRTH TO TWENTY STUDY is the UNICEF “expanded model of care” developed by Engle, Lhotska & Armstrong (1997). These 5-year-old children from the Birth to Twenty In the UNICEF model, caregiving behaviours Study in Soweto-Johannesburg were born within weeks of one another and demonstrate large are mediators between social, health and caregiver individual differences in growth. attributes and the child’s survival, growth and development. Caregiving is also a key determinant of the quality of the environment provided for children.

Child survival Growth Development

Adequate nutrient Health intake

Caregiving behaviours Care for pregnant/lactating women Feeding/breastfeeding Household food Psychosocial and cognitive stimulation Health care and healthy security Hygiene behaviours environment Health seeking Food preparation and storage

AVAILABILITY OF RESOURCES

Caregiving resources Food/ Knowledge/beliefs Health economic (Value of child care) resources resources Health/nutritional status/anemia Water supply Food production Mental health/stress Sanitation Control of resources/autonomy Income Health care (Decision-making, allocation decisions, employment) Labour Workload/time constraints availability Land assets Social support Environmental (Alternative caregivers, workload sharing, fathers’ roles, safety/shelter community support)

CULTURAL, POLITICAL, SOCIAL CONTEXT Urban, rural

Figure 1. The extended model of care (UNICEF)

7 Chapter2 Historical background The importance of stable, loving care for young children

WHO and the work of John Bowlby the caregiver-child relationship in a social and economic context, and argued, “Just as children he World Health Organization (WHO) has are absolutely dependent on their parents for incorporated early child development through T sustenance, so…are parents, especially their activities in the areas of the Mental Health of mothers, dependent on a greater society for children and Child and Adolescent Health and economic provision. If a community values its Development. For example, the Programme for the children, it must cherish their parents” (p.84). Enrichment of Interactions between Mothers and Together with a film made in 1953 by James Their Children was developed as a primary Robertson, who worked with Bowlby at the prevention tool in mental health, and Care for Tavistock Clinic, the WHO monograph led to Development is an element to support caregiving widespread improvements in the care of children in the larger strategy Integrated Management of in hospitals, care centres and residential Childhood Illness (IMCI). institutions. Robertson’s film, A two year-old goes WHO played a unique role in fostering research to hospital, graphically illustrated the phases of on attachments and early child development separation effects on young children as they pass through its commission to John Bowlby (Kjellberg, through protest, to despair and finally detachment 1953; WHO, 1977; 1978). In 1949, Dr George in their efforts to cope with the stress and pain of Brock Chisholm, the first Director-General of being separated from their principal attachment WHO, established a mental health section with figures. Practices began to be put in place to avoid Dr Ronald Hargreaves as head. The third session separating young children from caregivers. of the Social Commission of the United Nations, Furthermore, staff-child ratios in institutional care held in April 1948, decided to make a study of environments were reduced to allow professional the needs of homeless children, given the care staff to give more widespread social dislocation that followed in the individual attention to wake of the Second World War. WHO offered to young children, and contribute a study of the mental health of children The formation of an efforts were made to orphaned or separated from their families and in ongoing, warm relation- encourage family fost- need of foster or institutional care. ship is as crucial to the ering and adoption in The initial groundbreaking work took place child’s survival and order to avoid the institu- when Hargreaves employed John Bowlby, then healthy development as tionalization of young head of the Children’s Department at the Tavistock the provision of food, children. Clinic in London, on a 6-month contract to write child care, stimulation The importance of a report on the mental health of homeless children and discipline. Bowlby’s early writings in post-war Europe. Bowlby reviewed the available on maternal deprivation literature and interviewed people in the United lay in his emphasis on the primacy of inter- States and Europe. WHO published his mono- personal relationships for young children. He graph Maternal care and mental health in 1951, asserted that the formation of an ongoing, warm and it has been translated into 14 languages. relationship was as crucial to the child’s survival Bowlby’s major conclusion, grounded in the and healthy development as the provision of food, available empirical evidence, was that to grow up child care, stimulation and discipline (Hinde, mentally healthy, “the infant and young child 1991; Rutter, 1995). should experience a warm, intimate and Bowlby also conceptualized a mental continuous relationship with his mother (or mechanism, an internal working model, whereby mother substitute) in which both find satisfaction early attachments came to influence later relation- and enjoyment” (1951, p.13). Bowlby also saw

8 2. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND: THE IMPORTANCE OF STABLE, LOVING CARE FOR YOUNG CHILDREN

ships. On the basis of the quality of relationships among these infants who had food, water, with caregivers, young children developed a set medicine, and other essential elements of care. of expectations about how people would behave He proposed that the absence of a close caring towards them and continued to respond in terms relationship led to the progressive signs of anaclitic of these expectations irrespective of the other depression and finally death. Spitz depicted his person’s actual behaviour. Bowlby went on to write observations of infant withdrawal, regression and a trilogy, Attachment (1969), Separation (1973) and deterioration in his powerful 1947 film, Grief: A Loss (1980). Together with the work of his early peril in infancy. The film widely publicized the collaborator, Mary Ainsworth, he established what debilitating effects on young children of separation is the pre-eminent contemporary account of the from caregivers and institutional care. development of personal competence, social The plight of orphaned children after the capacity, and child and adolescent behaviour Second World War created concern about the ill- problems. effects on personality development of prolonged institutional care or frequent changes of mother- figures during the early years of life. This led to a In looking back on…the 25 years since the great deal of clinical and empirical research, in first volume of his [Bowlby’s] trilogy on both the United States and Europe, on the attachment, it is obvious that the field has developmental significance of the infant’s changed out of all recognition. From the early relationships with others (Bowlby, 1982). years when he was criticized by academic Following Bowlby’s monograph, the psychologists and ostracized by the academic momentum in child mental health was maintained establishment, attachment concepts have in the WHO. Between 1953 and 1955, Ronald become generally accepted. That they have Hargreaves organized four meetings of the world’s become so, is a tribute to the creativity and leading scholars in fields having an impact on perceptiveness of Bowlby’s original formulation children’s development. The people who attended and to the major conceptual and methodo- these meetings included Jean Piaget, Margaret logical contributions of Ainsworth. Mead, John Bowlby, Erik Erikson, Julian Huxley, Rutter (1995, p.566) Bärbel Inhelder, Konrad Lorenz and Ludwig von Bertalanffy – all regarded today as classic figures in the social and psychological sciences. The WHO also funded English and French sound The effects of separation from a versions of James Robertson’s film on hospital- familiar caregiver on the health and ization and, in 1954, convened a Study Group on development of children the Child in Hospital. John Bowlby’s work did not take place in isolation. In 1962, in response to widespread criticism The studies he reviewed for the WHO went as far of Bowlby’s 1951 monograph, the WHO commis- back as the turn of the century. He incorporated sioned a second monograph edited by Mary into the review the accounts of infants less than 6 Ainsworth, Deprivation of maternal care: A months of age who had been institutionalized for reassessment of its effects. The follow-up 1962 some length of time. The outstanding features of monograph dealt with misinterpretations of these children were: listlessness, emaciation and Bowlby’s work (such as the assumed importance pallor, relative immobility, quietness, unrespon- of the biological mother as the primary caregiver), siveness to stimuli, an appearance of unhappiness, definitional problems (such as the effect of psycho- poor sucking response, indifferent appetite, failure logical versus physical separation from caregivers), to gain weight properly, frequent stools, poor the validity of generalizations (for example, from sleep, and proneness to febrile episodes (Bowlby, institutional environments to day care), and 1951). methodological problems in controlling for One of the major influences on Bowlby’s confounding effects in determining long-term thinking at the time that he undertook the consequences. The monograph concluded that commission for WHO was the work of René Spitz. separation experiences are only one factor in what Spitz described emotional development in the first are frequently complex and multi-determined year of life, and the emergence of what he called problems. It recommended greater specificity anaclitic depression in infants separated from their regarding the universality and enduring nature primary caregivers (Spitz, 1945; Spitz & Wolf, of maternal separation and deprivation effects, 1946). He identified the high level of mortality especially in relation to the development of what

9 THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN

Bowlby called an affectionless, psychopathic and methodology introduced by Mary Ainsworth. character. Ainsworth worked with Bowlby at the Tavistock Since that time, several reassessments have Clinic until 1953, when she accompanied her been made of the impact of “maternal deprivation” husband to Kampala. During her two years in in early childhood on long-term adjustment and Uganda, Ainsworth conducted her ground- social functioning (Rutter, 1962; 1972; 1980; breaking observational study of interactions 1995; Yarrow, 1961). Despite increasing differ- between 26 mothers and their babies between one entiation and conditionality of effects, Michael and twenty-four months of age. She observed the Rutter in 1995 concluded that the key features of dyads every two weeks for two hours in their Bowlby’s theory – particularly the importance of home environments over a period of nine months. early relationships for From these observations, Ainsworth developed later personal and social the sensitivity-responsivity theory of attachment, Evidence establishes the competence – were or the idea that children develop secure importance of early empirically supported, attachments with caregivers who are sensitive and relationships for later and that attachment was responsive to them. Ainsworth went to Baltimore personal and social the best supported theory from Uganda where she was able to test the cross- competence. of socio-emotional cultural validity of her observations amongst the development available. Baganda. There, with colleagues, she developed Much of the evidence the Strange Situation, a measurement tool for for attachment theory accumulated either directly studies of attachment (Ainsworth & Wittig, 1969). or indirectly as a result of the advances in theory

10 Chapter3 Advances in child development theory and research Perspectives from psychology, linguistics, neurobiology, and evolutionary theory

n understanding of how early interactions and started to learn a language, have begun to use Arelationships with caregivers can exert a abstract thought, have deep love for their strong effect on the survival and healthy develop- caregivers, and express empathy and moral ment of young children comes from recently awareness towards others’ pain. They would be refined theories and new empirical findings able to coordinate their actions with adults and describing children’s development. This chapter children in cooperative and joint enterprises, and reviews four areas of work: understand cultural conventions, such as saying hello. They would be able to share humour and • contemporary psychological theories of creativity with members of their family and their children’s development; growing circles of friends. • empirical findings regarding the perceptual However, it soon became clear that, regardless and learning capacities of infants; of the importance of learning mechanisms in early • recent advances in understanding the socialization, a behaviourist or drive-based view neurobiology of early experience; and of the child was not tenable. An adequate account • a phylogenetic perspective on the innate of children’s development needed to incorporate human capacities for new findings about babies. These included developing social and information on the neonates’ preparedness for cultural communication Early interactions and social interaction and their psychological or and cooperation. relationships with mental capacities, both of which enable them to caregivers exert a strong actively shape and synthesize their experiences. effect on the survival and Contemporary This preparedness gives them the capacity, from healthy development of psychological birth, to attend to some features in their young children. theories of how environment, such as the human face, and block children develop out unwanted stimulation through inattention. Freudian and behavioural theories of children’s It also became clear that child-caregiver effects development, dominant until the 1960s, assumed were bidirectional. Adults not only influence that the infant was passive and dependent on the children, but infants and young children exerted environment for stimulation. The theories held that the baby had a few specific instincts and drives, and a huge capacity for learning. Learning occurred largely through the reinforcement associated with drive reduction or the satisfaction of basic needs, as well as by the observation of others (Gewirtz, 1972; Gewirtz & Boyd, 1977; Maccoby & Martin, 1983). In essence, they thought that the infant associated pleasure resulting from feeding, as an example, with the presence of the caregiver. This basic connection enhanced the potency

of the caregiver for subsequent learning through LINDA RICHTER reinforcement and identification. That is, the presence of the caregiver became reinforcing. It A young baby turns to the sound of his mother’s was assumed that, through these mechanisms, voice in a demonstration to mothers of the toddlers around three years of age would have capacities of infants

11 THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN

considerable influence over the behaviour of “there is no such thing as an infant”. In these early others through the expression of their emotional relationships, the infant forms mental states and through their temperamental representations of the world, including a self- characteristics (Bell, 1974; 1979). concept, and these concepts and representations More complex models of children’s develop- determine the child’s later motivations and ment, necessitated by these gains in knowledge, interpretations of experiences (Waters et al., incorporated the concepts of feedback 1991). For this reason, loving, mutually mechanisms with homeostatic functions taken responsive early care is essential for the child to from control and cybernetic theory (Miller, develop into an emotionally secure and confident Galanter & Pribram, 1960). Neither caregivers nor individual. children behave in fixed Donald Winnicott (1965) described the ways without regard to caregiver’s role in the early relationship with the Neither caregivers the other’s behaviour. infants as “a stage of primary maternal pre- nor children behave in Instead, their interactions occupation”. This is a period of heightened aware- fixed ways without regard are mutually regulated in ness on the part of the caregiver to the state, to the other’s behaviour. a dynamic and adaptable emotional expressions and behaviours of the Their interactions are system (Bretherton, infant. This awareness enables the caregiver to mutually regulated in a 1994). adjust sensitively and responsively to the child’s dynamic and adaptable Several strands of needs. system. theory and research have Winnicott described how the infant “finds come together to form a himself reflected” in the absorbed adoration of complex contemporary the mother’s gaze. In this relationship, the understanding of children’s development in the caregiving creates a first three years of life, including the role that “holding” environment, personal exchanges with other people play in which comprises both Loving, mutually children’s development (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). physical protection and responsive early care is The strands include psychoanalytic theory, psychological contain- essential for the child to particularly the Object Relations Theory, the work ment or envelopment. develop into an of Lev Vygotsky and his followers, developmental Early relationships emotionally secure and psycholinguistics, and developmental psychology. mirror for the infant a confident individual. sense of being recog- If the infant is treated Psychoanalytic theory, particularly nized, understood and with love and kindness, he Object Relations Theory validated through the or she feels worthy of experience of warm and love, and becomes capable René Spitz, Melanie Klein, Donald Winnicott and empathic care. of feeling and expressing other early child psychoanalysts based their Further, the mental love and kindness theories on insightful observations of infants in state of the caregiver, towards others. relationships with other people. They postulated determined by her own that babies had an inborn sensitivity to the developmental history, emotions of others, and to the ongoing exerts an effect on the attitudes, emotions and interactions between themselves and their behaviours that she brings to child care. When caregivers. They believed that these interactions an adult watches a loved infant or toddler during were highly significant for the child’s healthy everyday life, there is a moment-by-moment psychological development, and that insensitive triggering of her own thoughts, feelings and care, neglect or abuse could distort or delay memories. These subjective experiences exert a development (Fraiberg & Fraiberg, 1980; Spitz, determining effect on caregiving behaviour. 1945; Spitz & Wolf, 1946). In their relationships Many of these psychoanalytic concepts are with others, infants develop a sense of self that is dealt with in more detail in Chapter 4. akin to a mirror image of their experience with the caregiver. If the infant is treated with love and Lev Vygotsky and social mediation kindness, he or she feels worthy of love, and becomes capable of feeling and expressing love Jean Piaget’s theory depicted the cognitive growth and kindness towards others. of a child as occurring largely as a result of the It is in this sense that Winnicott (1965) child’s maturation. The Russian psychologist, Lev observed that, without the mother’s contribution, Vygotsky, challenged this notion. Instead,

12 3. ADVANCES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT THEORY AND RESEARCH

Vygotsky asserted, as did George Mead, that that are sensitive to the child’s cognitive mental processes have social origins (Feinman, functioning – complementing and extending the 1991; Wertsch & Tulviste, 1992). According to child’s capacity – are essential for the child’s Vygotsky’s theory of cultural development: cognitive development and acquisition of cultural meaning (Rogoff & Wertsch, 1984). When “Any function in the child’s cultural caregivers successfully instruct young children, development appears twice, or on two planes. they do so by providing a scaffold consisting of First it appears on the social plane, and then linguistic and situational props, contingent on the on the psychological plane. First it appears child’s efforts and errors. The caregiver might between people as an interpsychological move an object closer, point to something, or category, and then within the child as an name an action to assist the child to overcome an intrapsychological category. This is equally true obstacle in the way of achieving a particular goal with regard to voluntary attention, logical (Feinman, 1991; Wood, 1980). memory, the formation of concepts, and the development of volition…It goes without saying that the internalization transforms the Developmental psycholinguistics process itself and changes its structure and Enormous advances were made in developmental functions. Social relations or relationships psycholinguistics when knowledge about the among people genetically1 underlie all higher pragmatics of communication, how people try to functions and their relationships” (Vygotsky, influence others with words and communicative 1981, p.163). gestures, was applied to In this view, an individual’s functioning derives pre-speech communi- from the internalization and mastery of social cation between infants Long before the child is processes, that is, from the internalization of what and their caregivers able to speak, the occurs between people. With respect to young (Austin, 1962). By this caregiver attributes children, Vygotsky argued that there exists a “zone view of communication, meaning to the utterances, of proximal development”, a potential level of the infant’s growing use gestures and actions of the cognitive functioning, which the child can achieve of language requires first infant, and responds with the guidance and collaboration of a more that the infant become accordingly. experienced, perceptive and responsive adult. competent at influencing This idea has a lot in common with Werner & their caregivers through Kaplan’s theory of symbol formation (1963), the communication of his or her emotional and whereby the child is able to acquire complex motivational states (Bruner, 1975). concepts on the basis of the “primordial sharing Caregiver-child interaction during the first few situation”. This sharing situation is a meeting months of the child’s life – the reciprocal and turn- point between the child’s developing capacities taking interchange of looks, expressions and and the symbolic medium provided by a caregiver. vocalizations – is a proto-dialogue or preverbal The caregiver mediates the child’s experience of conversation (Bretherton & Bates, 1979; Stern, the world by structuring it and giving it cultural 1977). Caregiver and child alternate “utterances”, meaning. The adult vocalizations, gestures and facial expressions in points out and explains what are called proto-conversations (Stevenson objects and events. In et al., 1986). Caregivers attribute meaning to the The caregiver simplifies this way, the adult utterances, gestures and actions of infants and and personalizes the simplifies and person- respond according to inferred meanings and the child’s experience so that alizes the child’s experi- baby’s intentions. The caregiver might ask if the it occurs in a form that ence so that it occurs in a baby is tired when she observes the child’ the child, at her current form that the child, at her becoming fretful, and she might try to settle the level of development, is current level of child to sleep. able to use. The caregiver development, is able to This early interaction predisposes the child to complements and extends use. language acquisition by sensitizing the infant to a the child’s capacity. Interactions between sound system, to the referential requirements of caregivers and children speech or what is being talked about, and to communication objectives such as getting the other person to understand what one wants 1 Genetically means developmentally in this context. (Bruner & Sherwood, 1983). Prelinguistic

13 THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN

communication first fulfils these functions in the developmental laboratories (Beckwith, 1972; Fish, interactions between caregivers and infants. Stifter & Belsky, 1993; Hinde, 1976; Maccoby & According to Halliday (1975), in these interactions Martin, 1983; Murray, 1991; Schaffer, 1977; the child learns how to convey meanings to others Trevarthen, 1977). long before she speaks. Although the precursors To a large degree, these advances in obser- to language are extremely complex, in these ways vations were dependent on technological early social interactions play a central role in advances, including improvements in videotaping, language development (Bruner, 1983; Nelson, psycho-physiologic measurement, and the 1973). creation of behavioural taxonomic systems (Miller, The preceding three strains of theory and Hollingsworth & Sander, 1985). Small sections research, (object relations, social mediation, and of videotape of the face-to-face interactions psycholinguistics) indicate the importance of early between non-clinical samples of mothers and their interactions to emotional, social, cognitive and babies were subjected to micro-analysis. The language development. In each theoretical area, analysis followed coding schemes that are sensitive the mechanisms are assumed to be universal, for capturing complex interactive processes although specific manifestations may vary with (Sawin, Langlois, & Leitner, 1977; Stern, 1974). different cultural and situational circumstances. In some studies, these filmed observations were What follows is an outline of findings since the paired with measurements of infant heart rate, 1970s regarding the development of infants and respiration and brain electrical activity. young children in interaction with their intimate A variety of rating scales were developed, caregivers. suitable for different ages and with differential emphasis on language and/or socio-emotional Developmental psychology communication. New coding systems also described aspects of the interaction between adult In the early 1970s, there were dramatic changes and child, such as reciprocity and sensitivity. in studies of infants. One of these changes Reliability and validity studies have confirmed the occurred in observations of both naturalistic and usefulness of these measures for research and contrived interactions between infants and their clinical purposes, as well as the associations familiar caregivers, both at home and in between the constructs they measure and child outcomes (Baird et al., 1992; Bakeman & Brown, 1977; Fogel & Thelen, 1987; Moustakas, Sigel, An approach to observing and recording & Sachalock, 1956; Price, 1983; Siebert, Hogan caregiver-infant interactions in a & Mundy, 1982). naturalistic setting A remarkable reciprocity and mutuality is seen as early as 4-6 weeks of age in these interactions 1. An observer might watch a caregiver and between infants and their caregivers. This child in their home environment, in a care mutuality is expressed in cyclical bouts of centre or in some other everyday setting. emotional expressiveness, eye contact, facial The dyad may be engaged in routine activity, configuration, gesture, postural orientation, and such as feeding, bathing, changing or vocalization (Cohn & Tronick, 1988). Caregiver playing. and infant engage in rounds of smiling and 2. The observer will make the caregiver and looking at one another and alternating their child comfortable and will try to be unob- communicative signals in a dialogue. The infant trusive so that the couple’s behaviour is as responds to the expressions of the caregiver and natural as possible. the caregiver appears to mirror and interpret the ill-formed acts of the baby through her attunement 3. The observer may make continuous obser- to the infant’s apparent “state of mind” vations, or record behaviours sampled on (Trevarthen, 1980). Caregivers speak in finely the basis of time (for example, every 30 modulated and repetitive “baby talk”. The adult’s seconds) or on the basis of events (for talk is: example, caregiver vocalization). “…synchronized with large smooth and 4. Recordings are made using pen and paper undulating movements of her head and on checklists or rating scales, or using hand- face…She may touch her infant’s hands, face held events recorders of a variety of kinds. or body in time with her speech. Her voice is

14 3. ADVANCES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT THEORY AND RESEARCH

Observing and recording caregiver-infant interactions: An experimental procedure 1. In an environment with few distractions, the infant is placed securely in a high chair opposite the caregiver, at a distance of 1 to 2 feet from, and at the same height as, the caregiver’s face. 2. The caregiver is asked to interact with the baby, “as she does at home”. Sometimes she is given specific instructions such as “try and make your baby smile”, or other specific instructions to elicit particular interactions. 3. The “still face” condition involves asking the caregiver to become motionless and to look expressionlessly at the baby, or slightly away from the baby, until told to stop. 4. Each interactional condition is recorded for a short time, approximately 3 minutes. Efforts are made to achieve optimal face-to-face interaction, uninterrupted by fretfulness and crying. 5. The interactions are videotaped in one of two ways to produce a simultaneous view of both caregiver and infant: a. Cameras on tripods are placed behind the caregiver and the child, and the output from both cameras are electronically mixed to appear together on a single screen; or b. A large mirror is placed behind the baby, at a slight angle, so that a single camera behind

the caregiver is able to capture both the AND PETER COOPER LYNNE MURRAY caregiver and the infant in a single image. A filming technique: using a mirror to see the 6. The videotapes are logged, watched several faces of the mother and child simultaneously times and then subjected to either narrative description, molar coding of interactional sequences, or sequential micro coding of interactions of very short duration (frame-by-frame or up to 2–5 seconds in duration). 7. Several software applications are available to render either qualitative or quantitative coded data, and to provide for inter- and intra-observer reliability assessments and further analysis. Statistical procedures used include lag sequential analysis, which calculates the probability of an individual’s actions in relation to preceding events, such as the actions of a partner.

coaxing, questioning or appreciative and respond to babies in encouraging. What she says indicates that her feedback loops, initiated Caregiver and infant infant is aware of her; she is trying to and adjusted in response engage in rounds of understand what her infant feels…The vocal to the infant’s ongoing smiling, looking at one contours of her baby talk define emotions that behaviour. The highly another and alternating are simultaneously conveyed in head nodding discriminating response their communicative and turning, and movements of eyebrows and of infants to people, in signals in a dialogue. lips” (Trevarthen, 1987b, p.43). comparison to objects, led Colwyn Trevarthen to Newborns distinguish humans from objects, and propose intersubjectivity as an innate pattern of behave in fundamentally different ways towards communication in human beings (1979; 1980). them. Newborns meet objects with rapt attention, Caregiver-child interactions are also viewed as fixed gaze, and reaching and grasping movements. the crucible for moral development through In contrast, they respond to persons with expansion of the child’s sensitivity to the emotional communicative behaviour and animated gestures states of others, and through internalisation of (Brazelton & Tronick, 1980; Mundy-Castle, 1980; experiences of empathic care by a loving adult Tarabulsy, Tessier & Kappas, 1996). (Emde, 1990; Sagi & Hoffman, 1976; Simner, A key difference between objects and persons 1971; Zahn-Waxler & Radke-Yarrow, 1990; Zhou is their contingency, or the specificity of the et al., 2002). Helping, sharing and cooperative response to the infant’s behaviours. People

15 THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN

behaviours emerge in the caregiver-child relation- states in others and to be expressive in reciprocal ship in the second year and build on the ways. In a complementary fashion, caregivers of reciprocity and turn taking established at the start all ages, respond to babies in the same supportive of the caregiver-child ways, raising the possibility of corresponding relationship (Hay, 1979; intrinsic systems in human caregivers to interact People respond to babies Zahn-Waxler et al., with infants (Trevarthen, 1987b). in feedback loops, 1992). Although caregivers and infants spend only a initiated and adjusted in Experiments that small fraction of each day in the kind of intense response to the infant’s disrupt or distort care- interaction elicited in observational studies – ongoing behaviour. giver-child interaction usually during care produce dismay and routines of bathing, distress in both the dressing and feeding – caregiver and the infant. One such experimental even brief interactions are Infants have intrinsic perturbation involves asking the caregiver to stop nonetheless regarded as abilities to recognize talking and to look at her child in an highly emblematic of the emotional states in others expressionless way, called the “still face” condition quality of the early and to be expressive in (Cohn & Tronick, 1989; Field, 1977; Tronick et relationship between reciprocal ways. al., 1978). Another, using closed circuit video caregiver and child. technology, has the child or the caregiver interact with relayed filmed images of their partner from Empirical findings regarding the a previous session, producing an unsynchronised perceptual and learning capacities and non-contingent interaction that resists repair of infants and adaptation. Under these conditions, when the infant’s expectations for rhythmic, reciprocal interaction A major form of mythology about infancy has are violated, she becomes visibly concerned. The been that the infant, especially during the infant’s movements become jerky and neonatal period, is an incomplete, relatively uncoordinated, and she attempts to draw the incompetent and inadequate organism; and caregiver into interaction. When repeated that by a series of linear progressions, the attempts to do so fail, the infant withdraws, averts infant becomes a complex, competent, and her face, and shows signs of distress such as self- complete organism – as an adult. Such a view stimulation, yawning and sleepiness, and is a logical and emotional heritage of the fretfulness. The infant is initially puzzled when supposedly discarded notion that the infant is the caregiver resumes their regular interactional a miniature adult with a tabula rasa, helpless style, but the partners soon pick up their and passive, dependent on an imprint from the interactional tempo (Brazelton et al., 1975). mature caretaker who provides a model for Behaviour during perturbation experiments imitation and a stimulus for learning adult indicates that infants only a few months old are modes of thinking and behaving. extremely sensitive to the caregiver’s responsiveness, and that babies expect a particular kind Thoman (1979, p.446) of contingent human interaction. In these short exchanges, infants behave in ways that are In the 1960s a revolution occurred largely in the reminiscent of the behaviour of the toddler in understanding of infant perception. The James Robertson’s film, passing through phases revolution was largely as a result of innovative of distress, despair and detachment. While these experiments in which infants were not only brief experimental demonstrations are quickly presented with stimuli to elicit their responses as repaired, they illustrate the likely response of in the past, but were also given opportunities, infants to repeated or enduring experiences of through mechanical and electronic devices, to these kinds. These disturbances probably play a express recognition, preferences and curiosity, and part in the development of insecure attachments to change the way stimuli occurred (Thoman & and in the response of infants and small children Freese, 1982). Sucking and suppression, head to depressed caregivers. turning and gaze avoidance, and movements of Several experts in the field have interpreted the the infant’s limbs are measured in response to perturbation experiments as indicating that infants novel and habituated stimuli to gauge the infant’s have intrinsic abilities to recognize emotional motivational state, recognition and memory, and

16 3. ADVANCES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT THEORY AND RESEARCH

learning capacities. The literature in this field is parts as equivalent to vast. Below is a brief summary of this work, those of the people they The imitation of extracted largely from the overview compiled by see and a capacity for human actions is the first Colwyn Trevarthen and his colleagues in 1981. coordination between bridge between the infant Many movements of the newborn are well their vision and motor and others. It serves dual developed, and show rapid refinement during the action (Abranavel & functions: differentiating early postnatal weeks and months. For example, Sigafoos, 1984). Meltzoff ”others” and providing neonates engage in what is called “prereaching” and others argue that the an early means of movements, spontaneously and with approximate imitation of human communication with aim to nearby and attractive objects to which they actions is the first bridge them. have been alerted through visual, auditory or between the infant and tactile means. When infants are less than a month others, and that imitation old, they reach with hands open and closed, flex serves the dual functions of differentiating ”others” their wrist, adjust their posture and coordinate and providing an early means of communication their gaze. with them. Even more remarkable than neonatal imitation, Condon & Sander (1974) used time lapsed photography and frame-by-frame analyses of films of mothers and babies interacting to show that the infant’s movements match the rhythms of the adult’s voice in a kind of “entrainment”. The perception of infants is selective from birth, allowing them to filter some features of the

A.N. MEL A.N. environment for attention and to shut out others.

TZOFF AND M.K. MOORE M.K. AND TZOFF They orient specifically to complex visual stimuli, especially face-like config- urations, and they react with attention to the eyes of a person speaking to them. Infants less than an Studies of neonates have shown that they can imitate a variety hour old look in the of mouth movements direction of the voice of a person who is not visible Newborns make a variety of face movements, to them and to a loudspeaker emitting a soft call some of which, through the analysis of or saying “baby”. Changes in their heart rate and photographs and using facial coding systems respiration show that newborns and infants (Ekman, Friese & Ellsworth, 1972), show good distinguish and prefer speech sounds over the correspondence with expressions of happiness, sounds made by non-human objects. sadness, fear, worry, anger and discomfort. Apart The results of these experiments provide strong from smiles, neonates show forms of speech- evidence for an extraordinary sensitivity in shaped mouth movements called “pre-speech”. newborns and young infants to the commu- Infants as young as 2 or 3 weeks of age imitate nicative output of other human beings, and the face and mouth movements, including opening operation of inherent brain processes in the baby the mouth and protruding the tongue (Meltzoff that distinguish human from non-human events. & Moore, 1977). These findings suggest that the range of Neonatal imitation indicates the infant’s immaturities and precocities of infants is matched rudimentary mental representation of their body by a range of supportive behaviours provided by

17 THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN

Children’s facial expressions of emotional states JACQUELINE CIDÉRAC

intimate caregivers. They also suggest that the ment to supportive experiences with people; the infant requires matching forms of responsiveness dependence of the developing brain on social and by caregivers for its biological and mental devel- emotional inputs for the establishment and opment (Trevarthen, Murray & Hubley, 1981). retention of synaptic connections; and the Colwyn Trevarthen argues that emotions “conditioning” of the brain by experiences in the regulate interpersonal life. He is critical of those nurturing relationship with caregivers, especially who think that the emotional responses of infants with regard to stress-reactivity. and their reactions to the emotions of others are The infant’s brain has been described as being undifferentiated. In support of his argument, he both experience-expectant and experience- quotes Charles Darwin’s careful observations of dependent. New synaptic connections and the his four and a half month-old son: “An infant maintenance of existing connections occur in understands to a certain extent, and as I believe response to experiences (Als, 1977; Greenough at a very early period, the meaning or feelings of & Black, 1992; Scarr, 1993; Wachs, 1992). That those who tend him, by the expression of their is, infants’ neurological anatomy and physiology features” (Trevarthen, Murray & Hubley, 1981, depend for their development and differentiation, p.240). according to an evolving timetable, on meaningful forms of sensory and motor stimulation from Recent advances in understanding caregivers. This stimulation includes the kind of the neurobiology of early experience patterned activation that occurs during affective interactions with responsive caregivers. Recent evidence suggests that children’s neuro- As examples of evidence for these claims, logical development occurs in response to, and Greenough and Black (1992) found that dendritic with an impact on, social and interpersonal growth in rat pups is dependent on particular processes (Gottlieb, 1976; Nelson & Bloom, forms of tactile and emotional stimulation during 1997). Three findings in the emerging neuro- nursing. In human infants, interpersonal science of child development have relevance for encounters involving mutual gaze start to peak at this paper: the special sensitivity of brain develop- about 2 months of age. They are associated with dramatic metabolic changes in the primary visual cortex, during which the infant’s visual Effects of a secure attachment experiences modify synaptic connections in the relationship on right brain development occipital cortex (Katz, 1999). High-energy growth-spurts in the brain during early childhood …I have offered data that suggest that the are embedded in, and are regulated by, the inceptive stages of development represent a emotional interchanges between infants and their maturational period of specifically the early caregivers (Siegel, 2001). Siegel argues that there maturing right brain, which is dominant in the is a great deal of agreement across a number of first three years of human life. The right brain fields of research in different disciplines, in both is centrally involved in not only processing animal and human studies, pointing to the social-emotional information, facilitating attach- cardinal importance of emotional communication ment functions, and regulating bodily and to the development of the brain (2001, p. 71). affective states, but also in the control of vital These early brain developments can be halted functions supporting survival and enabling the or distorted by an absence of experience- organism to cope actively and passively with dependent neurochemical cues when expected stress. experiences do not occur, as in an emotionally Schore (2001a, p.10) deficient caregiving environment. They can also be damaged by cues that are abnormal, as might

18 3. ADVANCES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT THEORY AND RESEARCH

occur in maltreatment. In the latter case, brain Phylogenetic perspectives on human development is affected by the presence of high capacities for social and cultural quantities of the hormone cortisol produced by communication and cooperation the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal-cortical Advances in all the areas covered in the preceding system during long chapters suggest that there is a strong evolutionary periods of stress (Perry component to early child development and to the Emotional communication et al., 1995; Schore, conditions under which human infants receive is of cardinal importance in 2001a). care (Bjorklund & Pellegrini, 2000; Harlow & the development of the In rat studies, early Harlow, 1962, 1969). In recognition of this, brain. Early development experiences in mother- Bowlby’s original formulation of Attachment can be halted or distorted pup interactions have Theory was in terms of a phylogenetically by an emotionally deficient been found to perma- determined system, involving both infant and caregiving environment or nently alter the stress- caregiver, to ensure the protection of the infant by cues that are abnormal, reactivity of the rat (Bowlby, 1977). However, evolutionary para- as might occur in pup’s brain. Removing meters are more complex than implied by maltreatment. the mother from her simplistic models of bonding between mother and pups for regular periods baby immediately after birth, such as one based each day disrupts the on imprinting shown by birds (Kennell & Klaus, mother’s nurturant behaviour. This produces long- 1983; Klaus & Kennell, 1976; Herbert, Sluckin term changes in the stress-reactive hormonal and & Sluckin, 1982; Myers, 1984). behavioural responses in her pups. In contrast, handling and tactile stimulation associated with comforting experiences, which the mother rat Most early developments are species-typical, provides to the pup, induce permanent universal responses of human infants and modifications in stress hormones in the young children to widely varying but functionally hypothalamus (Schore, 2001a). Rat pups exposed equivalent, culturally sanctioned, environmental to these supportive rearing conditions are less opportunities to acquire species-normal anxious and fearful and less stress-reactive in later behaviour. life. Scarr (1993, p.1341) If the results of these animal studies can be extrapolated to human infants, and many people working in this field think the findings are Bischof-Kohler (1991) and others argue that as relevant, it has to be concluded that the emotional hunting required cooperation, socio-cognitive and social qualities of early experiences are skills, particularly empathy, played an important significant because they have permanent effects role in developing particularly human on the child’s brain. The effects occur either characteristics. Interpersonal understanding gives through experiences that fulfil or don’t fulfil the us the capacity to detect the intentions of other experience- and use-dependent development of people and to act in ways that complement what the brain and its neuronal they are doing. This form of social cognition is connections, or by discernible in infants at about one year of age and The emotional and social conditioning the brain to is expressed in the infant’s interaction with qualities of early respond to environmental caregivers in interactional activities involving gaze experiences are conditions, especially following, social referencing and vocal and significant: they have stress, in ways that gestural communication (Tomasello, 1999; 2001). permanent effects on the strongly program later Many of the early expressed capacities of child’s brain. behavioural responses. neonates and infants are considered to emerge High stress-reactivity from the organization of the functions of the brain, causes cognitive disrup- pre-set for the development of human interaction tion and high levels of emotionality, which (Papou˘sek & Papou˘sek, 1981). These include interfere with intellectual and social functioning alertness and receptivity to the human face and (Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000). voice (de Chateau, 1980; Haith, 1981), and the propensities to engage in eye contact with other people and to be soothed by human holding and motion (Lewis & Ramsay, 1999). In addition, sensory and response systems are mutually

19 THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN

organized in relatively complex patterns that Caregiver-child interactions seem to be species- enable the infant to apprehend the actions of other wide in that they occur, in one form or another, people and to behave in ways that are recognizable in all cultures (Papou˘sek & Papou˘sek, 1979; by others as attempts at interaction and commu- Papou˘sek, 2000; Rosenblatt, 1989). These nication (Graves, 1989). behaviours include recognition of infant signals The newborn and such as cries (Formby, 1967), ways of holding and Sensory and response young infant also have a rocking babies to calm them, imitation of the systems are mutually capacity to protect them- infant’s facial and vocal expressions, and the organized. They enable selves from sensory over- special speech register used in interactions with the infant to grasp the load by either attending to infants, called “baby talk” (Fernald, 1992). The meaning of the actions stimuli with narrowly Papou˘seks (1981) call these features intuitive of other people and to determined properties, parenting. Numerous studies show that being with behave in ways that such as the human face, or infants evokes systematic adjustments in adult others recognize as by avoiding unwanted behaviour and speech (Stern et al., 1977; Tronick, attempts at interaction stimuli (Graves, 1989). 1979). The infant’s unfolding interpersonal and communication. Shortly after birth, this is capacities stimulate “a particular diet or syllabus a passive barrier to stimuli, of supportive and instructive behaviours from created by mechanisms caretakers” (Trevarthen, 1987b, p.37). Behaviours such as non-nutritive sucking and withdrawal. For not adapted to infants in these ways are met by example, Brazelton (1974) found that neonates inattention and distress. exposed to a repeated disturbing bright light Even young children and older men adopt showed cardiac, respiratory and electro- infant-directed speech when they talk to infants encephalographic responses similar to sleep. On (Snow & Ferguson, 1977). Baby talk is slower, continued exposure, the bright light led to the with higher pitch and specific pitch contours, and infant awakening from this induced state of it is adjusted for intelligibility. Vocalisations to babies are very short, consisting of fewer than five morphemes1 per utterance, with utterance durations of about 6 seconds. Baby talk is slow, simple and melodic. Adult utterances to babies occur in rhythmical bursts that include intonation. These recurring patterns, or envelopes, inserted

into the flow of the caregiver’s behaviour assist ANTHONY DE CASPER DE ANTHONY

This study uses the sucking response to assess the infant’s response to sounds

withdrawal, to scream and thrash. Non-nutritive sucking relaxes large muscle groups and reduces gut movements, as well as eye movements, in

WHO/CAH response to intrusive visual stimulation, thus assuring a moderate level of arousal (Kessen & Mothers frequently imitate their children’s Leutzendorff, 1963). As the infant develops, this expressions and behaviours to build the physiological regulation is supplemented by the communication between them nurturing ministrations of a sensitive caregiver, and eventually by self-regulatory mechanisms. By the same token, parents also seem to be prepared for interactions with young children, as 1 A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit in the many of their behaviours with neonates and young grammar of a language. For example, “baby” is a infants are performed without consciousness. morpheme consisting of two syllables.

20 3. ADVANCES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT THEORY AND RESEARCH

language development Across many dimensions because they enable the of child and caregiver infant to isolate and behaviour, unique recognize what will adaptations in the become meaningful units behavioural systems of of information (Stern, both people prepare them Spieker & MacKain, for a relationship on 1982). which the infant is Across many dimen- dependent for her sions of child and development. caregiver behaviour, unique adaptations in the behavioural systems of both people prepare them for a relationship on which the infant is dependent for her development (Melson, Fogel & Mistry, 1986).

WHO/CAH

Children can learn from adults through imitation

21 Chapter4 The nature of caregiver-child relationships Attachment, development and cultural adaptation

Attachment theory after a separation. Striking individual differences are apparent in the way that attachment he most influential current account of behaviours are organized together and directed caregiver-child relationships and their effect T towards an attachment figure.1 on children’s development and outcomes is On the basis of the Baltimore study, Ainsworth attachment theory. John Bowlby (1958; 1969) first inferred the existence of an underlying security- described parent-infant attachment as a system insecurity dimension to the quality of the to ensure the caregiver and child’s proximity to attachment relationship. With colleagues, she one another for the infant’s protection. Infants designed a procedure, the Strange Situation, to have innate signalling capacities, such as crying, assess the security-insecurity of the attachment that bring and keep the caregiver close; and relationship (Ainsworth & Bell, 1970; Richters, caregivers respond to these signals with greater Waters & Vaughan, 1988). Other methods to or lesser urgency. Three criteria of an attachment assess the quality of attachment relationships relationship are that the child wants to be with include naturalistic observations of exploration, the attachment figure, especially when she is separation and reunion episodes between young under stress; that the child derives comfort from children and their caregivers. the attachment figure; and that the child protests Ainsworth described four main overlapping when the attachment figure phases in the development of attachment during is not available. the first year of life (1964; 1985): In an attachment Several major modifi- relationship, the child: cations of Bowlby’s original Birth: The infant shows undiscriminating ■ wants to be with the ethological-evolutionary responsiveness to people through signalling. attachment figure, theory have been under- especially when under taken, mainly by Mary 8–12 weeks: The infant shows differential stress; Ainsworth and her students responsiveness to the mother-caregiver, with ■ derives comfort from (Ainsworth, 1979; Waters et continuing responsiveness to other people. the attachment figure; al., 1991). In 1964, Mary 6–7 months: The infant shows sharply defined and Ainsworth conducted attachment to mother, with a striking decline ■ protests when the longitudinal naturalistic in friendliness to others. Protest at the mother’s attachment figure is observations of 28 Baganda departure is more consistent. Ainsworth inter- not available. babies between 2 and 15 preted this as indicating that the infant had months of age. She formed a mental representation of the mother. described a number of Exploratory behaviour, the counterpart of behaviour patterns which, taken together, serve attachment, takes place from the secure base as criteria for judging whether an attachment has provided by the attachment figure. been formed. In a follow-up study, conducted in 12–14 months: The infant begins to show Baltimore a few years later amongst middle-class developing attachments to figures other than American babies, she described these attachment the primary caregiver. behaviours in detail (Ainsworth, Bell & Stayton, 1972a and b). Attachment behaviours include: Attachment and exploratory behaviour exist in crying, smiling and vocalization differentially balance. Securely attached infants use the care- towards the caregiver; orientation and attention towards the caregiver; following the caregiver; 1 The attachment figure need not be the natural clambering over and exploration of the caregiver; mother, but can be anyone who plays the role of and happiness when reunited with the caregiver principal caregiver (Ainsworth, 1979).

22 4. THE NATURE OF CAREGIVER-CHILD RELATIONSHIPS: ATTACHMENT, DEVELOPMENT AND CULTURAL ADAPTATION

The Strange Situation: Assessing the caregiver-infant attachment relationship (Ainsworth et al., 1978) This procedure is used to assess the security of the caregiver-infant attachment relationship primarily through the infant’s reactions toward the mother during a series of brief controlled separations and reunions when the infant is between 9 and 12 months of age. The strange situation consists of eight episodes that each (with the exception of the first) last approximately 3 minutes. Through the episodes the infant is exposed to increasingly stressful events that culminate in the highest stress episode during which the child is left alone. The procedure begins with the introduction of the caregiver and infant to an unfamiliar room (Episode 1). They are left alone for a few minutes (Episode 2), and then joined by an unfamiliar female stranger (Episode 3). The caregiver leaves the room and the stranger stays with the baby (Episode 4). The caregiver returns and the stranger leaves the caregiver and infant alone (Episode 5). Once the baby has satisfactorily recovered from the first separation, the caregiver again leaves the room, and the child is completely alone (Episode 6). After 3 minutes (or less if the infant becomes too distressed), the stranger returns (Episode 7), and later the caregiver comes back. The stranger leaves and the caregiver and baby are together again (Episode 8). Both adults, the caregiver and the stranger, are instructed to respond to the infant as they would normally but to avoid initiating interaction with the child unless intervention is clearly necessary (e.g., the baby is distressed). The scoring is done on two levels. One level identifies and rates, on 7-point scales, the occurrence of specific categories of infant behaviours, such as proximity-seeking, contact-seeking, resistance etc. At the second level, the child’s behaviour is classified as secure, insecure-avoidant or insecure-resistant. Goldsmith & Alansky (1987, p.805)

giver as a secure base from which to explore. They picked up. However, they do not want to be held will experiment in an unfamiliar environment and for long and, as soon as they are put down, they with unfamiliar objects while the attachment move off to play happily. When the attachment figure is present. They move freely away from her, figure is absent, there is little exploration and but keep track of her whereabouts with an heightened attachment is occasional glance back at her. They move back to expressed in calling and the caregiver to make brief contact with her from looking for the attachment Securely attached time to time, and they respond positively when figure (Ainsworth, Bell & children have an Stayton, 1974; Waters & internal representation Cummings, 2000). of the caregiver as Bowlby proposed the stable, responsive and development of an internal caring. Insecurely working model, a mental attached children – representation of the attach- insecure-anxious and ment relationship and insecure-avoidant – eventually of the self, as the have representations of mechanism by which attach- the caregiver as ments became stable and by inconsistent and which they exert an rejecting, respectively. influence on the child’s

LINDA RICHTER LINDA future behaviour and relationships with other people (Bretherton, 1987b; Stern, 1985). Securely attached children have an internal representation of the caregiver as stable, responsive and caring. In contrast, the Securely attached infants explore objects in the two categories of insecurely attached children – safety of the mother’s presence insecure-anxious and insecure-avoidant – have

23 THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN

representations of the caregiver as inconsistent and rejecting, respectively. Attachment classifications Mary Main and her colleagues have described a fourth attachment classification, disorganized- 1. Secure Infants use the mother effectively disoriented attachment, based on representations as a base for exploration. They may or may of disturbed and/or hostile interactions with the not be distressed at the caregiver’s depar- caregiver (Main & Solomon, 1986). Attachment ture, but greet the caregiver positively between a child and a caregiver develop even in when she returns, seek contact if dis- the face of mistreatment and fear, but these tressed, and use the contact to settle and attachments are called return to play and exploration. insecure (Rutter, 1979). About 55% of infants are classified as se- Insecure attachments Insecure attachments have cure. relate strongly to later been found to have a strong 2. Insecure-avoidant Infants seem to be social inadequacy and link to later social preoccupied with exploration though aware psychopathology. inadequacy and psycho- of the caregiver. They are unlikely to be Secure attachments pathology, while secure distressed by caregiver departure, they generally predict attachments generally may be friendlier to the stranger than to social and behavioural predict later social and the caregiver, and they conspicuously ig- competence. behavioural competence nore or avoid the caregiver on her return. (Ainsworth, 1985a; Sroufe, 1988). About 20% of infants are classified as There is a great deal of evidence to support the insecure-avoidant. substance of attachment theory, in particular for 3. Insecure-ambivalent, anxious or the stability of attachment classifications resistant These babies are reluctant to (Weinfield, Strouf & Egeland, 2000; Waters et al., leave the caregiver to explore and may be 2000); for the proposition that sensitive and fretful even before her departure. They are responsive caregiving leads to secure attachments; extremely distressed by her departure, but and for the association between attachment greet her return with a mixture of contact- classification in the first year seeking and rejection (resistance to com- and later peer relations and fort or contact). They seem unable to settle The relationship social adjustment. and return to play, and may be either between the caregiver’s Many individual studies angry at the caregiver or extremely pas- sensitivity- and several meta-analyses sive. responsiveness and the have validated the child’s attachment responsiveness/sensitivity About 15% of infants are classified as anx- classification has been hypothesis (Bates, Maslin & ious. found in different Frankel, 1985; De Wolff & 4. Disorganised-disoriented Infants appear cultural settings, van Ijzendoorn, 1997; disoriented during interactions, sometimes under both normal and Goldsmith & Alansky, 1987; appearing to be secure, sometimes avoid- stressful conditions. Isabella & Belsky, 1991; ant and sometimes anxious. On reunion, Lamb, 1977). For example, infants may act anxiously, avoidant or in a a longitudinal study of more disoriented way. Disorganised attachments than a thousand families from 10 sites around the are associated with threatening, frighten- USA found that sensitive and responsive ing or dissociated caregiving. caregiving, as well as language stimulation, are positively related to early cognitive and language Up to 8% of infants are classified as disor- development (Allhusen et al., 2001; Brooks-Gunn, ganized-disoriented. Han, & Waldfogel, 2002). Egeland and Farber (1984) followed 267 families from birth and confirmed, in a two-year study, that responsive- both normal and stressful conditions. Posada et sensitive caregiving styles are associated with al. (1999) examined the responsiveness secure and insecure attachment classifications. hypothesis in home and hospital observations of The relationship between sensitivity/ children from very poor families in Bogotá. They responsivity and attachment classification has also found that securely attached infants had caregivers been found in other cultural settings and under who were rated highly on animation and cheerful

24 4. THE NATURE OF CAREGIVER-CHILD RELATIONSHIPS: ATTACHMENT, DEVELOPMENT AND CULTURAL ADAPTATION

mood. These caregivers talked positively about emotional invest- their children, engaged playfully with them, and ment in the child. The infant and caregiver didn’t scold their children in angry or resentful This unique form a biologically-based system. tones. match is funda- The infant has active sensory and Attachment theory has been found to be mental to the information-seeking abilities, predictive of later social competence and engagement and which are matched by the adjustment. Secure children are more learning that takes responsiveness of adult autonomous, less dependent, more able to place during the caregivers. regulate their own negative emotions, less likely first few years of to have behaviour problems, and more able to the infant’s life. form close, warm relationships with peers (Lamb, 1987a; Lieberman, 1977; Rothbaum et al.; 2000; van Ijzendoorn & Sagi, 1999). In contrast, a Newborn infants are quite ignorant regarding greater proportion of insecure children have the workings of the society into which they are behavioural problems, difficulties interacting with born. By age three, however, children are peers and poor problem-solving capacity and low socialized participants in their culture. self-esteem (Field, 1987a). Rogoff, Malkin & Gilbride (1984, p.31) Although the basic tenets of attachment theory are widely accepted, criticism has been levelled Apart from developments in perceptual, motor at attachment theory and research as a narrow and cognitive capacities, most of which are now portrayal of the child’s interpersonal world (Stacey, fairly well known, there are specific developments 1980) and as insufficiently taking into account during the child’s first three years that are salient child characteristics such as temperament for this review. Self-regulation of the infant’s (Mangelsdorf & Frosch, 1999). In addition, the arousal states, in particular, develops progressively Strange Situation is regarded by some as an overly during the first two to three years, starting with rigid instrument for the measurement of neurophysiological mechanisms such as non- attachment (Crockenberg, 1981; Field, 1987a). nutritive sucking. Caregiver behaviour in early Other criticisms are that attachments are only interactions with infants plays a very important stable when caregiving environments do not role in neurophysiological regulation of the infant’s change (Frodi & Thompson, 1985; Lamb, arousal (Kopp, 1982; 1989). The modulating 1987b), and that there is still insufficient evidence effect of the caregiver’s stimulation or soothing, that specific dimensions of caregiving behaviour as appropriate, enables the baby to integrate their contribute to an attachment classification (Lamb neurophysiological states and to synchronise their et al., 1984). sensory, motor and arousal systems (Sandler and Rosenblatt, 1962). Developmental changes in caregiver- These infant subsystems only gradually become child relationships coordinated. They need to be exposed to graded stimulation during development, and they also In Chapter 3, evidence indicated that the infant need protection from complex and demanding and caregiver form part of a biologically-based stimuli that can bombard and disorient the baby. system, and that the infant has active sensory and The infant’s neurophysiological stimulus barriers information-seeking abilities, which are matched and the caregiver’s modu- in the responsiveness of adult caregivers (Emde lating activities together play & Sorce, 1983). Neonates attend differentially to important roles in regulation an array of complex stimuli emitted by other that assist the infant to The infant internalizes human beings, involving the face, gesture, voice achieve appropriately what he has learned and posture. In turn, the “babyness”,1 cuddliness, heightened and lowered socially and sociability and focused attachment of the infant arousal states, appropriate to emotionally from promote caregiving and reinforce the adult’s the external environment. encounters with his The infant internalizes what caregiver. These experiences shape his 1 “Babyness” refers to the stimulus configuration of he has learned socially and capacity for self- baby attractiveness – the disproportionately large emotionally from encounters head, with protruding forehead, eyes set below the with the caregiver. These regulating his midline, prominent cheeks, rounded body and short experiences contribute to emotions. extremities (Eibl-Eibelsfeldt, 1975)

25 THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN

Bakeman, 1984; Brazelton et al., 1975; Clarke- The regulation of newborn Stewart & Hevey, 1981; Lamb, Morrison & neurophysiological and arousal states Malkin, 1987; Trevarthen, 1980; 1987b) have described systematic changes in the interactions A typical sequence would consist of a mother of caregivers and infants during the first year of receiving her sleeping baby…for the first time life. These changes correspond with major since delivery with the expectation to feed him. developments in the infant’s capacity to engage She would visually and tactiley inspect and in communicative and cooperative relationships groom the wrapped baby, then talk to him, with other people. During the first three to four calling his name, and urging him to open his months of age, infants show strong interest and eyes and wake up. If he did not comply, she pleasure in the caregiver and in direct face-to-face would unwrap him, inspect his toes, legs and communication with her. The infant watches the genitals. And then begin to circle his arms, at caregiver with focused gaze and intense times pulling him to sit, picking him up and expression. The caregiver responds to this with continuing to urge him, now more impatiently, speech, touching and emotional expressiveness. to wake up and look at her. He might finally The caregiver frequently mimics what the infant respond by building up to fussing, crying and does, behaviours called attunement or mirroring. moving agitatedly; this would be greeted with The infant is excited and engaged by these increased enthusiasm by the mother, as if any overtures and replies with smiling, vocalization, specific reaction was reassuring. She would and postural movements. now try to catch his attention within his crying. These caregiver-infant interactions occur in As he subsided and finally opened his eyes cycles of attention and non-attention, with a build- towards her, her whole display would change. up of attention and emotional engagement, She would brighten, raise her eyebrows, soften maintained by mutual gaze, her cheeks, smile and with high pitched voice smiling and vocalizations, animatedly greet him: “Hi! There you are! That’s followed by a recovery or Early communication right!” over and over again. turning-away phase, and exchanges between the …Of great interest were the terminating then re-engagement. These caregiver and her behaviours in this attentional-affective cycle. exchanges have no apparent infant have no If the baby responded with increasing purpose other than the apparent purpose brightness, in turn raising his eyebrows and pleasure of being together other than the softening his cheeks, widening his eyes and and getting to know one pleasure of being shaping his mouth into an “ooh”, the mother another. together and getting to might pull him close, and nuzzle and kiss him, The caregiver’s behaviour know one another. thus resettling the attentional-intensity cycle. is largely unconscious and If the mother would continue to draw him out emanates from her strong and expand on his alertness and attention more empathic identification with the infant’s perceived and more, pressing him with luring voice and emotional states. Through her interactions with animated face, he might break the intensity by the infant, “an intricate mechanism for inter- averting his eyes momentarily or by a sneeze personal understanding develops” in the infant, or a yawn, or in the less well-regulated baby, called primary intersubjectivity (Trevarthen, 1980; by going to fussing or motoric arousal, thus p.325). Trevarthen proposes that the infant’s resettling the attentional cycle on his part. Both capacity for subjectivity is based on innate human mother and infant are regulated to bring about motives. the early mutual acknowledgement … Towards the fourth month of life, the infant highlighted in the connection of the infant’s becomes interested in features, objects and events attentional state with the mother’s heightened in the world beyond the dyad. The baby affectively supportive envelope. increasingly breaks visual contact with the caregiver to explore, handle or mouth objects. The Als & Duffy (1983, p.156) infant slowly begins to combine and coordinate awareness and interchange with the caregiver, the infant’s enduring capacities to self-regulate and with awareness and exploration of the non- thereby to generate and maintain his states of personal world. emotional stability or instability (Schore, 2001a). One adaptation to this development in the Colwyn Trevarthen and others (Adamson & caregiver-child relationship is the emergence of

26 4. THE NATURE OF CAREGIVER-CHILD RELATIONSHIPS: ATTACHMENT, DEVELOPMENT AND CULTURAL ADAPTATION

repetitive play routines around this time. Proposed innate motives underlying Caregivers frequently become playful at this stage, intersubjectivity, a mechanism for using their face, voice, touching and predictably developing interpersonal understanding played out “surprises” (such as “round and round of the motives and intent of the other the garden” games) to elicit the infant’s attention (Emde, 1994). The infant is amused by these 1. To coordinate closely with holding, feeding routines and laughs, stimulating the caregiver to and cleaning movements of the mother and become more playful and to laugh more herself. to obtain her presence in threatening circum- Caregivers with infants of this age, in all stances by expressing alarm, hunger, pain. cultures, repeat simple, lively nursery songs or To learn to sense her identity (to know her rhymes over and over again as part of these from others). humorous interchanges. It is believed that this 2. To seek proximity and face-to-face confron- early form of play, as a symbolic activity, is tation with persons, to watch, listen to, feel profoundly significant for the emergence of the pattern of expression and become language several months later (Ratner & Bruner, engaged especially with movements of face 1978). As the child grows older, she participates and hands. in household structures and family routines. The 3. To respond with expressions of pleasure, child derives pleasure from familiarity with and then with manifestations of special human mastery of these routines. They create a stable expression such as gestures and utterances, environment for the child and assist the child to these being coordinated from the start with regulate their own behaviours. concurrent or intervening interests toward By about the ninth month of age it is clear that impersonal surroundings and objects that the infant has developed a new form of awareness, might be commented on or used coopera- called secondary tively. Some forms of expression are clearly intersubjectivity. This is the preadaptive to the later acquisition of culti- capacity to combine vated forms of communication, including a true communication about action The infant is amused language. Most important of these are on objects with direct dyadic by the caregiver’s prespeech movements of lips and tongue, interaction (Trevarthen & attempts to play and cooing vocalizations associated with Hubley, 1978). The caregiver laughs, which prespeech, and gestures of the hands. These and child begin to engage in stimulates the signs of expressive motivation lack mental cooperative activities with caregiver to become representation of conventional topics. objects, during which the more playful and to laugh more herself. 4. To exhibit emotions in relation to one’s cog- infant appears to accept the nitive and praxic performances such as “deep caregiver as a teacher and is serious intent” or “pleasure in mastery”, so able to learn from her that others may know one’s state and direc- example. Joint actions, such as “waving goodbye” tion of mind. and “clapping hands”, become conventionalized. Caregivers begin to label objects and actions for 5. To engage in reciprocal give and take of infants (Hubley & Trevarthen, 1979). Infants communicative initiative, seeking to comple- demonstrate understanding in their receptive ment the expressed psychological state of the language by their response to questions such as partner. This may involve both synchronization “Where is dada?” of motives or states of excitement and alter- nation in address and reply. Both partners Towards the beginning of the second year, the must adjust to the actions of the other. exchanges between adults and caregivers involve spoken language, which expands their potential 6. To express clear signs of confusion or for cooperation. “Attentive pupil-like activity in distress if the actions of the partner become the child encourages instructive teacher-like incomprehensible or threatening. behaviours in companions” (Trevarthen, 1987b, 7. To avoid excessive, insensitive or unwanted p.54). The child increasingly becomes interested attempts by others to communicate, thus to in the use and shared meaning of everyday objects retain a measure of personal control over one’s and actions. This indicates the outcome, from state of expression to others. earlier caregiver-child interactions, of the Trevarthen (1980, p.326–7) beginnings of cultural awareness and participation. At this time, the child has a

27 THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN

considerable repertoire of non-verbal, partly Features of supportive and facilitative verbalized, and verbal ideas that have developed caregiver-child interactions through exchanges with intimate caregivers. A number of component features of caregiver- Children refer, in their interchanges, to people infant interactions have been identified as being and objects that are not present. They engage in associated with later social and cognitive imaginary activities, such as pretending to eat, feed development in the child, including those that others, clean up, answer the telephone, chop determine attachment classifications. These wood, and other actions that are routinely part of features include sensitivity and responsiveness, the activities of the people in their household. interactional synchrony, contingency and social One of the symbolic referencing (Belsky, Taylor & Rovine, 1984; behaviours over which Clarke-Stewart, 1988; Isabella, Belsky & von Eye, Attentive pupil-like children gain mastery 1989; Maccoby & Martin, 1983; Schölmerich et activity in the child around this time, and which al., 1995; Wachs & Gruen, 1982). encourages instructive is also strongly related to the Studies of these features usually take place teacher-like behaviours course and quality of their during naturalistic home or laboratory in others. earlier relationships with observations, using coding or rating instruments caregivers, is their image of to categorize the behaviour of the dyad as well as themselves in relation to of the caregiver and the child individually. One others. Around their second birthday, children example of such an instrument is the AMIS Scale show increasing awareness of parental standards for the assessment of caregiver sensitivity. Some of good and bad conduct, a sense of their own of the features of caregiver-child interactions are competence when they do things well, and shame discussed briefly below. and embarrassment when they perceive that they have failed or not performed adequately (Kagan, 1982; Trevarthen, 1987b). Mutuality, synchronicity, emotional Heckhausen (1988) videotaped 12 mother- availability, and social referencing child pairs twice a month from 14 to 22 months Gaze, attention, vocalization and emotional of age to chart the onset of pride reactions to expressiveness occur in caregiver and baby in success, reactions to failure and requests or “packages” of coordinated activity. That is, they refusals of help. She shows that these occur together and are either synchronized or developments have their basis in caregiver-child alternated with the behaviour of the other person interactions, such as exaggerated praise by to produce a state of mutual engagement (Messer caregivers of infant actions. These accomp- & Vietze, 1988; Moore & Dunham, 1995). These lishments in self-development show that children states are differentiated and specific, so that begin to see themselves as originators of action, caregivers tend to respond to infant vocalization and that they recognize and are prepared to learn with increased vocalizations if the infant’s affect from the superior competence of adults (Kaye, is positive, but with postural adjustments and 1982). soothing vocalizations if the infant’s affect state is fretful (Keller & Schölmerich, 1987). Experimental studies indicate that during the In studies of language acquisition it has been first six months of life, babies’ positive mood and recognized that the infant’s grasp of the engagement is synchronized with or follows that purpose of communication, in obtaining help, of the caregiver with significant probability (Cohn giving signs of interest in events, or surprise, & Tronick, 1989). Reductions in the caregiver’s preventing actions being made, etc. may level of affect expression and positive tone are become strongly evident after nine months in followed by reductions in the infant’s engagement the expressions, vocalizations, and gestures and level of positive with which infants influence their caretakers’ emotional responsiveness. behaviour. This ushers in the dramatic develop- Infants become disengaged, Infants become ments towards use of words in the second negative and fretful when disengaged, negative year. their mothers simulate a and fretful when their Trevarthen, Murray & Hubley (1981, p.260) depressive demeanour, as mothers simulate a well as perturbations of “still depressive demeanour. face” and video replay,

28 4. THE NATURE OF CAREGIVER-CHILD RELATIONSHIPS: ATTACHMENT, DEVELOPMENT AND CULTURAL ADAPTATION

described before. The capacity of the infant to respond to the caregiver in this way depends, to Social referencing: Experiments on how a considerable extent, on a pre-established pattern the infant uses clues from the caregiver of contingency between the behaviours of the caregiver and infant (Tarabulsy, Tessier & Kappas, Social referencing was first demonstrated on 1996). This experimental work indicates one of a piece of equipment called a visual cliff. This the possible mechanisms for the effects of maternal is made up of a flat glass surface on top of a depression on young children. deep end and a shallow end, with the two different depths separated by a narrow strip. Both the deep end and the shallow end are covered with a patterned surface, such as a … emotions are apt to be a sensitive baro- checked fabric. Babies are put on the shallow meter of early developmental functioning in the side and encouraged to cross over to the deep child-parent system … If the relationship is side by offering an attractive toy. One-year-old going well, there should be some indication of infants immediately apprehend the drop-off and sustained pleasure and mutual interest, as well look to the mother’s face before crossing the as a well-modulated range of emotional border and “going off the cliff” to reach the expressions, both negative and positive. One expects to see evidence of this in the child, in the parents and in their interaction. If the system is not functioning well, one often sees that there is little pleasure, and the range of emotional expression is restricted; instead of interest, there may be evidence of a “turning off” or apathy. In more extreme circumstances, there may be sadness and depression. Emde & Easterbrooks (1985, p.80)

Emotional availability describes the caregiver’s ELEANOR GIBSON (CORNELL UNIVERSITY) supportiveness and encouragement of the infant Social referencing can be demonstrated (Biringen & Robinson, 1991). A related term, using a visual cliff emotional unavailability, has been used by Egeland and Erickson (1987) in their work with abusive toy. In an experiment in which trained mothers mothers. Emotional unavailability describes the displayed an expression of joy or interest, 75% caregiver’s unresponsiveness to infant distress and of the infant’s crossed the deep side to the attempts to elicit interaction, and a detachment toy. However, if the mother displayed an and lack of pleasure during interactions with the expression of fear or anger, less than 10% of child. Emotional unavailability can also describe the infants crossed the visual cliff. depressed caregivers, an issue taken up in more detail later (Cohn et al., 1986). Sorce et al. (1981) Towards the end of the first year, infants have been observed to “check back” to caregivers when confronted with novel situations or uncertain Sensitivity conditions, a process called “social referencing”. Mary Ainsworth originally identified four Infants specifically assess the caregiver’s emotional dimensions of maternal behaviour that appeared appraisal of the situation as a guide to their own to be related to security of attachment: sensitivity, behaviour (Klinnert et al., acceptance, cooperation, and acceptability (Meins 1983). The way in which the et al., 2001). Sensitivity was found to be a Infants assess the caregiver responds has been common factor relating to the other three caregiver’s emotional found to directly influence dimensions and strongly associated with a appraisal of the child behaviour (Ainsworth, classification of attachment (Goldberg et al., 1989; situation as a guide to 1992). Isabella, 1993). This finding has been replicated their own behaviour. in other cultural groups (Grossman et al., 1985), as well as in high risk populations (Crittenden &

29 THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN

1. Awareness of the infant’s signals. That is, the Sensitivity in mother-infant interactions: caregiver must be reasonably accessible to the The AMIS Scale infant’s signals and to the threshold, even if muted, of the infant’s cues. 1. The scale consists of 25 items each with a possible score of 1–5, with higher values 2. An accurate interpretation of signals. That is, the indicating higher sensitivity. caregiver must be free of distortions resulting from projection, interference or denial, as 2. Fifteen of the items evaluate maternal be- might occur when the caregiver is hurried haviours (for example, predominant mater- during a feed and prematurely interprets the nal mood/affect; holding style; maternal baby’s restlessness as a sign of satiation. In visual interactive behaviour). addition, the caregiver needs to be empathic, 3. Seven of the items evaluate infant behav- not detached, so that her emotions are available iours (for example, predominant infant to be engaged by the infant. mood/affect; infant vocalization; infant pos- 3. An appropriate response to the infant’s ture). communications. For example, to pick the infant 4. Three of the items evaluate dyadic behav- up when she is distressed, or to put her down iours (for example, regulation of feeding; when she wants to explore. Towards the end initiation; synchrony in response to pleas- of the first year, what is appropriate is tempered urable affect). by other socialization goals, for example, not to touch things that might break, and these 5. Ratings are made from observation of com- interventions too, must be achieved with plete 15- to 30-minute videotapes of sensitivity. mother-infant interaction, and total scores are computed. 4. A prompt response to the infant, so that the caregiver’s reaction is perceived to be contin- The scale has been shown to have acceptable gent on the child’s communication and a levels of internal consistency and inter- satisfaction of his needs. observer reliability. Sensitivity is not a characteristic only of a care- Price (1983) giver. It is a relationship construct and thus also a function of the infant’s capacity and skill to signal Claussen, 2000; Egeland & Farber, 1984; behaviour states in clear and consistent ways. This Goldberg, 1988; Goldberg et al., 1986). To capacity is sometimes underdeveloped in Ainsworth, sensitivity entailed regarding the child vulnerable infants, such as those born at very low “as a separate person” and being “capable of seeing birth weight, or with neurological difficulties (Als things from the child’s point of view”. This goes & Duffy, 1983; Crnic & Greenberg, 1987; Field, beyond a basic ability to recognize and respond 1981). Babies with immature neurophysiological to the child’s physical states such as hunger and distress, to a capacity to be able to “read” the babies’ behaviour. Meins et al. (2001) call this “mind-mindedness”, or the inclination to treat the baby as a person with feelings and wishes. Caregivers frequently demonstrate mind- mindedness in their talk to infants, in comments such as The sensitive caregiver “you like that, don’t you”, regards the child as a “oh, that’s a big talk!”, separate person, and “you’re teasing me”, and so sees things from the on. child’s point of view. Ainsworth and colleagues (Ainsworth, Bell & Stayton, 1974) described four

UNICEF/HQ91-0173/BETTY PRESS components of the ability of caregivers to perceive, accurately interpret and respond to their infant’s Attuned caregivers are sensitive to infants and behaviour: responsive to their emotional state

30 4. THE NATURE OF CAREGIVER-CHILD RELATIONSHIPS: ATTACHMENT, DEVELOPMENT AND CULTURAL ADAPTATION

systems may have unstable and erratic motivational states and less synchronized sensory Our data indicate that maternal responsiveness and motor systems. This makes it more difficult was embedded in a relationship that began in for caregivers to “understand” the infant’s needs. early infancy and continued into toddlerhood. For example, active smiling with smooth Mothers who promptly responded to the movements may give way quite unexpectedly in fussing and crying of their young infants were such infants to fretfulness and uncoordinated also more responsive to the nondistress jerkiness. vocalizations of their toddlers. Their toddlers, in turn, were more vocal and more competent. Responsiveness appears to be a consistent Responsiveness maternal characteristic that existed before the Like sensitivity, responsiveness is a fuzzy con- infant’s competence was manifest. But by two struct, a widely understood and commonplace years, there was increased relative compe- term whose precise meaning is difficult to tence in the child and increased mutual articulate (Martin, 1989). Responsiveness responsiveness. generally refers to prompt and appropriate Beckwith & Cohen (1989, p.86) behaviour of the caregiver to infant signals (Beckwith & Cohen, 1989). It is frequently operationalised in experimental and observational Caregiver responsiveness has also been linked to studies as either the proportion of infant bids to a sense of competence and self-worth (Bretherton, which the caregiver responds (Clarke-Stewart, 1987b; Denham, 2002; Stern, 1985; Watson, 1973) or as a probability statement of the 1979), greater security and more interest in contingency of the caregiver’s response to infant environmental exploration (Ainsworth et al., behaviours (Martin, 1981). 1978; Pridham, Becker & Brown, 2000), Responsiveness is also both a person and a enhanced communicative abilities (Bell & relationship variable. In relationships, it refers to Ainsworth, 1972), more advanced cognitive attunement, interactive matching and synchrony activity (Lewis & Goldberg, 1969), and greater at a molecular or micro level. At a more molar assertiveness and peer competence (Sroufe & level, it is expressed in reciprocity and comple- Fleeson, 1984). mentarity. As a person variable, responsiveness refers to, amongst others, sensitivity and empathic awareness, predictability and contingency, non- Applicability of caregiver-child intrusiveness, emotional availability, engagement, dimensions across cultures positive emotional tone and, Some researchers have questioned the cross- adds Martin (1989), de- cultural applicability of concepts such as caregiver votion. Devotion refers to an The responsive sensitivity and responsiveness, and have called for experience of a relationship caregiver behaves more ethnographic studies and an emic1 approach in which the welfare and promptly and to the field of caregiver-child interaction (Jackson, happiness of the partner is appropriately to the 1993). While there is a dearth of studies of non- fundamentally important. infant’s signals. Western cultures, it should not be forgotten that Many parents experience Responsiveness Mary Ainsworth did the first systematic and talk about their strengthens the observational study of attachment in Uganda. In devotion towards their affective bond between reporting on her work, and with concern for how children. the adult and child, her results might be taken up in the United States Caregiver responsiveness and increases the and Europe, she wrote: “But for our purposes here, strengthens the affective child’s sense of I urge you to consider my sample as merely one bond between the adult and security. of human infants and disregard the fact that they child, and increases the were African (for I believe the same principles of child’s sense of security, including a willingness to engage in exploratory behaviour (Bornstein & Tamis-LeMonda, 1989). 1 Kenneth Pike coined the terms etic and emic in 1954. There is a substantial literature linking caregiver They first appeared in his book Language in Relation to a Unified Theory of the Structure of Human Behavior. responsiveness to positive child outcomes, Etic refers to a trained observer’s perception of the including reduction in the frequency and duration uninterpreted “raw” data. Emic refers to how that data of infant crying (Bell & Ainsworth, 1972). is interpreted by an “insider” to the system.

31 THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN

matric societies suggest that the development of attachment follows the same sequence in both environments (Kermoian & Leiderman, 1986; Reed & Leiderman, 1981). Three kinds of studies have examined the generalizability of caregiver-child interactions in settings other than the Western middle-class. The first kind show that in all groups assessed, systematic variations in parental behaviour and child outcomes have been observed, whether the studies have been conducted in non-Western cultures or in low socio-economic and poverty environments (Richter, Grieve & Austin, 1988). Most of these studies have used the HOME1 Inventory and found that caregivers who provide more responsive and stimulating care have children who perform better on cognitive measures, regardless of the absolute level of

WHO/S. SPRAGUE WHO/S. advantage or deprivation in the group (Bradley et al., 1989). For example, in a very poor Black South African community, where the level of household facilities for the stimulation of children is generally low, Richter and Grieve (1990) found that caregivers who facilitated their children’s learning Child care varies around the world, but all children and were responsive to their needs had children learn from adults in close relationships with them who performed significantly better on the Bayley Scales of Infant Development. development apply for infants regardless of The second set of studies examines the cross- specific racial or cultural influences)” (1964, cultural applicability of attachment theory, p.51). measurement and classification. Up to 1999, 14 There is no doubt that child care practices vary studies had been identified that examined specific widely, and cultural scripts influence caregiver- tenets of attachment theory across cultures. A child contact and communication through meta-analysis of these studies indicated that practices of carrying, co-sleeping, conditions and culture played a minor role in influencing conventions for interaction, and so on (Goldberg, determinants, expression and outcomes of 1972; Greenfield, 1994; Hess et al., 1980; attachments in the first year of life (van Ijzendoorn Hopkins & Westra, 1989; Kilbride & Kilbride, & Sagi, 1999). Similar conclusions have been 1974; Ogbu, 1981, 1994; Winn, Tronick & reached from long-term attachment research in Morelli, 1991; Zaslow & Rogoff, 1981). However, Germany, Israel and Japan (Grossman & all child-rearing environments for infants, so far Grossman, 1990; Rothbaum et al., 2000; Sagi, identified, conform to what Bowlby called the 1990). All indications from available systematic “average expectable environment” or what reviews and meta-analyses suggest that Winnicott refers to as “good enough mothering” intracountry variability in proportions of attach- (Abel et al., 2001; Konner, 1977; Richter, 1995; ment classifications, itself not a fundamental Trevarthen, 1987b; Werner, 1988). Much of the available literature has been 1 collected in environments in which young Home Observation for the Measurement of the Environment is completed on the basis of home children are cared for by only one or two care- observation and an interview with the child’s givers. In many African and other societies, in caregiver. It consists of six scales: 1) Emotional and contrast, a number of family members hold, carry verbal responsivity of the caregiver; 2) Avoidance of and play with infants. However, even in these restriction and punishment; 3) Organisation of the polymatric rearing conditions, infants spend physical and temporal environment; 4) Provision of appropriate play materials; 5) Caregiver’s involvement proportionally more time with their mother with the child, and 6) Opportunities for variety in because they breastfeed on demand. Studies of daily stimulation (Bradley & Caldwell, 1976; attachment in polymatric as opposed to mono- Caldwell & Bradley, 1984).

32 4. THE NATURE OF CAREGIVER-CHILD RELATIONSHIPS: ATTACHMENT, DEVELOPMENT AND CULTURAL ADAPTATION

aspect of the theory, exceeds inter-country were similar across the different cultures, but variation (Main, 1990; van Ijzendoorn & were used differently. The emergence of play Kroonenberg, 1988). and talk episodes, with the modulation of voice The final set of studies has examined caregiver- effective for sustaining infant attention, were child interactions through microanalysis of seen in this cultural setting as well as our own. recorded observations among a variety of cultural Adult behavior, including speech in all cultures groups around the world. For example, Keller, described to date, had an infantilized form Schölmerich & Ebil-Eibelsfeldt (1988) observed when interacting with young infants. This caregiver-child dyads between 2 and 6 months of seems to reflect the universal awareness of the age from two Western (German and Greek) and capabilities of the young infant. The infants two non-Western cultural groups (Yanomami displayed a full range of behaviours within our Indians in Venezuela and Tobrian Islanders in New system in spite of very different social Guinea). Martini and Kirkpatrick (1981) analysed experience” (Dixon et al., 1981, p.163). videotapes of infants and mothers in the Marquesas Islands in French Polynesia. Hausa dyads have been studied in Nigeria (Marvin et Models of caregiving and parenting al., 1977), as have African mother-infant pairs in Caregiver-child interactions occur within a South Africa (Richter, Grieve & Austin, 1988), framework of caregiving and parenting, which, Japanese infants with their mothers (Caudill & as we have seen from the above, are influenced Weinstein, 1969; Bornstein, 1989b), Yoruba by both cultural and sub-cultural beliefs and infants and their mothers in Lagos (Mundy-Castle, practices. Nonetheless, common dimensions of 1980; Trevarthen, 1987b), and mother-infant caregiving are manifest in all situations as a result dyads amongst the Gusii in Kenya (Dixon et al., of the infant’s universal needs and developmental 1981; 1984). All these studies have concluded programme. At the same time, the infant’s that emotionally expressive interactions with a “individual development fundamentally common occurs in a family zone dialogue structure take place where internal and external The common Across cultures, between infants and their systems overlap and dimensions of emotionally expressive primary caregivers. interact” (Balbernie, 2002, caregiving across all interactions between Suzanne Dixon and her p. 330), and “where factors situations are a result infants and their colleagues (1981) in Kenya found outside of the mother- of the universal needs primary caregivers undertook an African- baby relationship are being of infants. have a common American comparison of 18 titrated into the developing dialogue structure. Gusii infants with their psyche of the child” (p.335). mothers, and 18 mother- Bradley and Caldwell (1995) see caregiving infant pairs in Boston, in functions as a mutual regulator of human three cohorts from 6 to 36 months of age. They behaviour and development in a transactional recorded caregivers and children in free play and system (Sameroff & Fiese, 2000). They classify engaged in a structured teaching task. The caregiving in terms of five primary caregiving researchers conducted analyses of the data based functions that cannot be separated from one on both micro- and macro- coding systems. They another: found distinct variations in style between the two groups, with Gusii mothers touching their babies • Sustenance: to promote biological integrity more than American mothers. This finding was through the provision of food and shelter. also reported amongst a Yoruba sample (Mundy- • Stimulation: to engage attention and provide Castle, 1980), and in a South African study experience and information that is neither (Richter, Grieve & Austin, 1988). However, Dixon incomplete nor excessive or disorganized et al. concluded that: (Wohlwill & Heft, 1977). The deleterious effects of understimulation on children were “Gusii mother-infant face-to-face interaction brought to light a long time ago in studies of was seen to be organized in a cyclic flow of institutionalized children (Skeels & Dye, affective behaviours similar to interactions 1939). described in our own culture…This organi- • Support: to meet social and emotional needs zation suggests an underlying universal form… and to reinforce goal-directed behaviour. The range and quality of affective behaviours • Structure: to differentiate inputs to the child

33 THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN

care and general characteristics of the care relationship. Such models help us to see that caregiver-child interactions are determined both by external conditions as well as by internal parental motivations and infant capacity. For example, Engle & Ricciuti (1995) describe children’s home environments in terms of structural characteristics, such as family size and household income; features of the home environment (for example, the presence of books, crowding and

A model of characteristics of the care relationship Level 1 – Infant care LINDA RICHTER LINDA •Protection, nutrition, stimulation, affection Level 2 – General characteristics of relationships • Continuum of acceptance from warm and Through their caregiving, adults simultaneously affection to rejection, hostility teach, guide and restrain children • Continuum of involvement from involved to detached and indifferent according to the child’s needs and capabilities. Both support and structure have a great • Continuum from sensitivity to insensitivity deal in common with regulation and scaf- • Continuum from contingent (i.e. tuned, regu- folding. lar, predictable) responsiveness to unrespon- • Surveillance: to keep track and to monitor siveness child activity. Lozoff (1989) claims that this is such a self-evidently important function • Continuum from encouragement of explora- for children’s health and development that it tion, independence and learning to restric- is surprising that so little research has been tion and interference done to describe parental surveillance Level 3 – Specific behaviours of activities and their effects on children. For caregiver and infant example, caregiver failure to provide (which may contribute to the general adequate supervision in dangerous environ- characteristics on Level 2) ments contributes to the majority of all • Caregiver behaviors towards the infant – childhood injuries (Garbarino, 1988). gaze, touch, postural adjustment, emotional In addition, any particular caregiving activity may expressiveness, vocalization, imitation, ad- serve one or more of the regulatory functions; for aptations to the infant example, all five functions may be evident in a • Infant behaviours towards the caregiver – feeding episode with a gaze, touch, postural adjustment, emotional young child. Similarly, a expressiveness, vocalization, imitation, ad- Surveillance by a feeding situation provides aptations to the caregiver caregiver is an opportunities to meet Level 4 – Characteristics of the important function for sustenance, stimulation, caregiver-infant pair as a dyad a child’s health and support, structure and • Reciprocity – dyadic gaze, mutual smiling, development. surveillance functions. In another attempt to put imitation, reciprocal play caregiver-child interactions • Synchrony – adjustment in mutually adap- in perspective, Galler et al. (1984) provide a multi- tive ways levelled model in which caregiver-child Galler et al. (1984) interactions are placed in the context of infant

34 4. THE NATURE OF CAREGIVER-CHILD RELATIONSHIPS: ATTACHMENT, DEVELOPMENT AND CULTURAL ADAPTATION

noise); caregiver characteristics (such as age, organise interactions with children so that physical health and knowledge); and child empathic goals and concerns are achieved” (Dix, characteristics (such as temperament, health and 1992, p.320). However, the arousal and developmental status). These factors, together maintenance of empathic motivations in with resource constraints and support systems, caregivers depend to some degree on supportive are all inter-related to some degree and affect the environmental conditions and caregiver extent to which the caregiver characteristics, both of which may need to be and child can engage in addressed in intervention programmes. mutually rewarding, devel- Responsive parenting opmentally appropriate, comes about because reciprocal interactions. How is it that some children become sad, parents develop Theodore Dix (1991) sees withdrawn and lacking in self-esteem, whereas affectional ties that responsive parenting as others become angry, unfocused and brittlely make their child’s well- emanating from empathic self-assertive, whereas still others become being critically motivation in the caregiver happy, curious affectionate and self-confident? important to them. towards the child. Respon- … Although the nature of these processes is sive parenting comes about, not known, an answer is taking shape on the he says, because “parents basis of recent work on the nature of infant- develop affectional ties that make outcomes in caregiver emotional communication. children’s wellbeing critically important to them. Tronick (1989, p.112) When children’s wellbeing is important, parents

35 Chapter5 The impact of caregiver-child interactions on the development and health of children

he available knowledge, reviewed in Further corroboration of the role of caregiver-child T preceding chapters, indicates that early interactions in determining health and caregiver-child interactions play a profound role developmental outcomes for children is likely to in the development of children’s self-regulation, come from intervention studies still to be cognitive development, conducted. language acquisition, and socio-emotional adjustment. Early caregiver-child … (we) need to recognise the importance of There is an enormous body interactions play a indirect chain and strand effects in the of literature that indicates profound role in the development process, as well as direct that the quality of the infant- development of self- influences. In other words, the impact of some caregiver relationship is a regulation, cognitive factor in childhood may lie less in immediate major determinant of development, language behavioural changes it brings about than in the psychological adjustment acquisition, and socio- fact that it sets in motion a chain reaction in and subsequent personality emotional adjustment. which one thing leads to another. development (O’Connor, 2002). Rutter (1981, p.27)

The quality of psychosocial care provided the Three likely mechanisms involved in carrying young child is reflected in the caregiver’s forward effects from caregiver-child interactions responsiveness, warmth and affection, to later competence and adjustment involve involvement with the child, and encouragement priming, the consolidation of internal working of autonomy and exploration…There is models, and repetitive or enduring experiences. considerable correlational and some experi- ■ The priming of the child’s responses to the ment evidence [for the link between] the quality environment occurs through neurophysiological of psychosocial care to a child’s development and psychological adaptations to the quality of of mental abilities, and to his or her growth regulation experienced in very early caregiver- and nutritional status. child interactions. Cohn and Tronick (1989) argue Engle & Ricciuti (1995) that negative or disruptive interactions force the infant to self-regulate their own negative emotional states in an attempt to reduce the effects As the determinants involved are complex and of their caregiver’s inappropriate behaviour. “It is transactional, it is difficult to attribute causes of expected that the accumulation of such interactive particular outcomes to highly specific antecedents. experience has a structuring effect on infants such It is not possible given the dynamic feedback that a self-directed regulatory style comes to systems involved, therefore, to generate empirical dominate all interpersonal exchanges” (p.247). evidence of simplistic associations between Excessive needs for self-regulation are likely to caregiver-child interactions and particular health limit exploration and learning, and reduce a child’s or development outcomes. For example, one competence in interactions with others, including cannot say that parental divorce causes child peers. psychopathology. However, probabilistic assertions about ■ Internal working models or mental represen- associations can be made on the strength of the tations of the self and other people determine theoretical arguments and the correlative evidence subsequent behaviour. These can have a knock- linking outcomes to caregiver-child interactions. on effect because the child may avoid experiences

36 5. THE IMPACT OF CAREGIVER-CHILD INTERACTIONS ON THE DEVELOPMENT AND HEALTH OF CHILDREN

that have the potential to alter negative represen- replication study with 96 children in New Haven tations (Bretherton, 1987b; Main, Kaplan & across the first two years of life. Methods included Cassidy, 1985; Zeanah & Anders, 1987). For naturalistic observations, standardized tests, semi- example, if a child expects adults to be uncaring, structured situations and interviews. Measures of she may stop seeking assistance and comfort from child social competence across a number of adults, even though some adults in her developmental domains – cognition, language and environment would respond warmly if she social relations – were found to be intercorrelated approached them. and associated with a cluster of stimulating ■ Repetitive or enduring interactional failures may interactive maternal behaviours, including become part of a cycle of determinants that are positive interaction with the child. These linked to poor outcomes. In themselves, “they may associations were not attributable to socio- seemingly be of little clinical significance and yet economic status or to maternal intelligence. cause major problems because they may function Olson, Bates & Kaskie (1992) assessed 79 as starting points for chains of reciprocal conse- infants at 6, 13 and 24 months and then again at quences, becoming vicious circles that hinder 6 years. Nonrestrictiveness and verbal stimulation development” (Papou˘sek & predicted cognitive functioning at 6 years; and it Papou˘sek, 1983, p.35). In was established that the association was not If a child expects addition, enduring con- confounded by family socio-economic status, adults to be uncaring, ditions of impoverished or child temperament or developmental level. she may stop seeking neglectful interactions with Carlson (1998) reported a study of 157 mixed assistance and comfort caregivers often reduce the ethnic infants in Minneapolis who were assessed from adults, even likelihood of positive inter- on a large number of biological, social and though some adults in actions with other adults in psychological measures in early childhood. The her environment the child’s environment. This measures included mother-child interaction at 24 would respond minimises the exposure of and 42 months, preschool adjustment at 4 to 5 warmly. the child to compensatory years, teacher reports in grades 2, 3, 4, 6 and in experiences. high school, ratings of self-esteem, as well as aspects of parent-child relationships at 13 years. Outcomes were assessed at 17 and 19 years of Child development outcomes age. The results confirmed that ratings of the The evidence linking caregiver-child interactions quality of caregiving determined attachment during the first three years of life to child status, and that both early interactions and development outcomes can be categorized into: attachment were related to outcomes in socio- follow-up studies from early interaction; studies emotional functioning and behaviour problems that examine particular outcomes such as at all subsequent ages. psychopathology and child abuse; and studies of alternative care, especially institutionalization. Attachment status. In a follow-up study, from 18 months to 5 years, of infants from 62 low income families, Lyons-Ruth, Aspen & Repacholi (1993) Follow-up studies from early interactions found that attachment status predicted aggressive A variety of studies involve assessments of infants behaviour rated by preschool teachers. Similarly, or young children, either in terms of the quality Pierrehumbert et al. (1989) examined 49 children of caregiver-child interactions, attachment status, at 2 and 5 years and found that attachment at 2 or HOME scores, with follow-up into the pre- years predicted competence in peer relations at 5 school and school age groups and early adulthood years. In a longitudinal study in Uppsala, which (Arend, Gove & Sroufe, 1979). Outcomes followed 96 children from 15 months to 9 years, commonly measured include intellectual attachment status predicted a number of social functioning, adjustment, social competence, self- and psychological outcomes. Secure children were esteem, and social relationships (Matas, Arend & reported to be more popular, socially active and Sroufe, 1978). A few studies, cited as examples, confident (Bohlin, Hagekull & Rydell, 2000). are described below. In a review of longitudinal and concurrent studies, Cohn, Patterson & Christopoulus (1991) Quality of caregiver-child interactions. Clarke- found that attachment status was generally found Stewart, VanderStoep & Killian (1979) report to be associated with peer relationships and results from a panel study of 14 children and a popularity ratings in preschool and school

37 THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN

settings. Sroufe and Fleeson The most compelling (1986) concur that the most evidence for the compelling evidence for the impact of attachment impact of attachment status status on the child is on child outcomes is with with respect to peer respect to peer relations. relations. Poor peer Poor peer relations are relations, in turn, have important because they, in been shown to be turn, have been shown to be related to behaviour related to behaviour prob- problems, including lems, including disruptive- disruptiveness, ness, aggression and aggression and delinquency, especially in delinquency, especially boys. in boys.

HOME scores. Many studies JANE LUCAS in the USA report associations between early psychosocial care, as assessed Children want to share interests and information about the world with adults on the HOME scale, and later cognitive, social and emotional development assessed through interviews, observations and rating scales (Bee et Psychopathology and child abuse al., 1982; Bradley & Caldwell, 1984; Bradley et al., 1989). For example, McGowan & Johnson Positive and stable caregiver-child relationships (1984) examined parental teaching styles, warmth in the early years have been found to be associated and affection, and HOME scores on the 8-year with better social adjustment and protection from cognitive performance of 60 low income Mexican- psychopathology in long- American children in Houston. Although maternal term studies of child out- education was a powerful predictor of children’s comes (Garmezy, 1985; Positive and stable intellectual functioning at school age, maternal 1988; Werner, 1989; Werner caregiver-child attitudes of encouragement and reciprocity were & Smith, 1992; Zuravin, relationships in the also related to cognitive outcomes. 1989). For example, Osborn early years are A panel study of income dynamics used a (1990) reported, from the 5 associated with randomized control design in eight sites to and 10 year follow up in the protection from later examine education and support services in the Child Health and Education psychopathology. Infant Health and Development Program. It found Study of more than 13 000 that HOME scores were a highly significant children in the UK, that predictor of children’s IQ at 5 years, accounting children whose parents were child-centred, as for more than 30% of family income effects on expressed in reading to children and spending children’s cognitive functioning (Duncan, Brooks- time with them, were 2.5 times more likely to be Gunn & Kiebanov, 1994). rated as competent than their peers. Relationships between HOME scores rated in Keren, Feldman & Tyano (2001) assessed 113 infancy and later cognitive level have been found referred infants from well-baby centres in Israel, to hold in high-risk settings, for example, in from which they selected 30 cases and matched studies of low birth weight infants and low socio- them with control families. Referrals were mainly economic status families (Bakeman & Brown, for eating and sleeping problems, aggressive 1981) and amongst malnourished children in behaviour and irritability. The most common Jamaica (Grantham-McGregor, Schonfield & diagnoses were primary infant disorder and Powell, 1987; Grantham-McGregor et al., 1991). parent-child relationship disorder. Mothers of These relationships have also been established in referred children were found to have lower levels a variety of disadvantaged settings, for example, of sensitivity, support and structure in their in a Mexican village (DeLicardie & Cravioto, relationships with their infants than control 1974), in India (Argawal et al., 1992), in the mothers. Philippines (Church & Katigbak, 1991), in rural Chronically disturbed and or interrupted Kenya (Sigman et al., 1988) and in an Egyptian caregiver-child interactions, as well as disorg- village environment (Wachs et al., 1993). anized attachments, have been found to occur

38 5. THE IMPACT OF CAREGIVER-CHILD INTERACTIONS ON THE DEVELOPMENT AND HEALTH OF CHILDREN

disproportionately amongst very young children average of 28 points), while the matched control with anxiety, depressive disorders and behaviour group dropped an average of 26 points over the problems (Crittenden, 1995; Egeland & Sroufe, same period. A 21-year follow-up of the two 1981a and b; Lewis et al., 1984; Lyons-Ruth, groups showed that the divergent pattern was Esterbrooks & Cibelli, 1997; Zeanah, Boris, & maintained. All the experimental children were Larrieu, 1997). self-supporting, while five of the control children Disturbed caregiver-child interactions occur in remained in institutions for mentally handicapped neglect and child abuse, conditions frequently individuals. associated with insecure attachments. Several Even recent studies, mostly of children adopted studies show a relationship between conditions out of Eastern European orphanages into homes that disrupt caregiver-child relationships, such as in the United States, Canada and Britain, indicate hospitalization, alcohol abuse, and the like, and that early age of institutionalization and length of the risk of child abuse (for example, Klein and time spent in an institution are strong deter- Stern, 1981). In addition, parental stress, impaired minants of later psycho- parent-child interactions, and poor quality of the pathology (Marcovitch et al., home environment have been identified as specific 1997; Rutter, 1972). This is Children reared in risk factors for physical abuse of children the case even though in most institutions in their (Whipple, 1999), as has the caregiver’s own contemporary institutions, first year of life are insecure adult attachment style (Montcher, 1996). including in resource-poor insecurely attached. The effects of these conditions sometimes persist countries, an effort is made to They are more likely across generations (Bousha & Twentyman, 1984; ensure that children receive to manifest socio- Crittenden, 1993; Giovannoni & Billingsley, 1970; adequate mental stimulation emotional disorders Kaufman & Zigler, 1989; Main & Goldwyn, 1984; and at least some individual and personality Ricks, 1985). care. dysfunctions. They Follow-up studies of tend to show children reared in institutions Institutional care indiscriminate in their first year of life, and attachment and The earliest reports of the negative effects of thus deprived of an intense friendliness, and are maternal deprivation came from studies of and stable nurturant relation- clinging and attention children institutionalized in their first year of life ship, have found that the seeking. (Provence & Lipton, 1962). Studies of young children are insecurely children in institutions still provide the most attached (Chisholm, 1998; robust evidence for the importance of nurturant Landau, 1989; O’Connor, caregiver-child interactions for children’s healthy Bredenkamp & Rutter, 1999) and that they development. manifest socio-emotional disorders and In one of the first intervention studies for personality dysfunctions (Lis, 2000). Long-term children in institutions, Skeels and Dye (1939; studies into adulthood, for example by Rutter and Skeels, 1966) placed 13 institutionalized infants Quinton (1984), show that institutionalization in in the care of older girls, who “adopted” them the first five years of life jeopardizes adult and provided them with consistent care from 6 emotional and social adjustment. months of age. At 2 years, these children were Institution-reared children tend to show found to have made dramatic gains in IQ (an indiscriminate attachment and friendliness, and they are clinging and attention seeking. Their needs for physical and psychological contact with In 1977 a World Health Organization expert attachment figures, even in the stable care committee concluded that continuity of provided by “substitute mothers”, are constantly relationships to parental figures is especially frustrated. Their daily contacts with caregivers are important in the first few years of life … short, and they are frequently separated from children most at risk are those who experience caregivers as institutional staff are called to other multiple changes of parent figures or who are activities or go off duty (Lis, 2000). In a recent reared in institutions with many attendants who review, Frank et al. (1996) concluded that: have no special responsibility for individual “…infants and young children are uniquely children. vulnerable to the medical and psychosocial (WHO, 1977, p.22) hazards of institutional care, negative effects

39 THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN

that cannot be reduced to a tolerable level even Lanata portrays some with massive expenditure. Scientific experience families in poor commu- Social and consistently shows that, in the short term, nities in Peru as selectively psychological factors – orphanage placement puts young children at neglecting certain children including the risk of serious infectious illness, and delayed in ways that directly affect relationship between language development. In the long term, the child’s nutrition, growth, caregivers and institutionalization in early childhood increases health, and access to and children – have the likelihood that impoverished children will uptake of treatment. He sees received insufficient grow into psychiatrically impaired and these problems as resulting attention in efforts to economically unproductive adults” (p.569). from social marginalisation improve the survival of the family, children not and healthy Child health outcomes being wanted, lack of development of young support for women by the children, especially in Parents and other caregivers are the primary child’s father, and caregiver resource-poor gatekeepers of children’s health. They determine depression and poor self- countries. the amount and quality of the food their children esteem. “It is possible that eat, the health care their children receive and the children born in these high- amount of emotional support and assistance they risk families are neglected and exposed to provide for their children in daily life and during psychological distress, a factor that has been stress, such as illness. What parents do is associated with a greater risk of developing conditioned by their material resources, their diseases and death in adults” (Lanata, 2001, knowledge, their access to services, and the p.142). Compelling as this account is, little characteristics of the communities in which they systematic research has been done to understand live (Case & Paxson, 2002; McCarthy et al., 1991). these pathways of ill-health, poor growth and compromised psychological development among In addition to practices relating exclusively to children in affected families. “We suggest that the feeding, health care, and sanitation, other capacity to care for and nurture children in the modes of mother-child interaction have also adverse social conditions prevailing in many poor been consistently related to the nutritional communities in developing status of infants and young children. The countries is a neglected mother’s affect – whether she smiles and issue…” (p.139). A neglected issue: enjoys the baby – and the frequency with which In this review, pre- the capacity to care for she interacts with her child, verbally and non- maturity, low birth weight, and nurture children verbally, can be used as examples. growth, failure to thrive, and in the adverse social protein-energy malnutrition conditions prevailing Zeitlin, Ghassemi & Mansour (1990, p.1) are used as examples to in many poor illustrate how caregiver- communities in Several reviews, specifically from developing child relationships affect developing countries. countries, indicate that psychological and social children’s survival and factors, including relationships between caregivers healthy development. and children, have received insufficient attention in efforts to improve the survival and healthy Prematurity and low birth weight development of young children (Zeitlin, Ghassemi & Mansour, 1990). Writing on the basis of his It is now generally accepted that the impact of experience in Peru, Lanata (2001) argues that biological risks on children, including prematurity recurrent infections, poor growth and increased and low birth weight, are mediated by the quality mortality amongst young children cluster in of the post-natal environment. This has been families where the child is not wanted and where identified by Sameroff and Chandler (1975) as the child experiences neglect and even abuse (Das the continuum of caretaking casualty (Sigman et al., Gupta, 1990; Schellenberg et al., 2002). Nancy 1981; Werner & Smith, 1992). In the early years, Scheper-Hughes (1992), also working in Brazil, the social environment of the child is constituted speaks of child rearing strategies that prejudice chiefly by the caregiver-child relationship. The the life chances of children who are either not nervous systems of premature and low birth wanted or who are considered too weak to survive weight babies are not developed to the level the hardships of poverty. necessary to deal with an extra-uterine environ-

40 5. THE IMPACT OF CAREGIVER-CHILD INTERACTIONS ON THE DEVELOPMENT AND HEALTH OF CHILDREN

ment without specific support. As a result, they through naturalistic observations at 1, 3 and 8 are less organized than full-term infants. They are months age, with follow-up to two years. They fussier, cry more, are more difficult to soothe. found that interactional features at one month of Their emotional states change more frequently and infant age predicted later competence on more unpredictably than full-term infants (Crnic developmental scales, a finding they attributed to et al., 1983; Friedman, Jacobs & Werthman, cumulative interactional effects. 1982). These infants are also generally less Beckwith and Rodning (1996) followed up 51 responsive to handling. preterm babies born into low-income families Caregivers of preterm babies have been from birth to five years of age. The infants were observed to interact with their infants differently assessed on the Bayley Scales of Infant from full-terms. Goldberg’s review (1978) Development, The Reynell Language Scales, the concluded that mothers of atypical babies, McCarthy Scales of Children’s Abilities, and other including premature and low birth weight infants, measures of child performance and competence. seem to work harder and carry more of the The researchers found that caregiver responsive- “interactive burden” than mothers of normal, ness to infant vocalizations and infant irritability healthy, full-term babies. Some caregivers were significant predictors of later competence, compensate by becoming highly active in their taking into account the potential confounders. interactions, a reaction that tends, in the They also found that maternal responsiveness had homeostatic system of caregiver and child inter- a modifying effect on infant irritability, thus action, to result in reduced responsiveness from diminishing the potential impact of a child risk the baby (Macy, Harmon & Easterbrooks, 1987). characteristic. Infants are reported to become inattentive to these excessive overtures and to avoid their caregiver’s gaze. Caregiver satisfaction with parenting is frequently reported to drop under these

conditions (Crnic et al., 1983). WHO/ARMANDO WAAK WHO/ARMANDO

JANE LUCAS

Social interactions with infants frequently take place during care routines Caring for very small or premature babies is challenging because their emotional and behavioural responses are undeveloped Growth and failure to thrive In a studio of a Peruvian village, Gambirazo Studies of preterm and low birth weight infants identified the best predictor of growth, after socio- indicate that difficulties in establishing synchro- economic variables, was the love and affection the nous caregiver-child interactions may play a role caregiver gave to the child (Lanata, 2001). Several in the child’s later social and emotional problems studies support Gambirazo’s observation. For (Beckwith & Rodning, 1996). Cohen and example, Lamontagne, Engle & Zeitlin (1998) Beckwith (1979) examined 50 preterm infants found that poor growth of children from 12 to 18

41 THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN

missions in the United States (Alfasi, 1982; As part of a longitudinal, community-based Berwick, 1980). The syndrome may include, apart study of children in peri-urban areas of Puno, from growth deficits, diminished physical activity, a Peruvian city located at the edge of Lake depressed cognitive performance, decreased Titicaca at 4100 metres above sea level, immunologic resistance, and several variables were measures at baseline long-term behavioural problems and develop- in a group of children who were followed to In addition to growth mental delays (Black et al., identify risk factors for poor nutritional growth. deficits, the syndrome 1995). NOFTT infants and The best predictor of better growth in this poor NOFTT may include young children appear community, after controlling for socio- diminished physical emaciated and listless, with economic and other variables measured in the activity, depressed reduced vocalizations, study, was the presence in the home of the cognitive performance, minimal smiling, and little mother or a mother-substitute who was decreased immuno- cuddliness; and they are classified as a good care-provider at baseline, logic resistance, and unusually watchful (Alfasi, based on the love and affection given to the long-term behavioural 1982). child as observed by a study psychologist. problems and The syndrome, first C. Gambirazo, personal communication developmental delays described in institution- (in Lanata, 2001, p.139) – with even more alized infants (Provence & severe consequences Lipton, 1962), occurs in a when they are very large number of poor months of age in 80 households drawn from 10 superimposed on the children in developing low-income neighbourhoods in Nicaragua was problems of growing countries, even if they are predicted by inadequate child care, even when up in poverty. the households experienced increased income as not diagnosed with a result of the mother working outside of the moderate to severe mal- home. nutrition (Guedeney, 1995). Similarly, Bégin, Frongillo & Delisle (1999) The problems of NOFTT become particularly assessed 98 children aged 12 to 71 months from severe when they are superimposed on the health 64 households in a rural Sahelian town in Chad. and development problems of children growing The researchers measured caregiver behaviours up in poverty (Black et al., 1995). suggested by the UNICEF model of care (1990), as well as household food security, food and economic resources. Caregiver decisions about In considering the potential linkages between child feeding, level of satisfaction with life, and psychosocial and nutritional care, one of the willingness to seek advice during child illnesses, principal assumptions would be that caregivers as well as the number of individuals available to who are minimally involved and show little assist with domestic tasks, were caregiving affection for the baby, who are insensitive in characteristics associated with children’s height- responding to the child’s needs and signals, for-age. When the economic and food resource and who fail to encourage exploration and data were added, the results indicated that learning, are also likely to provide relatively caregiver characteristics influence children’s poor nutrition, feeding and physical care. nutritional status even when socio-economic Engle & Ricciuti (1995, p.362) status is controlled. The review by Zeitlin, Ghassemi & Mansour (1990) similarly concluded that the psychological adjustment of caregivers NOFTT is now generally approached from an and a positive attitude to the child are important interactional point of view, since a large number variables influencing child of studies indicate that caregiver-child growth, especially in low- relationships in NOFTT appear to be disturbed Caregiver income families living in (Benoit, Zeanah & Barton, 1989; Black & characteristics deprived conditions. Dubowitz, 1991; Bradley, Casey & Wortham, influence the child’s Non-organic failure-to- 1984; Breunlin et al., 1983; Drotar, 1985; nutritional status, even thrive (NOFTT), or growth Leonard, Rhymes & Solnit, 1966; Pollitt, 1975; when socio-economic retardation with no clear Ward, Kessler & Altman, 1993). Although some status is controlled. organic aetiology, makes up researchers attribute NOFTT to a psychologically- about 5% of paediatric ad- induced deficit in absorption or metabolism, it is

42 5. THE IMPACT OF CAREGIVER-CHILD INTERACTIONS ON THE DEVELOPMENT AND HEALTH OF CHILDREN

quite clearly mainly a • Children’s positive affect, which in turn Poor eating in non- disorder due to under eating directly stimulates growth, immune function, organic failure-to- as a result of not being and exploratory behaviour. thrive children is offered enough food, or not These two processes interact to reinforce one frequently associated eating the food that is another, and to promote better child growth and with disturbances in offered. Poor eating in development (Bentley et al., 1991; Puckering, the caregiver-child NOFTT is frequently 1995). relationship. associated with disturbances in the caregiver-child relationship. Malnutrition Pollitt, Eicher & Chan (1975) compared 19 Ever since Cecily Williams related kwashiorkor NOFTT infants and 19 controls, between 12 and to displacement of the child by a younger sibling 60 months of age, and found striking differences (1933), protein-energy malnutrition in developing in the interpersonal behaviours of the mothers in countries has been associated with dysfunctions the two groups. These differences, including in caregiving (Chase & Martin, 1970; Richter & warmth, physical contact and verbalizations, Griesel, 1994). For example, Goodall (1979) appeared to stem from the very stressful and spoke about “the look in the child’s eyes” as disrupted backgrounds of the NOFTT mothers. indicating sadness resulting from deprivation of “The mothers of failure-to-thrive children relate loving care due to social and less often to their children, are less affectionate, familial upheaval. Antoine and more prone to use physical punishment. Guedeney (1995) argues The psychological These behaviours, which may interfere with the that descriptions of the changes accompanying synchrony of the relationship with the child, may psychological changes kwashiorkor in be triggered by the child’s idiosyncratic accompanying kwashiorkor children meet many of behavioural characteristics, and aspects of the in children meet many of the the criteria for the mother’s personality that were influenced by her criteria for the diagnosis of diagnosis of severe own stressful childhood” (p.536). severe infant depression: infant depression. Based on an extensive review, Zeitlin, Ghassemi withdrawal, heightened & Mansour (1990) developed a model to illustrate emotionality and irritability, how close and affectionate interactions between somatic disorders, anorexia, apathy, lack of social caregivers and children may promote growth. This responsiveness, poor response to soothing and occurs as a result of both greater maternal respon- slow recovery from crying, and attachment and siveness to the child’s needs and direct physio- separation problems. logical effects on the child (Polan & Ward, 1994). They argue that physically close, attentive, reciprocally stimulating and mutually pleasurable There are parallels between failure-to-thrive and caregiver-child interactions encourage: moderate-severe malnutrition. The breakdown in the mother-child interactions that • High maternal responsiveness to a child’s characterizes failure-to-thrive in developed cues communicating needs for food, comfort, regions of the world may also be seen in cases stimulation, warmth etc, and this leads to of malnutrition in developing regions where more food for the child, more positive poverty is endemic and food supplies are reinforcement, more psychosocial stimula- already limited. Under such extreme conditions tion and less exposure to infection and of poverty and chronic stress, a dysfunctional danger. mother-child relationship may be even more damaging, resulting in severe malnutrition of the offspring. Close and affectionate interactions between Galler et al. (1984, p.291) caregivers and children may promote growth. They encourage the caregiver’s responsiveness to the child’s A large number of studies have shown that cues and the child’s positive affect, which in turn malnourished children come from less adequate directly stimulates growth, immune function, and home environments than comparable groups of exploratory behaviour. children (Doan & Bisharat, 1990). The caregivers of malnourished children have been found to be

43 THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN

more socially isolated, passive, and less sensitive intake with little impairment and responsive to their child’s needs than on the offspring (Galler et Nurturant mothering caregivers in control groups (Arya, 1989; Chavez, al., 1984). protects children from Martinez & Yaschine, 1975; de Miranda et al., Several studies report the combined stresses 1996; Dixon, LeVine & Brazelton, 1982; Galler disturbed relationships of rapid growth and & Ramsay, 1985; Graves, 1976, 1978; Kerr, between malnourished low quality nutritional Bogues & Kerr, 1978). children and their care- intake. Inadequate On the basis of these findings, Galler et al. givers. Hepner and Maiden mothering precipitates (1984) concluded, “It is increasingly clear that (1971), in a study of 9 000 malnutrition, even in unfavourable or dysfunctional patterns of early disadvantaged urban chil- the presence of more infant care or mother-infant interaction may be dren in Baltimore, used a adequate and balanced significantly involved in the aetiology of matched control design and nutritional intake. malnutrition” (p.270). However, in the absence assessed caregiving on of longitudinal studies, it is also likely that the Polansky et al.’s Childhood onset of early undernutrition could impair the Level of Living Scale (1972). They concluded that infant’s ability to elicit and engage in positive social nurturant mothering protects children from the interactions (Brazelton et al., 1977). Through combined stresses of rapid growth and low quality transactional influences, the caregiver-child dyad nutritional intake, and that inadequate mothering could get locked into precipitates malnutrition even in the presence of maladaptive interactions, more adequate and balanced nutritional intake. Dysfunctional especially if the caregiver is They observed, “A mother may have the best patterns of early infant unable to adapt and respond intentions and desire to perform adequately, but care or mother-infant sensitively to an irritable and her priority for this effort may be deflected by interaction may unresponsive infant (Richter, inundating life circumstances beyond her control. contribute Bac & Hay, 1990; Rossetti- Thus, the pathology of social and economic significantly to Ferreira, 1978). malnutrition. What is clear is that the caregiving of malnourished children is frequently dysfunctional, whether antecedent to or consequent upon malnutrition (ACC/SCN, 2000; Ricciuti, 1981). In a follow-up study of 9-month- old infants hospitalized for illnesses associated with malnutrition, Richter, Bac & Hay (1990) found that the rate and amount of catch-up growth of the children at 2 years of age was predicted by ratings of maternal warmth and responsiveness. The authors speculate that good caregiver-child relationships reduce the impact of malnutrition on children and promote speedy recovery from illness. It is well known that nutrition and caregiving factors cannot be separated in malnutrition, even in highly controlled animal studies. This has been clearly illustrated in studies of malnutrition in rats. All methods of inducing malnutrition in rat pups, whether through malnourishing the dam, increasing the litter size, or mammectomising the dam, result in mother rats compensating for the rat pup’s undernutrition by providing additional care. Rat dams respond to their pup’s small size

and delayed maturation with additional nursing, WHO/L.TAYLOR licking and physical contact. Except under extreme conditions, this heightened maternal Malnourished children need care to break their behaviour compensates for decreases in food cycle of withdrawal and inactivity

44 5. THE IMPACT OF CAREGIVER-CHILD INTERACTIONS ON THE DEVELOPMENT AND HEALTH OF CHILDREN

inadequacy may disrupt the maternal-child home environment, and relationship required for successful child nurture” were probably instrumental An unstable or (p.221). in causing the episode of inadequately nurturant Cravioto & DeLicardie (1976) examined the malnutrition. Grantham- caregiver-child home environments of 334 children in Mexico in McGregor and her col- relationship affects the a prospective community study. They found that leagues (1987; 1994; 1997) child’s health and children who later became malnourished had, on also found that home envi- development. In average, lower home environment scores than ronments of malnourished addition, the poor control children before the episode of children were less adequate health of a child malnutrition. The mothers of the 22 children who than those of control chil- presents a challenge to became malnourished were less sensitive to their dren. Among toddlers in the caregiver and child’s needs, less responsive, less emotionally Chile, Valenzuela (1990) threatens the involved, less verbally communicative and less found that significantly more establishment of warm interested in their children’s performance. On the of the 42 malnourished chil- and responsive basis of these findings, the authors concluded, “A dren she observed were clas- interactions. low level of home stimulation and a passive, sified as insecurely attached traditional mother, unaware of the needs of her to their mothers as com- child, and responding to him in a minimal way, pared to the control children. The classification as if unable to decide the of insecure attachment suggests a less infant’s signals, are two responsive and nurturing caregiver-child relation- Poor social and characteristic features of this ship. economic poor microenvironment that Reviews of the impact of caregiver-child circumstances beyond leads to severe clinical mal- interactions on children’s psychological develop- the caregiver’s control nutrition in children of poor ment and health indicate that children’s health may disrupt the families” (p.34). and development are affected by unstable or caregiver-child Alvarez, Wurgaff & inadequately nurturant caregiver-child relation- relationship. Wider (1982), working in ships. In addition, children’s health status, Santiago, measured maternal especially if atypical, presents a challenge to non-verbal language to 20 caregivers and threatens the establishment of malnourished and 20 matched control children warm and responsive interactions. during three home visits. They found significant differences in non-verbal expressiveness, Young children who do not have a relationship especially during feeding. The authors suggest that with at least one emotionally invested, malnourished children are less attractive than predictably available caregiver – even in the healthy children – they may cry more and more presence of adequate physical care and monotonously, and they elicit less positive cognitive stimulation – display an array of feedback from their caregivers. development deficits that endure over time. Similar findings were reported by Galler and Some children develop intense emotional ties Ramsey (1985) in Barbados, in a study of 129 5- to parents and other caregivers who are to 11-year-old children who had suffered moder- unresponsive, rejecting, highly erratic or frankly ate to severe protein-energy malnutrition in their abusive, and these relationships can also be a first year, matched with 129 controls. Galler and source of serious childhood impairment. Ramsey (1885) argued that many of the poorer micro-environmental conditions of previously Shonkoff & Phillips (2000, p.389) malnourished children were long-standing in the

45 Chapter6 Social and personal determinants of the quality of caregiver-child interactions

number of factors influence the Socio-economic conditions establishment, maintenance and quality of A A large amount of work has been done in caregiver-child interactions. These include factors developed countries on the impact of poverty on in the wider social environment, such as resource children’s development. The positive correlation constraints and social support; factors associated found between socio-economic status and with child characteristics such as physical children’s psychological development and adjust- disability; and factors associated with caregiver ment is consistent (Aber, Jones & Cohen, 1999; characteristics, such as mental and physical health Fitzgerald, Lester & Zuckerman, 1995; Garmezy, (Belsky & Isabella, 1988; Engle & Ricciuti, 1995; 1991; Halpern, 1990; McLoyd, 1990; McLoyd & Rutter, 1979). Flanagan, 1990; Rahmanifar et al., 1993; Richter, Belsky (1984), for example, identified three 1994a; 1999; Skinner, 1985). kinds of determinants of the quality of parenting: • Contextual sources of stress and support, of While many causes underlie the developmental which the quality of the marital relationship problems of the young, the most profound and is an important element; pervasive exacerbating factor is poverty. • Characteristics of the child, such as difficult Poverty does not harm all children, but it does temperament; put them at greater developmental risk, through the direct physical consequences of • Psychological resources of the caregiver, with deprivation, the indirect consequences of a focus on depression, which depletes severe stress on the parent-child relationship, emotional and coping resources. and the overhanging pall of having a There is a very large literature on all of these depreciated status in the social environment. factors, usually discussed under the general David Hamburg (in Halpern, 1990, p.14) heading of developmental risk (Crittenden & Bonvillian, 1984; Emde & Easterbrooks, 1985; Engle & Ricciuti, 1995; Sameroff & Chandler, Poverty is not a distinct episode or state. Especially 1975). in developing countries, poverty is a conglomerate Only selected, illustrative determinants are of conditions and events that create pervasive discussed in the following section. It should be hardship and stress (Huston, McLoyd & Garcia- noted that considerably Coll, 1994). Similarly, there is no single more research has been done mechanism by which poverty affects children. The positive on caregiver factors affecting Rather, says Robert Halpern (1990), “poverty correlation between the quality of relationships increases the likelihood that numerous risk factors socio-economic status with children, than the will be present simultaneously – in the child, the and children’s reverse; that is, the impact of parents, the family’s informal support system, and psychological child characteristics on the neighbourhood; as a corollary, poverty reduces development and caregiver-child interactions the likelihood that protective factors will be adjustment is is a relatively less developed present” (p.9). In addition, risk factors accumulate consistent in all area of study. and concentrate over time, and few opportunities societies. are available for children in poverty, especially in underdeveloped communities, to escape from these cumulative effects or to benefit from interventions that might ameliorate their impact.

46 6. SOCIAL AND PERSONAL DETERMINANTS OF THE QUALITY OF CAREGIVER-CHILD INTERACTIONS

One of the important concerns about their baby and less satisfaction Risk factors ways in which poverty with the social support available to them. These accumulate and affects children is through its mothers reported feeling overwhelmed by the concentrate over time. impact on home environ- challenges of caring for a vulnerable child. Few opportunities are ments, family life, child care Infant temperament, available for children and parenting. For many particularly infant difficult- in poverty, especially people, life is chronically ness, has been found to be Mothers report feeling in underdeveloped stressful as events outside of associated with caregiver- overwhelmed by the communities, to their control, relating to child interaction (Bates, challenges of caring escape from these work, housing, family, and Bennett Freeland, & Louns- for a vulnerable child. cumulative effects or other matters, impinge on bury, 1979; Campbell, to benefit from them in continuous ways, 1979). Sometimes also interventions that depleting their capacity to called behavioural style, temperament is believed might ameliorate their cope. The World Bank to have constitutional origins. impact. publication, Voices of the Difficult children are described as fussy, labile, Poor: From Many Lands, hard to soothe, with frequently negative affect, contains accounts of “people irregularity in eating and sleeping, intense who are worn down by persistent deprivation, reactions to stimuli, and slow adaptation to and buffeted by severe shocks they feel ill changes in the environment. Children with these equipped to overcome” (Narayan & Petesch, characteristics clearly present challenges to 2002, p.1), “childhoods lived struggling against sensitive care (Belsky & Isabella, 1988). the pain of hunger, humiliation and violence” Difficult temperament, however, may be an (p.486), communities exploited by corruption and advantage in some circumstances. De Vries (1984) crime, and people who are disregarded and tracked Masai children in Kenya from one season disrespected by those institutions in society that to another, during which time a severe drought are meant to provide them with assistance – health occurred that reduced the availability of food. The services, welfare offices, agricultural extension growth of children who were rated as irritable, workers, and so on. difficult and demanding before the season was not It is clear that the stressors occasioned by these as adversely affected as the growth of easier, less conditions make it difficult to provide sensitive, demanding children. DeVries speculated that the responsive and stimulating care for young children “difficult” behaviour of these children might have (McLoyd, 1995). Balbernie (2002) suggests that led to them receive more attention and nutrition children may place additional burdens on than easier, less demanding children. Health caregivers stressed by material concerns: “Babies workers in developing countries report a similar broadcast their demands to the exclusion of effect among hospitalized children. Infants who everybody else’s. If parents feel depleted, carry a cry vigorously and persistently are more likely to history of unmet needs and on top of that are receive attention than passive, quiet babies. In struggling to simply get by, then the baby is not resource-constrained environments, the care- just an additional burden, but may also trigger giving a child receives as a result of these envy and be unconsciously cast as scapegoat” temperamental variations may mean the difference (p.332). Certainly, several studies have between life and death. demonstrated a relationship between adversity and the quality of caregiver-child relationships Caregiver characteristics (Shaw & Vondra, 1993). Characteristics of caregivers that are associated Child characteristics with caregiver-child relationships include age, knowledge and mental state, situational factors A number of child characteristics have been found in the home, marital relations and autonomy, and to negatively affect caregiver-child interaction, circumstances beyond the home, such as including prematurity and congenital community resources and supports (Badger, Burns malformations. For example, Bennett and Slade & Vietze, 1981; Cochran & Brassard, 1979; Engle (1991) followed 53 mothers of infants with a & Ricciuti, 1995; Lyons-Ruth et al., 1984; range of neonatal conditions. Mothers of higher Okagaki & Divecha, 1993; Ragozin et al., 1982; risk infants reported higher levels of emotional Spieker & Booth, 1988). distress and depressive symptomatology, more Social support is usually conceptualised in

47 THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN

terms of informational support, emotional support and physical or material support (Barrera & Ainlay, 1983). Social support emerges in many studies as a broad parameter that promotes adaptive coping and moderates the effects of stress. Coping and stress reduction have direct effects on caregiver-child relationships (Adamakos et al., 1986; Mitchell & Trickett, 1980), particularly among vulnerable groups such as teen mothers (Cooper, Dunst & Vance, 1990).

Caregiver social support can affect young children BOB DAEMMRICH (THE IMAGE WORKS) directly, for example, by providing help that frees Families can be powerful sources of support for up the child’s primary caregiver to spend more women looking after young children quality time with the child. It can also affect children indirectly by reducing caregiver stress internal concerns arising from personal and enabling more positive caregiver-child preoccupations or by external concerns that cause interactions. A very large number of studies have her stress and anxiety (Wahler & Dumas, 1989). demonstrated a relationship between social A leading idea in Sigmund Freud’s theory is support and attachment (Jacobson & Frye, 1991), that the conscious and unconscious experiences as well as between social support and maternal a person has in their relationships with their sensitivity and quality of interactions with young parents during infancy and early childhood have children (Crnic et al., 1984; Pascoe et al., 1981). a decisive influence on their subsequent It is also well known that caregiver knowledge relationships, including with their own children. about child development, and parental beliefs This hypothesis is central also to Bowlby’s theory about children (Benasich & Brookes-Gunn, 1996; of internal working models. The general Goodnow, 1988; Sigel, 1985) and their expected proposition has received substantial support milestones of development, affect how caregivers during the last two decades from the results of behave with young children (McGillicuddy- long-term follow-up and prospective attachment DeLisi, 1982; Sigel, 1985). If parents do not realize studies. These studies use the Adult Attachment that their interactions with their children are Interview and other similar instruments that tap important for their child’s development, or they the caregiver’s representation of his or her own are not aware of the need to support their child’s childhood (George, Kaplan & Main, 1985; Main, emerging capacities, they are Kaplan & Cassidy, 1985; van Ijzendoorn, 1995). less likely to provide The results of these studies show that caregivers Parents are less likely appropriately stimulating who are rated as secure before the birth of their to provide stimulating and responsive caregiving own child are more sensitive and responsive in and responsive (Reis, 1988). caregiving than caregivers who are rated as caregiving if they do A great deal of attention insecure. not realize that their in caregiving studies has Parental working models, or caregiver interactions are recently turned to factors representations of a child, have been found to be important for their which affect the emotional present even before a child’s birth (Zeanah & child’s development, or availability of the caregiver Anders, 1987). These representations of the baby if they are not aware of to the child. This refers to as either tough, loving, or punitive, for example, the need to support the extent that the caregiver are partly or wholly outside of conscious their child’s emerging is focused and attentive to awareness. However, they are transmitted to capacities. the child, the child’s babies in the course of the minutiae of everyday activities and responses to interactions, through the caregiver’s actions, tone her (Tronick & Gianino, of voice, patterns of interaction, and so on (Haft 1986b). Dix (1991; 1992), for example, argues & Slade, 1989). Sayre et al. (2001) observed 58 that responsive caregiving for a young child is cerebral palsied children in a follow-up study from strongly affected by caregiver motivation and 16 to 52 months. They found that maternal mood. In order for the caregiver to be sensitive representations of their relationships with their and responsive, the proximal cues from the child children correlated with specific caregiving should exert a maximal influence on caregiver behaviours during feeding interactions. For actions, and she should not be distracted by example, mothers who thought that their children

48 6. SOCIAL AND PERSONAL DETERMINANTS OF THE QUALITY OF CAREGIVER-CHILD INTERACTIONS

were defiant and rebellious were far less sensitive to their child’s pattern of feeding than mothers who did not attribute such negative characteristics to their children. Depression amongst mothers and other primary caregivers is currently of great concern in studies of the early development of the child and the quality of the caregiver-child relationship. Depression frequently manifests as self- preoccupation, irritability, diminished emotional involvement, increased hostility and resentment, fatigue and helplessness (Weissman, Paykel & Klerman, 1972). A very large number of studies WHO/D. WHITNEY demonstrate that depressed mothers are Many people in the home environment can provide withdrawn and/or intrusively insensitive in their a child with supportive care interactions with their infants and young children (Cohn et al., 1986; Cooper et al., 1999; Donovan, Leavill & Walsh, 1998; Hart, Field & Roitfarb, Apart from its effect on children’s adjustment and 1999) and that, from a very early age, infants show attention, caregiver depression may threaten the a disturbed reaction to such behaviour (Field, survival and health of children through a number 1984, 2000; Lyons-Ruth et al., 1986; Martins & of mechanisms, including lack of adequate care Gaffan, 2000). Effects of maternal depression on and decreased surveillance of the child’s safety infants may persist well into childhood and early (Bagedahl-Strindlund, Tunnell & Nillson, 1988; adolescence in the form of behaviour disorders, Rutter, 1990a; Webb, Sanson-Fisher & Bowman, anxiety, depression and attentional problems (Cox 1988). For example, McLennan & Kotelchuck et al., 1987; Galler et al., 2000; Goodman et al., (2000), using data from more than 8 000 women 1993; Kurstjens & Wolke, from the National Maternal and Infant Health 2001; Murray, 1992; Murray Survey in the United States, found that depressed The negative effects of et al., 1999; Petterson & women were less likely to engage in a number of the caregiver’s Albers, 2001). child health and development preventive depression on an As a result of these practices, including the use of child car seats or infant may persist well studies, there is a general restraints, electrical plug covers, and reading to into childhood and consensus that caregiver children to encourage literacy. Similarly, Rahman, early adolescence – in depression during the early Harrington & Bunn (2002) and others (Zeitlin, behaviour disorders, years of children’s lives has Ghassemi & Mansour, 1990) have suggested that anxiety, depression long-term effects on their there are grounds to think that maternal and problems with development. The effects are depression plays a role in the risk of infant illness attention. compounded with other and growth impairment in developing countries risks, such as extended through decreased child surveillance and duration of the depressive inattention to simple health promotional activities. episode, low socio-economic status and being a They suggest that an appreciation of the relation- male child (Field, 1994 McLennan, Kotelchuck ship between maternal depression and child & Cho, 2001; Murray, Hyswell & Hooper, 1996; health will have significant effects on child health Rutter, 1990b). programmes in developing It is not yet clear what accounts for the risk of countries. psychopathology in children of depressed Depression amongst Maternal depression mothers. The heritability of depression is a factor; women with young children plays a role in the risk as are potentially dysfunctional neuroregulatory is very high, reaching up to of infant illness and mechanisms arising innately or through lack of 40% among non-working impaired growth contingent support from caregivers; exposure to poor mothers of preschool through decreased negative caregiver cognitions and erratic children (Chakrabotry, child surveillance and behaviour; and the stressful context of the 1991; Puckering, 1989; inattention to simple children’s lives brought about by having an Sartorius, 1974). For health promotional emotionally disturbed caregiver (Dodge, 1990; example, Cooper et al. activities. Goodman & Gottlib, 1999). (1999) found a prevalence in

49 THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN

excess of 30% among 147 women of 2-month- McLennan and Offord (2002) have looked at a old babies in a poor peri-urban settlement in number of criteria for incorporating programmes South Africa. Similarly, Patel (2002) found addressing maternal depression as part of public depressive disorders in 23% of the women they health efforts to promote children’s mental health. examined in Goa, 6 to 8 weeks after childbirth. These include: These authors conclude that maternal and child • The plausibility for causation of caregiver health policies, which are a priority in low-income depression for child mental health; countries, need to integrate caregiver depression as a disorder of public health significance. Alvarez, • High attributable risk of caregiver depression Wurgaft & Wilder (1982) made an analogous for child mental health; point with respect to interventions for mal- • Alterability of the relationship between nourished children. They concluded, “A caregiver depression and child mental health; depressed, emotionally depleted mother will not be able to utilize educational input. Interventions • Caregiver depression being detectable will have to be broad yet specific enough to through screening; address and ameliorate the dynamics underlying • Feasible dissemination of interventions for the detrimental patterns, and will have to go well targeting maternal depression; beyond content teaching” (p.1369). • Low adverse risk of interventions for maternal depression; and Preventive strategies such as infant feeding advice, sanitation, immunization, health • Acceptability of child mental health and education and health-seeking behaviours are intervention by key stakeholders. mostly directed at the mother. The impact of In their review, McLennan and Offord found these programmes is related, therefore, to the mixed support for programmes on the seven functional capacity of this group, their criteria. The authors urge that further research is receptivity to the message and uptake of the needed on the preventive implications of intervention offered. The mother’s psycho- programmes to ameliorate the impact of caregiver logical well-being is probably key to the depression on children’s mental health. success of these programmes. Rahman, Harrington & Bunn (2002, p.54)

50 Chapter7 Improving caregiver-child interactions Implications for intervention

his paper reviewed evidence that shows that ■ Interventions need to be directed at Tsensitive and responsive caregiving is a especially vulnerable children living in poor requirement for the healthy neurophysiological, communities in developing countries. Improve- physical and psychological development of young ments in caregiver-child interactions among these children. Caregiving affects the cognitive groups of children benefit the child by stimulating functioning, language development, social health and development. They are also likely to adjustment, growth and health of young children. improve the impact of complementary inter- While it is beyond the scope of this paper to ventions to reduce childhood malnutrition, low review specific interventions, the evidence here birth weight and other limiting conditions on the has implications for designing and supporting child. appropriate and effective interventions to improve caregiver-child relationships.1 Messages conveyed to mothers encouraging ■ Interventions to improve caregiver-child them to hold, hug, play with, talk to, and kiss interactions may be targeted at one or more of their babies frequently are important. Such the factors that affect sensitive and responsive advice may seem to some policy makers to caregiving. These include socio-economic be too obvious or simplistic or to insult the conditions, social support, knowledge about natural mothering abilities of their constituents. children’s’ health and development, caregiver Zeitlin, Ghassemi & Mansour (1990, p.52) emotional states, caregiver skills and characteristics of the child (McCollum, 1984; Wendland-Carro, Piccinini & Millar, 1999). It is important to note that a number of random- Programmes may include increased resources ized control trials of interventions targeted at and social support for socially isolated or caregiver-child relationships have already been vulnerable caregivers; efforts to draw male care- undertaken, and that the findings support the givers, who are frequently household decision potential effectiveness of interventions to improve makers, into interventions for women that address caregivers’ sensitivity and responsiveness to the children’s health and development (Lanata, 2001); needs of young children (Armstrong & Morris, and interventions to combat caregiver depression 2000; Broberg, 2000). Many of these interventions and low morale. Efforts to improve caregiver-child use demonstration, instructional materials, relationships by improving the basic caregiving modelling, interaction guidance, reinforcement of skills and the interactions between the caregiver positive parenting attitudes and behaviours, and and child can be inserted into primary health care education to sensitize caregivers to infant (Halfon, 2001; Regalado & Halfon, 2001), early capacities. They also promote caregiver self- child care and development programmes (Myers, confidence, and facilitate caregiver responsiveness 1992), nutritional programmes (Engle & Lhotska, through support for overburdened caregivers 1991) and community development (Young, (Barnard, Morisset & Spieker, 1993; Barrera & 2002). Rosenbaum, 1986; 1993; McDonough, 1995). A number of existing programmes in the United States have been adapted for use in low- income countries; and some programmes to support children’s health and development by strengthening caregiver-child relationships have 1 An overview of interventions to promote the development of especially low-income, nutritionally-at-risk been specifically designed for resource-poor children is the subject of a separate paper. settings (Hundeide, 1991; Klein, 2001).

51 THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN

It is urgent that program- life. The impact of the HIV/AIDS epidemic, like Improved caregiver- mes to enhance caregiver- the homelessness of children following the Second child interactions child relationships in World War, is a crisis of human development promote the health developing countries are whose effects will endure for several generations and development of designed and tested. through its impact on young children. vulnerable children. Improved caregiver-child It is urgent that the knowledge gained about They also increase the interactions promote the the importance of caring relationships between resilience of young health and development of adults and children be applied to benefit children children to the vulnerable children and and caregivers in all of these situations. damaging effects of increase the resilience of poverty and young children to the Early child development (ECD) programs that deprivation. damaging effects of poverty comprehensively address children’s basic and deprivation. needs – health, nutrition, and emotional and intellectual development – foster development Conclusion of capable and productive adults. And early interventions can alter the lifetime trajectories Children who live in difficult conditions are of children who are born poor or are deprived additionally dependent on the nurture of primary of the opportunities for growth and develop- caregivers to shield them from the most ment available to those more fortunate. These threatening features of their environment. Warm facts are well known today and are founded and responsive caregiving extends protection to on evidence from the neurological, behavioral children in otherwise adverse conditions. and social sciences, and the evaluation of Conditions of chronic and worsening poverty model interventions and large, publicly funded prevail in many parts of the world. There are programs. countless communities fraught with violence and instability. Thousands of people flee their homes Mary Eming Young (2002, p.1) each year in search of food, safety and a better

52 Glossary

Affectionless, psychopathic character: A person returns. The child clings to the caregiver incapable of intimate one-to-one relationships when they are reunited, but seems little because of a lack of empathy for others. John comforted by the caregiver’s presence. Bowlby argued that maternal deprivation — Disorganized/disoriented attachment: resulted in an ‘affectionless personality’. Infants with ‘disorganized’ attachment, on Anaclitic depression: First described by Rene the other hand, appear disoriented during Spitz in 1945 as an emotional response in interactions or behave in a manner that securely attached infants who are separated suggests anxiety. A child with a classifi- from their regular caregivers for extended cation of disorganized attachment displays periods of time. The infant may become listless, a combination of resistant and avoidant withdrawn, lose their appetite and interest in patterns that reflects confusion about their surroundings, and become hyper-vigilant whether to approach or avoid the caregiver, with widened, unblinking gaze and immobility. sometimes appears afraid of the caregiver, The result may be death. and may show different patterns in different Attachment: An emotional bond between infant episodes. and one or more adults. The infant will Attunement: An empathic responsiveness approach these individuals in times of distress, between two individuals, described by Daniel particularly during the phase of infant Stern as the “performance of behaviours that development when the presence of strangers express the quality of feeling of a shared affect induces anxiety. In addition, the infant is state” (1985, p.142). Attunement is different distressed if separated from attachment figures. from imitation. Attachment status: A description of an infant’s Behavioural paediatrics: A field of study that attachment as being either secure or insecure. concentrates on the diagnosis, aetiology and • Secure attachment: A child who is securely management of common behavioural problems attached actively explores the environment in and the recognition of serious mental illness the presence of the caregiver, is visibly upset in childhood. by separation, and greets the mother warmly Behaviourism: A school of psychological thought when they are reunited. that studies only unambiguously observable •Insecure attachment: Attachment that takes and preferably measurable behaviour. one of three forms: avoidant attachment, Coding scheme: A set of descriptors according anxious-resistant attachment and disorganized/ to which observed behaviour is classified. disoriented attachment. Coding schemes can be hierarchical with sub- — Avoidant attachment: A child who categories. displays avoidant attachment shows little Contingency: In the context of early caregiver- distress when separated from the caregiver infant interaction, contingency refers to a and may turn away to avoid contact or to behaviour on the part of one individual of the ignore her when they are reunited. dyad that depends for its occurrence on a — Anxious-resistant attachment: A child particular behaviour on the part of the other whose attachment classification is of the individual. The caregiver’s behaviour is anxious-resistant type tries to stay close to contingent on the behaviour of the infant if the the caregiver, explores very little while she caregiver’s behaviour occurs specifically, is present, is very distressed when the immediately and appropriately in response to caregiver leaves but ambivalent when she the infant’s behaviour.

53 THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN

Cross-cultural validity: A characteristic or Inter-observer reliability: The agreement evaluation that confirms that a construct or between the assignment of codes or observation pertains equally to more than one classifications by two or more observers cultural group. watching the same behaviour. Cybernetic theory: The study of regulation and Intersensory coordination: The integration of control in systems by feedback, used to explain information from different senses in such a way aspects of the purposeful behaviour of human as to form a unitary experience. For example, beings. Norbet Weiner, an American math- the baby experiences sensations of sight, smell ematician during World War II, originated the and touch when held by the caregiver. theory to describe and design mechanisms that Intersubjectivity – primary and secondary: rely on feedback to change direction. Subjectivity refers to consciousness and Depression: An affective disorder characterised intentionality. Intersubjectivity is the mutual by a sense of inadequacy, feelings of despon- recognition between two people of the dency or hopelessness, a decrease in activity consciousness and intentionality of each other. and/or reactivity, pessimism, sadness, irrita- Subjectivity and intersubjectivity grow through bility, changes in appetite and sleep patterns, two stages in the infant. and poor concentration. • Primary intersubjectivity: The sharing of Developmental psychology: The field of psych- consciousness between the infant and the adult. ology concerned with the processes of change • Secondary intersubjectivity: The sharing of across the lifespan. Developmental psych- consciousness between the infant and the adult ologists focus predominantly on childhood with respect to objects and events. development, and developmental psychology Internal working model: A cognitive structure, has become synonymous with child or mental schema, developed as a result of, and psychology. representing, the infant’s early relationships Drive reduction: The satisfaction of an internal with primary caregivers. state of tension build-up. For example, eating Interventions: Attempts to influence or change food reduces the hunger drive. the course of events by providing care or EBSCOhost: An electronic journal service (EJS) information or otherwise manipulating a containing a very large number of articles from situation. journals in a number of fields. Intra-observer reliability: The ability of an in- Entrainment: A synchrony of movement between dividual observer to collect results consistently two or more persons, seen especially in on different occasions (e.g. over time or over newborn infants reacting to their mother’s voice conditions). Observer motivation and mood on and movements. In very slow moving films, a particular day, poorly described codes and infants have been observed to move in precise inconsistent coding of behaviours threaten the rhythm and response to the mother’s speech. reliability of findings. Expanded Academic (ASAP): A service on Maternal deprivation: The condition of lacking InfoTrac Web which provides a combination the experience of having been mothered. of indexing, abstracts, images, and full text for Socially deprived infants are believed to scholarly and general interest journals develop abnormally because they have failed embracing all academic disciplines. to establish attachments to a primary caregiver; HOME scores: Scores acquired using the HOME they have been deprived of the experience of Inventory, a measure of social and physical being mothered. aspects of the home environment, including Medline: An electronic database of medical parental behaviour. literature kept by the National Institutes for Identification: The tendency of individuals to Health in Bethesda, Maryland. emulate or adopt the behaviours and attitudes Mentalism: A doctrine that maintains that an of another person. adequate characterization of human behaviour Interactional tempo: The rate and rhythm at is not possible without invoking mental which a caregiver and infant respond to one phenomena as explanations. another. Micro-, macro- and molecular codes: Behaviour can be coded on different levels. Micro and

54 GLOSSARY

molecular codes refer to the smallest units of Psychosocial care: Psychological nurturance meaningful behaviour that can be observed, for provided by persons in an individual’s social example, infant looks at mother. Macro-codes environment. refer to processes or states that are made up of Reciprocity: The situation where an action by one several behavioural components, for example, individual is returned by an action by the baby is fretful. The micro-codes for fretfulness recipient. This ‘give and take’ arrangement is could be made up from mouth down turned, usually mutually agreed upon, implicitly if not arm waving, back arching, crying, etc. explicitly. Non-clinical samples: Persons included in a Regression: A return to an earlier, more im- study but who do not form part of a particular mature, level of functioning. group characterised by some or other medical Reinforcement: Any action, event or experience or psychological background. that increases the probability of a response Observational study: A study which derives its recurring. information from observing situations, Responsiveness: The capacity of the caregiver to behaviours and responses on the part of respond contingently and appropriately to the particular individuals or groups. infant’s signals. Object Relations School: A group of psycho- Scaffolding: A concept derived from Vygotsky’s analysts who attempt to understand inter- theory of mediated learning, scaffolding is the personal relationships by focusing on people process by which someone organizes an event as internalised “objects” that can have that is unfamiliar or beyond a learner’s ability conflicting properties. in order to assist the learner in carry out that Phylogenetic: The origin and evolution of a event. species of animal or plant (as opposed to onto- ScienceDirect: A digital library that began as a genetic, the origin of an individual organism). database of Elsevier Science journals and is now Priming: In learning theory, priming refers to the one of the largest providers of scientific, preparation of a subject (human or animal) by technical and medical (STM) literature. presenting a specific experience that makes the Self-regulation: The act of soothing or calming subject more sensitive or responsive to a wide oneself at times of high physiological and/or range of stimuli. emotional arousal. Proprioceptively organized action: Behaviour Sensitivity: The capacity of the caregiver to be which relies primarily on sensory information aware of the infant and aware of the infant’s from the muscles, tendons, and joints that acts and vocalizations as signals communicat- helps one to locate the position of one’s body ing needs and wants. Ainsworth described or body parts in space. sensitivity as regarding the child as a separate PsychLIT: A database of psychological literature person, and being capable of seeing things from held by the American Psychological the child’s point of view. Association. Formerly published in book form Separation effects: When a child has formed an as ‘Psychological Abstracts’, the current data- attachment, she will display any of a range of base is electronic in form and is also available distress behaviours when separated from the through the Word Wide Web. attachment figure, including protest, Psychoanalytic theory: Generally refers to fearfulness, and despair. Prolonged separation Freudian theory but also describes clinical or produces additional effects such as despair, therapeutic procedures based on Freudian protest, withdrawal, weeping. ideas, especially those related to the Social mediation: Assistance and/or guidance unconscious. given by other members of an individual’s Psychological holding: Donald Winnicott’s group. In Vygotsky’s theory, social mediation conception of the psychic space between the refers to the acquisition of meaning by the child mother and infant, which he held was neither through his familiarity with the way in which wholly psychological nor physical, and which words are used or things are done. For allows for the child’s transition to being more example, the infant’s learning how to use a autonomous. spoon is socially mediated.

55 THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN

Social referencing: The use of information from Taxonomic systems: A collection of procedures the responses of others as clues to the meaning whereby names or descriptions are allocated of otherwise ambiguous situations and/or as a according to an agreed upon logical procedure guide for one’s own reactions. for a particular set of objects. Symbolic medium: Representational facility Temperament: An individual’s characteristic whereby words, images or actions are used as mode of responding emotionally and behav- symbols to represent or stand for objects and iourally to environmental events. Temperament experiences. includes the dimensions of irritability, activity Tabula rasa: The notion that the mind of a human level, fearfulness and sociability. being is a blank slate at birth and that all Withdrawal: The emotional state and demeanour behaviour and knowledge is acquired through of a depressed adult or child. Such individuals experience. show little interest in their surroundings, they lack enthusiasm, appear sad and are relatively inactive and unreactive.

56 Bibliography

Abel, S., Park, J., Tipene-Leach, D., Finau, S., & Ainsworth, M.D.S. (1967). Infancy in Uganda: Infant Lennan, M. (2001). Infant care practices in New care and the growth of love. Baltimore: John Hopkins Zealand: a cross-cultural qualitative study. Social University Press. Science and Medicine, 53(9), 1135–1148. Ainsworth, M.D.S. (1969). Object relations, depend- Aber, J.L., Jones, S., & Cohen, J. (1999). The impact ency and attachment: A theoretical review of the of poverty on the mental health and development infant-mother relationship. Child Development, 40, of very young children. In C.H.Zeanah (Ed.), The 969–1025. Handbook of Infant Mental Health. (p. 113–128). New Ainsworth, M.D.S. (1973). The development of infant- York: The Guilford Press. mother attachment. In B.Caldwell & H.Ricciuti Abravanel, E., & Sigafoos, A.D. (1984). Exploring the (Eds.), Review of Child Developmental Research. (p. presence of imitation during early infancy. Child 1–94). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Development, 55, 381–392. Ainsworth, M.D.S. (1979). Infant-mother attachment. ACC/SCN Commission. (2000). Ending malnutrition American Psychologist, 34, 932–937. by 2020: An agenda for change in the millennium. Ainsworth, M.D.S. (1982). Attachment: Retrospect and Food and Nutrition Bulletin, 21(3), (supplement). prospect. In C.M.Parkes & J.Stevenson-Hinde Adamakos, H., Ryan, K., Ullman, D.G., Pascoe, J., Diaz, (Eds.), The place of attachment in human behaviour. R., & Chessare, J. (1986). Maternal social support (p. 3–30). New York: Basic Books. as a predictor of mother-child stress and stimula- Ainsworth, M.D.S. (1985a). Attachments across the life tion. Child Abuse and Neglect, 10, 463–470. span. Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine, Adams, P.L. (1987). The mother not the father. Journal 61(9), 792–812. of the American Academy of Psychoanalysis, 15(4), Ainsworth, M.D.S. (1985b). Patterns of infant-mother 465–480. attachment: Antecedents and effects on develop- Adamson, L.B., & Bakeman, R. (1984). Mothers’ com- ment. Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine, municative acts: Changes during infancy. Infant 61(9), 771–791. Behavior and Development, 7, 467–478. Ainsworth, M.D.S. (1989). Attachment beyond infancy. Ahnert, L., & Lamb, M.E. (2001). The East German American Psychologist, 44, 709–716. Child Care System: Associations with caretaking and Ainsworth, M.D.S. (1992). A consideration of social caretaking beliefs, and children’s early attachment referencing in the context of attachment theory and and adjustment. American Behavioral Scientist, research. In S. Feinman (Ed.), Social referencing and 44(11), 1843–1863. the social construction of reality in infancy. (p. 349– Ainsworth, M.D.S. (1962). The effects of maternal dep- 367). New York: Perseus Press. rivation: A review of findings and controversy in Ainsworth, M.D.S. (1993). Attachment as related to the context of research strategy. In M.S.D.Ainsworth, mother-infant interaction. Advances in Infancy R.G.Andry, R.G.Harlow, S.Lebovici, M.Mead, Research, 8, 1–50. D.G.Prugh, & B.Wootton (Eds.), Deprivation of Ainsworth, M.D.S. (1997). The personal origins of maternal care: A reassessment of its effects. (p. 97– attachment theory. An interview with Mary Salter 165). Geneva: World Health Organization. Ainsworth. Interview by Peter L. Rudnytsky. Psy- Ainsworth, M.D.S. (1964). Patterns of attachment choanalytic Study of the Child, 52, 386–405. behavior shown by the infant in interaction with Ainsworth, M.D.S., Andry, R.G., Harlow, R.G., his mother. Merrill Palmer Quarterly,1, 51–58. Lebovici, S., Mead, M., Prugh, D.G., & Wootton, B. (1962). Deprivation of maternal care: A reassessment of its effects.

57 THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN

Ainsworth, M.D.S., & Bell, S. (1970). Attachment, Vandell, D.L., Wallner- Allen, K., & Weinraub, M. exploration, and separation: Illustrated by the (2001). Nonmaternal care and family factors in early behavior of one-year-olds in a strange situation test. development: An overview of the NICHD Study of Child Development, 41, 49–67. Early Child Care. Journal of Applied Developmental Ainsworth, M.D.S., Bell, S.M., & Stayton, D.J. (1972a). Psychology, 22(5), 457–492. Individual differences in the development of some Alpher, V.S. (1984). Attachment: A reconsideration of attachment behaviours. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly of its heterogeneity and construct validity. Psychologi- Behaviour and Development, 18, 123–143. cal Reports, 54, 531–535. Ainsworth, M.D.S., Bell, S.M., & Stayton, D.J. (1972b). Als, H. (1977). The newborn communicates. Journal Individual differences in strange situation behavior of Communication, 27, 66–73. of one-year-olds. In H.R Schaffer. (Ed.), The origins Als, H., & Duffy, F.H. (1983). The behavior of the pre- of human social relations. (p. 17–57). London: Aca- mature infant: A theoretical frame work for a sys- demic Press. tematic assessment. In T.B.Brazelton & B.M.Lester Ainsworth, M.D.S., Bell, S.M., & Stayton, D.J. (1974). (Eds.), New approaches to developmental screening of Infant-mother attachment and social development: infants. (p. 153–173). New York: Elsevier Science “Socialization” as a product of reciprocal respon- Publishing Co., Inc. siveness to signals. In M.P.M.Richards. (Ed.), The Als, H., & Gilkerson, L. (1997). The role of relation- integration of a child into a social world. (p. 99–135). ship-based developmentally supportive newborn Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. intensive care in strengthening outcome of preterm Ainsworth, M.D.S., Blehar, M., Waters, E., & Wall, S. infants. Seminars in Perinatology, 21(3), 178–189. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study Als, H., Lawhon, G., Duffy, F.H., McAnulty, G.B., of the strange situation. Hillside, NJ.: Lawrence Gibes-Grossman, R., & Blickman, J.G. (1994). Erlbaum Associates. Individualized developmental care for the very low- Ainsworth, M.D.S., & Eichberg, C.G. (1991). Effects birth-weight preterm infant. Medical and neuro- on infant-mother attachment of mother’s unresolved functional effects. Journal of the American Medical loss of an attachment figure, or other traumatic ex- Association, 272(11), 853–858. perience. In C.M.Parkes, J.Stevenson-Hinde, & Alvarez, M.L., Wurgaft, F., & Wilder, H. (1982). Non P.Marris (Eds.), Attachment across the life cycle. (p. verbal language in mothers with malnourished in- 160–183). New York: Tavistock/Routledge. fants. Social Science and Medicine, 16, 1365–1369. Ainsworth, M.D.S., & Marvin, R.S. (1995). On the Amighi, J.K. (1990). Some thoughts on the cross-cul- shaping of attachment theory and research: An in- tural study of maternal warmth and detachment. terview with Mary D. S. Ainsworth (Fall 1994). Pre- and Peri-Natal Psychology Journal, 5(2), 131– Monographs of the Society for Research in Child De- 146. velopment, 60(2–3), 3–21. Anderson, B.J. (1977). The emergence of conversational Ainsworth, M.D.S., & Wittig, B.A. (1969). Attachment behavior. Journal of Communication, 27, 85–91. and exploratory behavior of one-year-olds in a Anderson, C.W. (1980). Attachment in daily separa- strange situation. In B.M.Foss. (Ed.), Determinants tions: Reconceptualizing day care and maternal of infant behavior. (p. 111–136). London: Methuen. employment issues. Child Development, 51(1), 242– Aitken, K.J., & Trevarthen C. (1997). Self-other or- 245. ganization in human psychological development. Andersson, B.E. (1989). Effects of public day-care. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 651–675. Child Development, 60, 857–866. Alfasi, G. (1982). A failure-to-thrive at play: Applica- Andry, R.G. (1957). Faulty paternal and maternal-child tions of microanalysis. Journal of Pediatric Psychol- relationships, affection and delinquency. British Jour- ogy, 7, 111–123. nal of Delinquency, 1957–48. Allhusen, V., Appelbaum, M., Belsky, J., Booth, C.L., Angold, A., & Costello, E.J. (1995). Developmental Bradley, R.H., Brownwell, C., Burchinal, P., epidemiology. Epidemiological Reviews, 17(1), 74– Caldwell, B., Campbell, S., Clarke-Stewart, A., Cox, 82. M., DeHart, G., Friedman, S.L., Hirsh-Pasek, K., Huston, A.C., Jaeger, E., Johnson, D., Kelly, J., Arend, R., Gove, F., & Sroufe, L.A. (1979). Continuity Knoke, B., Marshall, N., McCartney, K., O’Brien, of individual adaptation from infancy to kindergar- M., Owen, M.T., Payne, C., Phillips, D., Pianta, R.C., ten: A Prospective study of ego-resiliency and curi- Randolph, S., Robeson, S., Wagner, W., Spieker, S.J., osity in preschoolers. Child Development, 50, 950–959.

58 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Argawal, D., Awasthy, A., Upadhyay, S., Singh, P., Balbernie, R. (2002). An infant in context: Multiple Kumar, J., & et al. (1992). Growth, behaviour, risks, and a relationship. Infant Mental Health Jour- development and intelligence in rural children be- nal, 23, 329–341. tween 1–3 years of life. Indian Pediatrics, 29, 467– Banks, E. (1979). Mother-child interaction and com- 480. petence in the first two years of life: Is there a criti- Armstrong, K.L., & Morris, J. (2000). Promoting se- cal period? Child Study Journal, 9(2), 93–107. cure attachment, maternal mood and child health Barbarin, O.A. & Richter, L.M. (2001). Mandela’s chil- in a vulnerable population: A randomized control- dren: Growing up in post-apartheid South Africa. New led trial. Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health, York: Routledge. 36(6), 555–562. Barden, R.C., Ford, M.E., Jensen, A.G., & Rogers- Arya, S. (1989). Infant nutrition and mother-child dyad. Salyer, M. (1989). Effects of craniofacial deformity Indian Journal of Clinical Psychology, 16, 34–40. in infancy on the quality of mother-infant inter- Austin, J. (1962). How to do things with words. Oxford: actions. Child Development, 60(4), 819–824. Oxford University Press. Barglow, P., Vaughn, B.E., & Molitor, N. (1987). Ef- Ayoub, C.C., & Milner, J.S. (1985). Failure to thrive: fects of maternal absence due to employment on Parental indicators, types, and outcomes. Child the quality of infant-mother attachment in a low- Abuse and Neglect, 9, 491–499. risk sample. Child Development, 58, 945–954. Azar, S., Robinson, D., Hekimian, E., & Twentyman, Barnard, K.E., Morisset, C.E., & Spieker, S. (1993). C.T. (1984). Unrealistic expectations and problem- Preventative interventions: Enhancing parent-infant solving ability in maltreating and comparison moth- relationships. In C.H.Zeanah (Ed.), Handbook of ers. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 52, Infant mental health. (p. 386–401). New York: The 687–691. Guilford Press. Badger, E., Burns, D., & Vietze, P. (1981). Maternal Barocas, R., Seifer, R., Sameroff, A.J., Andrews, T.A., risk factors as predictors of developmental outcome Croft, R.T., & Ostrow, E. (1991). Social and inter- in early childhood. Infant Mental Health Journal, personal determinants of developmental risk. De- 2(1), 33–43. velopmental Psychology, 27 (3), 479–488. Bagedahl-Strindlund, M. (1998). Children of mentally Barrera, M.E., & Ainlay, S. (1983). The structure of ill mothers: mental development, somatic growth social support: A conceptual and empirical analy- and social. Scandinavian Journal of Social Medicine, sis. Journal of Community Psychology, 11, 133–143. 16(2), 121–127. Barrera, M.E., Doucet, D.A., & Kitching, K.J. (1990). Bagedahl-Strindlund, M., Tunell, R., & Nilsson, B. Early home intervention and socio-emotional de- (1988). Children of mentally ill mothers: mortality velopment of preterm infants. Infant Mental Health and utilization of paediatric health services. Acta Journal, 11, 142–157. Paediatrica Scandinavica, 77(2), 242–250. Barrera, M.E., & Rosenbaum, P. (1986). The transac- Baird, S.M., Haas, L., McCormick, K., Carruth, C., & tional model of early home intervention. Infant Tu r ner, K.D. (1992). Approaching an objective sys- Mental Health Journal, 7, 121–131. tem for observation and measurement: Infant- Barrera, M.E., Rosenbaum, P.L., & Cunningham, C.E. Parent Social Interaction Code. Topics in Early Child- (1986). Early home intervention with low-birth- hood Special Education, 12(4), 544–571. weight infants and thier parents. Child Development, Bakeman, R., & Brown, J.V. (1977). Behavioral dia- 57, 20–33. logues: An approach to the assessment of mother- Bates, J.E. (1980). The concept of difficult tempera- infant interaction. Child Development, 48, 195–203. ment. Merrill Palmer Quarterly, 5026, 299–319. Bakeman, R., & Brown, J.V. (1981). Early interaction: Bates, J.E., Bennett Freeland, C.A., & Lounsbury, M.L. Consequences for social and mental development (1979). Measurement of infant difficultness. Child at three years. In S.Chess & A.Thomas (Eds.), Development, 50, 794–803. Annual Progress in Child Psychiatry and Child Devel- Bates, J.E., Maslin, C.A., & Frankel, K.A. (1985). At- opment. (p. 17–35). New York: Brunner-Mazel Pub- tachment security, mother-child interaction, and lishers. temperament as predictors of behavior-problem Balbernie, R. (2001). Circuits and circumstances: The ratings at age three years. In I.Bretherton & E.Waters neurological consequences of early relationship (Eds.), (p. 167–193). Monographs of the Society for experiences and how they shape later behaviour. Research in Child Development. Journal of Child Psychotherapy, 27, (3), 237–255.

59 THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN

Bateson, M.C. (1971). The interpersonal context of Bell, R.Q. (1979). Parent, child, and reciprocal influ- infant vocalization. Quarterly Progress Report of the ences. American Psychologist, 34(10), 821–826. Laboratory of Electronics, 100, 101–113. Bell, S. (1970). The development of the concept of the Bateson, M.C. (1979). ‘The epigenesis of conversation object as related to infant-mother attachment. Child interaction’: a personal account of research devel- Development, 41, 291–311. opment. In M.Bullowa (Ed.), Before Speech. (p. 63– Bell, S., & Ainsworth, M.D.S. (1972). Infant crying 77). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. and maternal responsiveness. Child Development, 43, Bauman, P.S., & Dougherty, F.E. (1983). Drug-addicted 1171–1190. mothers’ parenting and their children’s develop- Belsky, J. (1981). Early human experience: a family ment. The International Journal of the Addictions, perspective. Developmental Psychology, 17(1), 3–23. 18(3), 291–302. Belsky, J. (1984). The determinants of parenting: A Baumwell, L., Tamis-LeMonda, C.S., & Bornstein, M.H. process model. Child Development, 55, 83–96. (1997). Maternal verbal sensitivity and child lan- Belsky, J. (1988). Annotation: Infant day care and guage comprehension. Infant Behavior and Develop- socioemotional development: The United States. ment, 20(2), 247–258. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 29(4), Beck, C.T. (2001). Predictors of postpartum depres- 397–406. sion – An update. Nursing Research, 50(5), 275– Belsky, J., & Fearon, R.M.P. (2002). Infant-mother at- 285. tachment security, contextual security, and early Becker, P.T., Grunwald, P.C., & Brazy, J.E. (1999). development: A moderational analysis. Development Motor organization in very low birth weight infants and Psychopathology, 14, 293–310. during caregiving: effects of a developmental inter- Belsky, J., Fish, M., & Isabella, R. (1991). Continuity vention. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral and discontinuity in infant negative and positive Pediatrics, 20(5), 344–354. emotionality: Family antecedents and attachment Beckwith, L. (1972). Relationships between infants’ consequences. Developmental Psychology, 27, 421– social behaviour and thier mothers’ behaviour. Child 431. Development, 43, 397–411. Belsky, J., Goode, M.K., & Most, R.K. (1980). Mater- Beckwith, L. (1984). Parent interaction with their nal stimulation and infant exploratory competence: preterm infants and later mental development. Early Cross-sectional, correlational and experimental Child Development and Care, 16, 27–40. analyses. Child Development, 51, 1163–1178. Beckwith, L., & Cohen, S.E. (1989). Maternal respon- Belsky, J., & Isabella, R. (1988). Maternal, infant and siveness with preterm infants and later competency. social-contextual determinants of attachment secu- In M.Bornstein (Ed.), Maternal responsiveness: Char- rity. In J.Belsky. & T.Nezworski (Eds.), Clinical im- acteristics and consequences. (p. 75–87). San Fran- plications of attachment. (p. 41–94). NJ: Hillsdale: cisco: Jossey-Bass Inc. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Beckwith, L., & Rodning, C. (1996). Dyadic processes Belsky, J., & Rovine, M. (1987). Temperament and at- between mothers and preterm infants: Development tachment security in the strange situation: An em- at ages 2 to 5 years. Infant Mental Health Journal, pirical rapprochement. Child Development, 58, 17(4), 322–333. 787–795. Bee, H.L., Barnard, K.E., Eyres, S.J., Gray, C.A., Belsky, J., & Rovine, M. (1988). Nonmaternal care in Hammond, M.A., Spietz, A.L., Snyder, C., & Clark, the first year of life and security of attachment. Child B. (1982). Predictions of IQ and language skills from Development, 59, 157–167. perinatal status, child performance, family charac- Belsky, J., Taylor, D., & Rovine, M.J. (1984). The Penn- teristics, and mother-infant interaction. Child De- sylvania Infant and Family Development Project, velopment, 53, 1134–1156. III: The origins of individual differences in infant- Bégin, F., Frongillo, E.A., & Delisle, H. (1999). mother attachment: Maternal and infant contribu- Caregiver behaviors and resources influence child tions. Child Development, 55, 718–728. height-for-age in rural Chad. Journal of Nutrition, Belsky, J., Youngblade, L., & Pensky, E. (1989). 129(3), 680–686. Childrearing history, marital quality, and maternal Bell, R.Q. (1974). Contributions of humans infants to affect: Intergenerational transmission in a low-risk caregiving and social interaction. In M.Lewis & sample. Development and Psychopathology, 1(4), 291– L.A.Rosenblum. (Eds.), The effect of the infant on its 304. caregiver. (p. 1–19). New York: John Wiley & Sons.

60 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Benasich, A.A., & Brookes-Gunn, J. (1996). Maternal Bithoney, W.G., McJunkin, J., Michalek, J., Snyder, J., attitudes and knowledge of child-rearing: Associa- Egan, H., & Epstein, D. (1991). The effect of a tions with family and child outcomes. Child Devel- multidisciplinary team approach on weight gain in opment, 67, 1186–1205. nonorganic failure-to-thrive children. Journal of De- Benasich, A.A., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Clewell, B.C. velopmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 12(4), 254– (1992). How do mothers benefit from early inter- 258. vention programs? Journal of Applied Developmental Bjorklund, D.F., & Pellegrini, A.D. (2000). Child de- Psychology, 13, 311–362. velopment and evolutionary psychology. Child De- Bender, F.W. (1983). A videotape analysis of mother- velopment, 71(6), 1687–1708. infant interaction at 6 and 12 months among dia- Black, M.M., & Dubowitz, H. (1991). Failure to thrive: betic women and a control group. Dissertation Lessons from animal models and developing coun- Abstracts International, 44(3–B), 933. tries. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Bennett, D.E., & Slade, P. (1991). Infants born at risk: Pediatrics, 2, 259–267. Consequences for maternal post-partum adjust- Black, M.M., Dubowitz, H., Hutcheson, J., Berenson- ment. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 64, 159– Howard, J., & Starr, R.H. (1995). A randomized 172. clinical trial of home intervention for children with Benoit, D., Zeanah, C.H. , & Barton, M.L. (1989). failure to thrive. Pediatrics, 95(6), 807–814. Maternal attachment disturbances in failure to Blackford, J.U., & Walden, T.A. (1998). Individual thrive. Infant Mental Health Journal, 10(3), 185–201. differences in social referencing. Infant Behavior and Benoit, D., Zeanah, C.H., Boucher, C., & Minde, K.K. Development, 21(1), 89–102. (1992). Sleep disorders in early childhood: Asso- Blehar, M., Lieberman, R.F., & Ainsworth, M.S.D. ciation with insecure maternal attachment. Journal (1977). Early face-to-face interaction and its rela- of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psy- tion to later infant-mother attachment. Child De- chiatry, 31(1), 86–93. velopment, 48, 182–194. Bentley, M., Stallings, R., Futumoto, M., & Elder, J. Blount, B.G. (1982). Culture and the language of social- (1991). Maternal feeding behaviour and child ac- ization: Parental speech. In D.A.Wagner & H.W. ceptance of food during diarrhea, convalescence, Stevenson (Eds.), Cultural perspectives on child devel- and health in Central Sierra of Peru. American Jour- opment. (p. 54). San Francisco: W.H. Freeman & Co. nal of Public Health, 81, 43–47. Blurton-Jones, N. (1974). Ethology and early Berman, P.W. (1987). Children caring for babies: Age socialisation. In M.P.M.Richards. (Ed.), The integra- and sex differences in response to infant signals and tion of a child into a social world. (p. 263–295). Cam- to the social context. In N.Eisenberg. (Ed.), Con- bridge: Cambridge University Press. temporary topics in developmental psychology. (p. 141– Blurton-Jones, N., Woodson, R.H., & Chisholm, J. 164). New York: John Wiley and Sons. (1979). Cross-cultural perspectives on the signifi- Bernstein, V.J., Jeremy, R.J., & Marcus, J. (1986). cance of social relationships in infancy. In D.Schaffer Mother-infant interaction in multi-problem fami- & J.Dunn (Eds.), The first year of life. (p. 117–131). lies: Finding those at risk. Journal of the American New York: Wiley and Son. Academy of Child Psychiatry, 25, 631–640. Boccia, M., & Campos, J.J. (1989). Maternal emotional Berwick, D. (1980). Non-organic failure to thrive. signals, social referencing, and infants’ reactions to Pediatric Review, 1(265), 270. strangers. New Directions for Child Development, Bettes, B. (1988). Maternal depression and motherese: 44,25–49. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Temporal intonational features. Child Development, Boddy, J.M., & Skuse, D.H. (1994). Annotation: The 59, 1089–1096. process of parenting in failure to thrive. Journal of Biringen, Z., & Robinson, J.-A. (1991). Emotional avail- Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 35(3), 401–424. ability in mother-child interactions: A reconcept- Bohlin, G., Hagekull, B., & Lindhagen, K. (1981). Di- ualization for research. American Journal of mensions of infant behavior. Infant Behavior and Orthopsychiatry, 61(2), 258–271. Development, 4, 83–96. Bischof-Kohler, D. (1991). The development of empa- Bohlin, G., Hagekull, B., Germer, M., Andersson, K., thy in infants. In M.E.Lamb & H.Keller (Eds.), In- & Lindberg, L. (1989). Avoidant and resistant re- fant development: Perspectives from German-speaking union behaviors as predicted by maternal interac- countries. (p. 245–273). Hillsdale, New Jersey: Law- tive behavior and infant temperament. Infant rence Erlbaum Associates. Behavior and Development, 12, 105–117.

61 THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN

Bohlin, G., Hagekull, B., & Rydell, A.M. (2000). At- ment of infant, parental status, and gender. Child tachment and social functioning: A longitudinal Development, 53, 1291–1298. study from infancy to middle childhood. Social Bousha, D.M., & Twentyman, C.T. (1984). Mother- Development, 9(1), 24–39. child interactional style in abuse, neglect, and con- Bohman, M., & Sigvardsson, S. (1979). Long term ef- trol groups: Naturalistic observations in the home. fects of early institutional care: A prospective lon- Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 93(1), 106–114. gitudinal study. Journal of Child Psychology and Bowlby, J. (1951). Maternal care and mental health. Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 20, 111–117. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 1951–533. Booth, C.L., Barnard, K.E., Mitchell, S.K., & Spieker, Bowlby, J. (1958). The nature of the child’s tie to its J. (1987). Successful intervention with multi-prob- mother. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 39, lem mothers: Effects on the mother-Infant relation- 350–373. ship. Infant Mental Health Journal, 8(3), 288–306. Bowlby, J. (1960). Grief and mourning in infancy and Booth, C.L., Mitchell, S.K., Barnard, K.E., & Spieker, S. early childhood. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, (2002). Development of maternal social skills in 15, 9–52. multiproblem families: Effects on the mother-child Bowlby, J. (1961). The Adolf Meyer lecture: Childhood relationship. Developmental Psychology, 25(3), 403– mourning and its implications for psychiatry. Ameri- 412. can Journal of Psychiatry, 1961–498. Borduin, C.M., Henggeler, S.W., Sanders-Walls, M., & Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss (Vol. 1). Attach- Harbin, F. (1986). An evaluation of social class dif- ment. New York: Basic Books. ferences in verbal and nonverbal maternal controls, maternal sensitivity and child compliance. Child Bowlby, J. (1973). Attachment and loss: Vol 2. Separa- Study Journal, 16(2), 95–112. tion, anxiety and anger. New York: Basic Books. Borkowski, J.G.E., Ramey, S.L., & Bristol-Power, M. Bowlby, J. (1977). The making and breaking of (2002). Parenting and the child’s world: Influences on affectional bonds. British Journal of Psychiatry, 130, academic, intellectual, and social-emotional develop- 201–210. ment. Mahwah, NJ, US: Lawrence Erlbaum Associ- Bowlby, J. (1980). Attachment and loss: Vol 3. Loss, sad- ates, Inc., Publishers. ness and depression. New York: Basic Books. Bornstein, M.H. (1989a). Maternal responsiveness: Char- Bowlby, J. (1982). Attachment and loss: Retrospect and acteristics and consequences. CA:San Francisco: prospect. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 52(4), Jossey-Bass. 664–678. Bornstein, M.H. (1989b). Sensitive periods in devel- Bowlby, J. (1988). A secure base: Parent-child attachment opment: Structural characteristics and causal inter- and healthy human development. New York: Basic pretations. Psychological Bulletin, 105(2), 179–197. Books. Bornstein, M.H. (1989). Cross-cultural developmen- Bradley, R.H., & Caldwell, B.M. (1976). Early home tal comparisons: The case of Japanese-American environment and changes in mental test perform- infant and mother activities and interactions. De- ance in children from 6 to 36 months. Developmen- velopmental Review, 9, 171–204. tal Psychology, 12, 93–97. Bornstein, M.H., & Sigman, M.D. (1986). Continuity Bradley, R.H., & Caldwell, B.M. (1984). The HOME in mental development from infancy. Child Devel- Inventory and family demographics. Developmen- opment, 57, 251–274. tal Psychology, 20, (2), 315–320. Bornstein, M.H., & Tamis-LeMonda, C.S. (1989). Ma- Bradley, R.H., & Caldwell, B.M. (1995). Caregiving and ternal responsiveness and cognitive development. the regulation of child growth and development: In M.H.Bornstein (Ed.), Maternal responsiveness: Describing proximal aspects of caregiving systems. Characteristics and consequences. (p. 49–61). San Developmental Review, 15, 38–85. Francisco: Jossey-Bass Inc. Bradley, R.H., Caldwell, B.M., Rock, S.L., Barnard, K.E., Boukydis, C.F.Z. (2000). Support services and peer Gray, C., Hammond, M.A., Mitchell, S., Siegel, L., support for parents of at-risk infants: An interna- Ramey, C.T., Gottfried, A.W., & Johnson, D.L. tional perspective. Children’s Health Care, 29(2), (1989). Home environment and cognitive develop- 129–145. ment in the first three years of life: A collaborative Boukydis, C.F.Z., & Burgess, R.L. (1982). Adult physi- study involving six sites and three ethnic groups in ological response to infant cries: Effects of tempera- North America. Developmental Psychology, 25(2), 217–235.

62 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bradley, R.H., Casey, P.H., & Wortham, B. (1984). Bretherton, I. (1987a). Attachment theory: Retrospect Home environment of low SES non-organic failure- and prospect. In I.Bretherton & E.Waters (Eds.), to-thrive infants. Merrill Palmer Quarterly, 30, 393– Growing points of attachment theory and research. (p. 402. 3–35). Chicago: Chicago University Press. Bradley, R.H., Whiteside-Mansell, L., Brisby, J.A., & Bretherton, I. (1987b). New perspectives on attach- Caldwell, B.M. (1997). Parents socioemotional in- ment relations: Security, communication and inter- vestment in children. Journal of Marriage and the nal working models. In J.Osofsky (Ed.), Handbook Family, 59(1), 77–90. of infant development. (p. 1061–1100). New York: Bradley, R.H., Whiteside, L., Mundfrom, D.J., Casey, Basic Books. P.H., Kelleher, K.J., & Pope, S.K. (1994). Early in- Bretherton, I. (1992). Social referencing, intentional dications of resilience and their relation to experi- communication, and the interfacing of minds in ences in the home environments of low birthweight, infancy. In S.Feinman (Ed.), Social referencing and premature children living in poverty. Child Devel- the social construction of reality in infancy. (p. 57–77). opment, 65(2), 346–360. New York: Perseus. Bradshaw, D.L., Goldsmith, H.H., & Campos, J.J. Bretherton, I. (1994). The origins of attachment theory: (1987). Attachment, temperament, and social ref- John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth. In R.Parke, erencing: Interrelationships among three domains P.Ornstein, J.Rieser, & C.Zahn-Waxler (Eds.), A cen- of infant affective behavior. Infant Behavior and De- tury of developmental psychology. (p. 431–471). New velopment, 10, 223–231. York: American Psychological Association. Brazelton, T.B. (1974). Does the neonate shape his Bretherton, I., & Bates, E. (1979). The emergence of environment? Birth Defects Original Article Series, 10, intentional communication. New Directions for Child 131–140. Development, 4, 81–100. Brazelton, T.B. (1982). Joint regulation of neonate-par- Breunlin, D.C., Desai, V.J., Stone, M.E., & Swilley, J.A. ent behavior. Baltimore: University Park Press. (1983). Failure-to-thrive with no organic etiology: Brazelton, T.B., Koslowski, B., & Main, M. (1974). The A critical review of the literature. International Jour- origins of reciprocity: The early mother-infant in- nal of Eating Disorders, 2(3), 25–49. teraction. In M.Lewis & L.A.Rosenblum. (Eds.), The Brighi, A. (1997). Patterns of mother-infant interac- effects of the infant on its caregiver. (p. 49–76). New tion and contingency learning in full-term infants. York: John Wiley & Sons. Early Development and Parenting, 6(1), 37–45. Brazelton, T.B., & Tronick, E. (1980). Preverbal com- Brim, O.G. (1975). Macro-structural influences on munication between mothers and infants. In D. R. child development and the need for childhood so- Olson (Ed.), The social foundations of language and cial indicators. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, thought. (p. 299–315). NewYork: W.W. Norton and 45(4), 516. Company. Broberg, A.G. (2000). A review of interventions in the Brazelton, T.B., Tronick, E.Z., Adamson, L.B., Als, H., parent-child relationship informed by attachment & Wise, S. (1975). Early mother-infant reciprocity. theory. Acta Paediatrica Supplement, 89(434), 37– In Ciba Foundation Symposium 33 (Ed.), Parent- 42. infant interaction. (p. 137–154). Amsterdam: Brody, E.B. (2004). The search for mental health: A his- Elsevier. tory and memoir of WFMH, 1947–1997. Brazelton, T.B., Tronick, E.Z., Lechtig, A., & Klein, R. Brody, G.H., Stoneman, Z., & McCoy, J.K. (1994). (1977). The behaviour of nutritionally deprived Contributions of protective and risk factors to lit- Guatemalan infants. Developmental Medicine and eracy and socioemotional competency in former Child Neurology, 19, 364–372. Head Start children attending kindergarten. Early Bråten, S. (1998). Intersubjective communication and Childhood Research Quarterly, 9(3–4), 407–425. emotion in early ontogeny. New York: Cambridge Brody, S. (1981). The concepts of attachment and bond- University Press. ing. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Associa- Bretherton, I. (1980). Young children in stressful situ- tion, 29(4), 815–829. ation: The supporting role of attachment figures and Brody, S., & Axelrad, S. (1977). Maternal stimulation unfamiliar caregivers. In G.V.Coelho and P.Ahmed. and social responsiveness of infants. In H.R Schaffer. (Ed.), Uprooting and development. (p. 179–210). New (Ed.), Studies in mother-infant interaction. (p. 195– York: Plenum. 215). London: Academic Press.

63 THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human de- Calkins, S.D. (1994). Origins and outcomes of indi- velopment. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University vidual differences in emotion regulation. Mono- Press. graphs of the Society for Research in Child Development, Brooks-Gunn, J., & Furstenberg, F.F. (1986). Anteced- 59(2–3), 53–72. ents and consequences of parenting: The case of Call, J.D. (1984). Child abuse and neglect in infancy: adolescent motherhood. In A.Fogel & G.Melson. Sources of hostility within the parent-infant dyad (Eds.), Origins of nurturance: Developmental, biologi- and disorders of attachment in infancy. Child Abuse cal and cultural perspectives on caregiving. (p. 233– and Neglect, 8, 185–202. 259). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum. Camp, B.W., Morgan, L.J., & Schmidt, B. (1987). In- Brookes-Gunn, J., Han, W., & Waldfogel, J. (2002). fant vocalization: An index of maternal attitude to- Maternal employment and child cognitive outcomes ward the child. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 12(3), in the first three years of life: n the NICHD Study of 333–341. Early Child Care. Child Development, 73, 1052– Campbell, F.A., Pungello, E.P., Miller-Johnson, S., 1072. Burchinal, M., & Ramey, C.T. (2001). The develop- Bruner, J. (1975). The ontogenesis of speech acts. Jour- ment of cognitive and academic abilities: growth nal of Child Language, 2, 1–19. curves from an early childhood educational experi- Bruner, J. (1983). Child’s talk. New York: W.W. Norton. ment. Developmental Psychology, 37(2), 231–242. Bruner, J. (1985). Vygotsky: a historical and concep- Campbell, S.B.G. (1979). Mother-infant interaction as tual perspective. In J.V.Wertsch (Ed.), Culture, com- a function of maternal ratings of temperament. Child munication and cognition: Vygotskian perspectives. (p. Psychiatry and Human Development, 10(2), 67–76. 21–85). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Campos, J.J., & Barrett, K.C. (1985). Toward a new Bruner, J., & Sherwood, V. (1983). Thought, language understanding of emotions and their development. In and interaction in infancy. In J.D.Call, E.Galenson, C.E.Izard (Ed.), (p. 229–263). New York: Cam- & R.Tyson (Eds.), Frontiers of psychiatry, (Vol 2.). bridge University Press. (p. 39–55). New York: Basic Books. Campos, J.J., Campos, R.G., & Barrett, K.C. (1989). Burchinal, M.R., Bryant, D.M., Lee, M.W., & Ramey, Emergent themes in the study of emotional devel- C.T. (1992). Early day care, infant-mother attach- opment and emotion regulation. Developmental ment, and maternal responsiveness in the infant’s Psychology, 25(3), 394–402. first year. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 7(3), Caplan, P.J., & Hall-McCorquodale, I. (1985). The 383–396. scapegoating of mothers: A call for change. Ameri- Burchinal, M.R., Lee, M., & Ramey, C. (1989). Type of can Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 55(4), 610–613. day-care and preschool intellectual development in Carey, W.B. (1986). Clinical interactions of tempera- disadvantaged children. Child Development, 60, ment: Transitions from infancy to childhood. In 128–137. R.Plomin & J.Dunn (Eds.), The study of tempera- Burgess, R.L., & Youngblade, L.M. (1988). Social in- ment: Changes, continuities, and challenges. (p. 151– competence and the intergenerational transmission 162). Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum. of abusive parental practices. In G.T.Hotaling & Carlson, E.A. (1998). A prospective longitudinal study D.Finkelhor (Eds.), Family abuse and its conse- of attachment disorganization/disorientation. Child quences: New directions in research. (p. 38–60). Thou- Development, 69(4), 1107–1128. sand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Carlson, V., Cicchetti, D., Barnett, D., & Braunwald, Burns, K., Chethik, L., Burns, W.J., & Clark, R. (1991). K. (1989). Disorganized/Disoriented attachment Dyadic disturbances in cocaine-abusing mothers relationships in maltreated infants. Developmental and their infants. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 47(2), Psychology, 25(4), 525–531. 316–319. Case, A., & Paxson, C. (2002). Parental behaviour and Caldwell, B.M., & Bradley, R.H. (1984). Home obser- child health. Health Affairs, 21, 164–178. vation for measurement of the environment. Little Rock, Casey, P.H. (1987). Failure-to-thrive: Transitional per- Arkansas: University of Kansas Press. spective. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Caldwell, B.M., Hersher, L., Lipton, E.L., Richmond, Pediatrics, 8(1), 37–38. J.B., Stern, G.A., Eddy, E., Drachman, R., & Casey, P.H., Barrett, K., Bradley, R.H., & Spiker, D. Rothman, A. (1963). Mother-infant interaction in (1993). Pediatric clinical assessment of mother-child monomatric and polymatric families. American Jour- interaction: concurrent and predictive validity. Jour- nal of Orthopsychiatry, 33, 653–664. nal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 14, 313–317.

64 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Casler, L. (1961). Maternal deprivation: A critical re- nately friendly behavior in children adopted from view of the literature. Monographs of the Society for Romanian orphanages. Development and Psychopa- Research in Child Development, 26(1) thology, 7(2), 283–294. Casler, L. (1965). The effects of extra tactile stimula- Church, A.T., & Katigbak, M.S. (1991). Home envi- tion on a group of institutionalized infants. Genetic ronment, nutritional status and maternal intelli- Psychology Monographs, (1), 137–175. gence as determinants of intellectual development Cassidy, J. (1988). Child-mother attachment and the in rural Philippine preschool children. Intelligence, self in six-year-olds. Child Development, 59, 121– 15, 49–78. 134. Cicchetti, D. (1989). How research on child maltreat- Cassidy, J. (1994). Emotional regulation: Influences of ment has informed the study of child development: attachment relationships. In N.A.Fox (Ed.), The Perspectives from developmental psychopathology. development of emotion regulation: Biological and In D.Cicchetti & V.Carlson (Eds.), Child maltreat- behavioral considerations. (p. 228–249). Mono- ment: Theory and research on the causes and conse- graphs of the Society for Research in Child Develop- quences of child abuse and neglect. (p. 377–431). New ment. York: Cambridge University Press. Cassidy, J., & Berlin, L.J. (1994). The insecure/ambiva- Cicchetti, D., & Carlson, V. (1989). Child maltreatment: lent pattern of attachment: Theory and research. Theory and research on the causes and consequences of Child Development, 65, 971–991. child abuse and neglect. New York: Cambridge Uni- versity Press. Caudill, W., & Weinstein, H. (1969). Maternal care and infant behaviour in Japan and America. Psy- Cicchetti, D., Cummings, E.M., Greenberg, M.T., & chiatry, 32, 12–42. Marvin, R.S. (1990). An organizational perspective on attachment beyond infancy: Implications for Chakrabotry, S. (1991). Social stress and mental health. theory, measurement, and research. In M.T.Green- New Delhi: Sage. berg, D.Cicchetti, & E.M.Cummings (Eds.), Attach- Chamberlin, R. (19890). Editorial: Home Visiting, A ment in the preschool years. (p. 3–49). Chicago: necessary but not sufficient program component for University of Chicago Press. promoting the health and development of families Clarke-Stewart, K.A. (1973). Interactions between and children. Pediatrics, 84, 178–180. mothers and their young children: Characteristics Chang, P., Thompson, T.R., & Fisch, R.O. (1982). Fac- and consequences. Monographs of the Society for Re- tors affecting attachment between infants and moth- search in Child Development, 38(6–7). ers separated at birth. Journal of Developmental and Clarke-Stewart, K.A. (1978). And Daddy makes three: Behavioral Pediatrics, 3(2), 96–98. The father’s impact on mother and young child. Chase-Lansdale, P.L., & Owen, M.T. (1987). Maternal Child Development, 49(2), 466–478. employment in a family context: Effects on infant- Clarke-Stewart, K.A. (1979). Evaluating parental ef- mother and infant-father attachments. Child Devel- fects on child development. In L.Shulman (Ed.), opment, 58, 1505–1512. Review of research in education (Vol 6.). Itasca, IL: F Chase, P., & Martin, H. (1970). Undernutrition and E Peacock. child development. New England Journal of Medi- Clarke-Stewart, K.A. (1988). Parents’ effects on chil- cine, 282, 933. dren’s development: A decade of progress? Journal Chavez, A., Martinez, C., & Yaschine, T. (1975). Nu- of Applied Developmental Psychology, 9, 41–84. trition, behavioural development and mother-child Clarke-Stewart, K.A., & Hevey, C.M. (1981). Longitu- interaction in young rural children. Federation Pro- dinal relations in repeated observations of mother- ceedings, 34, 1574–1582. child interaction from 1 to 2_ years. Developmental Chen, C.H., Wang, T.M., & Chi, C.S. (2000). Indi- Psychology, 17(2), 127–145. vidualized developmental care in the newborn in- Clarke-Stewart, K.A., VanderStoep, L.P., & Killian, G.A. tensive care unit. Acta Paediatrica Taiwan., 41(3), (1979). Analysis and replication of mother-child 119–122. relations at two years of age. Child Development, Chisholm, K. (1998). A three year follow-up of attach- 50(3), 777–793. ment and indiscriminate friendliness in children Coates, D.L., & Lewis, M. (1984). Early mother-infant adopted from Romanian orphanages. Child Devel- interaction and infant cognitive status as predictors opment, 69(4), 1092–1106. of school performance and cognitive behavior in Chisholm, K., Carter, M.C., Ames, E.W., & Morison, six-year-olds. Child Development, 55, 1219–1230. S.J. (1995). Attachment security and indiscrimi-

65 THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN

Cochran, M., & Brassard, J. (1979). Child develop- tion participation and language acquisition. Science, ment and personal social networks. Child Develop- 183, 99–101. ment, 50, 606–616. Conway, A.E. (1989). Young infants’ feeding patterns Cohen, S.E., & Beckwith, L. (1979). Preterm infant when sick and well. Maternal Child Nursing Journal, interaction with the caregiver in the first year of life 18(4), 1–353. and competence at age two. Child Development, 50, Cooper, C., Dunst, C., & Vance, S. (1990). The effect 767–776. of social support on adolescent mothers’ styles of Cohn, D.A. (1990). Child-mother attachment in six- parent-child interaction as measured on three sepa- year-olds and social competence at school. Child rate occasions. Adolescence, XXV, 49–57. Development, 61, 152–162. Cooper, P.A., & Sandler, D.L. (1997). Outcome of very Cohn, D.A., Patterson, C.J., & Christopoulos, C. low birth weight infants at 12 to 18 months of age (1991). The family and children’s peer relations. in Soweto, South Africa. Pediatrics, 99(4), 537–544. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 8(3), Cooper, P.A., Tomlinson, M., Swartz, L., Woolgar, M., 315–346. Murray, L., & Molteno, C. (1999). Postpartum de- Cohn, J.F., Campbell, S.B., Matias, R., & Hopkins, J. pression and the mother-infant relationship in a (1990). Face-to-face interactions of postpartum South African peri-urban settlement. British Jour- depressed and nondepressed mother-infant pairs at nal of Psychiatry, 175, 554–558. 2 months. Developmental Psychology, 26(1), 15–23. Cox, A.D., Puckering, C., Pound, A., & Mills, M. Cohn, J.F., Matias, R., Tronick, E.Z., Connell, D.B., & (1987). The impact of maternal depression in young Lyons-Ruth, K. (1986). Face-to-face interactions of children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychia- depressed mothers and their infants. In E.Z.Tronick try and Allied Disciplines, 28(6), 917–928. & T.Field. (Eds.), Maternal depression and infant dis- Cravioto, J., & DeLacardie, E. (1976). Microenviron- turbance. (p. 31–46). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Inc. mental factors in severe protein-energy malnutri- Cohn, J.F., & Tronick, E.Z. (1988). Mother-infant face- tion. In N.Scrimshaw & M.Behar (Eds.), Nutrition to-face interaction: Influence is bidirectional and and agricultural development: Significance and poten- unrelated to periodic cycles in either partner’s tial for the Tropics. (p. 25–35). New York: Plenum behavior. Developmental Psychology, 24(3), 386-392. Press. Cohn, J.F., & Tronick, E. (1989). Specificity of infants’ Crittenden, P.M. (1982). Abusing, neglecting, problem- response to mothers’ affective behavior. Journal of atic, and adequate dyads: Differentiating by patterns the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psy- of interaction. Merrill Palmer Quarterly, 27(3), 201– chiatry, 28, 242–248. 218. Coie, J., & Dodge, K.A. (1983). Continuities and Crittenden, P.M. (1985a). Maltreated infants: Vulner- changes in children’s social status: A five year lon- ability and resilience. Journal of Child Psychology and gitudinal study. Merrill Palmer Quarterly, 29, 261– Psychiatry, 26, 85–96. 282. Crittenden, P.M. (1985b). Social networks, quality of Cole, M. (1985). The zone of proximal development: child-rearing, and child development. Child Devel- where culture and cognition create each other. In opment, 56, 1299–1313. J.V.Wertsch (Ed.), Culture, communication and cog- Crittenden, P.M. (1987). Non-organic failure-to-thrive. nition: Vygotskyian perspectives. (p. 146–161). Cam- Infant Mental Health Journal, 8, 51–64. bridge: Cambridge University Press. Crittenden, P.M. (1990). Internal representational Cole, P.M., Michel, M.K., & Teti, L.O. (1995). The models of attachment relationships. Infant Mental development of emotion regulation and dys- Health Journal, 11(3), 259–277. regulation: a clinical perspective. In N.A.Fox (Ed.), Crittenden, P.M. (1992a). Children’s strategies for cop- The development of emotion regulation: Biological and ing with adverse home environments: An interpre- behavioral considerations. (p. 73–100). tation using attachment theory. Child Abuse and Colombo, M., de la, P.A., & Lopez, I. (1992). Intellec- Neglect, 16(3), 329–343. tual and physical outcome of children undernour- Crittenden, P.M. (1992b). Quality of attachment in the ished in early life is influenced by later preschool years. Development and Psychopathology, environmental conditions. Developmental Medicine 4(2), 209–241. and Child Neurology, 34(7), 611–622. Crittenden, P.M. (1992c). Treatment of anxious attach- Condon, W., & Sander, L.W. (1974). Neonate movement in infancy and early childhood. Development ment is synchronized with adult speech: Interac- and Psychopathology, 4(4), 575–602.

66 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Crittenden, P.M. (1993). An information processing sitivity. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 54, 250– perspective on the behavior of neglectful parents. 261. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 20(1), 27–48. Crittenden, P.M., & Claussen, A.H. (2000). The organi- Crittenden, P.M. (1995a). Attachment and psychopa- zation of attachment relationships: Maturation, culture, thology. In S.Goldberg & R.Muir (Eds.), Attachment and context. New York, NY, US: Cambridge Univer- theory: Social, developmental, and clinical perspectives. sity Press. (p. 367–406). Hillsdale, New Jersey: Analytic Press. Crnic, K., & Greenberg, M.T. (1987). Transactional Crittenden, P.M. (1995b). Attachment and risk for psy- relations between perceived family style, risk-sta- chopathology: The early years. Journal of Develop- tus and mother-child interactions in two-year-olds. mental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 16(3), S12–S16. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 12, 343–362. Crittenden, P.M. (1996a). Development, experience Crnic, K., Greenberg, M.T., Robinson, N.M., & and relationship patterns: psychological health from Ragozin, A.S. (1984). Maternal stress and social the object attachment viewpoint. Praxis der support: Effects on the mother-infant relationship Kinderpsychologie und Kinderpsychiatrie, 45(3–4), from birth to eighteen months. American Journal of 147–155. Orthopsychiatry, 54(2), 224–235. Crittenden, P.M. (1996b). Language and psychopathol- Crnic, K., Ragozin, A.S., Greenberg, M.T., Robinson, ogy: An attachment perspective. In J.H.Beitchman. N.M., & Basham, R. (1983). Social interaction and & N.J.Cohen (Eds.), Language, learning, and behavior developmental competence of preterm and full-term disorders: Developmental, biological, and clinical per- infants during the first year of life. Child Develop- spectives. (p. 59–77). New York: Cambridge Uni- ment, 54, 1199–1210. versity Press. Crockenberg, S.B. (1981). Infant irritability, mother Crittenden, P.M. (1997). Truth, error, omission, dis- responsiveness, and social support influences on the tortion, and deception: The application of attach- security of infant-mother attachment. Child Devel- ment theory to the assessment and treatment of opment, 52, 857–865. psychological disorder. In S.M.C.Dollinger & L.F.di Crockenberg, S.B., & McCluskey, K. (1985). Change Lalla (Eds.), Assessment and intervention issues across in maternal behavior during the baby’s first year of the life span. (p. 35–76). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence life. Child Development, 57, 746–753. Erlbaum Associates. Crouch, M., & Manderson, L. (1995). The social life Crittenden, P.M. (1999). Danger and development: The of bonding theory. Social Science and Medicine, 41(6), organization of self-protective strategies. In J.Vondra 837–844. & D.Barnett (Eds.), Atypical attachment. (p. 145– Crowell, J.A., & Feldman, S.S. (1991). Mothers’ work- 171). Monographs of the Society for Research in Child ing models of attachment relationships and mother Development. and child behavior during separation and reunion. Crittenden, P.M. (2000). A dynamic-maturational Developmental Psychology, 27(4), 597–605. exploration of the meaning of security and adapta- Curtiss, S. (1977). Genie: A psycholinguistic study of a tion: Empirical, cultural and theoretical considera- modern-day “wild child”. New York: Academic Press. tions. In P.M Crittenden & A.H.Claussen (Eds.), The organization of attachment relationships: Maturation, Cusson, R.M., & Lee, A.L. (1994). Parental interven- culture, and context. (p. 358–383). New York: Cam- tions and the development of the preterm infant. bridge University Press. Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic and Neonatal Nurs- ing, 23(1 ), 60–68. Crittenden, P.M. (2002). Research on maltreating families: Implications for intervention. In J.Briere, D’Apolito, K. (1991). What is an organized infant? L.Berliner, & T.Reid. (Eds.), Handbook of Child mal- Neonatal Network – Journal of Neonatal Nursing, treatment. (p. 158–174). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAge 10(1), 23–29. Publications. Das Gupta, M. (1990). Death clustering, mother’s edu- Crittenden, P.M., & Ainsworth, M.D.S. (1989). Child cation and the determinants of child mortality in maltreatment and attachment theory. In D.Cicchetti rural Punjab, India. Population Studies, 44, 489–505. & V.Carlson (Eds.), Child maltreatment: Theory and Dawson, G., Frey, K., Panagiotides, H., Osterling, J., research on the causes and consequences of child abuse & Hessl, D. (1997). Infants of depressed mothers and neglect. (p. 432–463). New York: Cambridge exhibit atypical frontal brain activity: A replication University Press. and extension of previous findings. Journal of Child Crittenden, P.M., & Bonvillian, J. (1984). The relation- Psychology and Psychiatry, 38(2), 179–186. ship between maternal risk status and mental sen-

67 THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN

de Chateau, P. (1980). Parent-neonate interaction and Diego, M.A., Field, T.M., & Hernandez-Reif, M. (2001). its long-term effects. In E.C.Simmel (Ed.), Early BIS/BAS scores are correlated with frontal EEG experiences and early behavior: Implications for social asymmetry in intrusive and withdrawn depressed development. (p. 109–179). New York: Academic mothers. Infant Mental Health Journal, 22(6), 665– Press. 675. de Miranda, C.T., Turecki, G., Mare, J.J., Andreoli, S.B., DiVitto, B., & Goldberg, S. (2002). The effects of new- Marcolim, M., Goihman, S., Puccini, R., Strom, B.L., born medical status on early parent-infant interac- & Berlin, J.A. (1996). Mental health of the mothers tion. In T.M.Field & A.M.Sostek (Eds.), Infants born of malnourished children. International Journal of at risk: Behavior and development. (p. 311–332). New Epidemiology, 25, 128–133. York: Spectrum. De Roiste, A., & Bushnell, I.W.R. (1996). Tactile stimu- Dix, T. (1991). The affective organization of parenting: lation: Short- and long-term benefits for pre-term Adaptive and maladaptive processes. Psychological infants. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, Bulletin, 110(1), 3–25. 14, 41–53. Dix, T. (1992). Parenting on behalf of the child: Em- De Vries, M. (1984). Temperament and infant mortal- pathic goals in the regulation of responsive ity among the Masai of East Africa. American Jour- parenting. In I.E.Sigel, A. V. McGillicuddy-DeLisi, nal of Orthopsychiatry, 141, 1189–1194. & J. J. Goodnow (Eds.), Parental belief systems: The De Wolff, M., & van Ijzendoorn, M.H. (1997). Sensi- psychological consequences for children. (p. 319–346). tivity and attachment: A meta-analysis on parental Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associ- antecedents of infant attachment. Child Development, ates. 68, 571–591. Dixon, S.D., LeVine, R.A., & Brazelton, T.B. (1982). Dejin-Karlsson, E., Hanson, B.S., Ostergren, P.O., Malnutrition: A closer look at the problem in an Lindgren, A., Sjoberg, N.O., & Marsal, K. (2000). East African village. Developmental Medicine and Association of a lack of psychosocial resources and Child Neurology, 14, 670–685. the risk of giving birth to small for gestational age Dixon, S.D., LeVine, R.A., Richman, A., & Brazelton, infants: a stress hypothesis. British Journal of Ob- T.B. (1984). Mother-child interaction around a stetrics and Gynaecology, 107(1), 89–100. teaching task: An African-American comparison. Del Carmen, R., Pedersen, F.A., Huffman, L.C., & Child Development, 55(4), 1252–1264. Bryan, Y.E. (1993). Dyadic distress management Dixon, S.D., Tronick, E.Z., Keefer, K., & Brazelton, T.B. predicts subsequent security of attachment. Infant (1981). Mother-infant interaction among the Gusii Behavior and Development, 16, 131–147. of Kenya. In T.Field., A.Sostek, P.Vietze, & DeLicardie, E., & Cravioto, J. (1974). Behavioural re- P.Liederman (Eds.), Culture and early interactions. sponsiveness of survivors of clinically severe mal- (p. 149–168). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum nutrition to cognitive demands. In J.Cravioto (Ed.), Associates. Early malnutrition and mental development. (p. 134– Doan, R., & Bisharat, L. (1990). Female autonomy and 153). Upsala, Sweden: Almquist & Wiksell. child nutritional status: the extended family resi- Denham, S.A. (2002). Maternal affect and toddlers’ dential unit in Amman, Jordon. Social Science and social-emotional competence. American Journal of Medicine, 31, 783–790. Orthopsychiatry, 59(3), 368–376. Dodge, K.A. (1990). Developmental psychopathology Denham, S.A., Mitchell-Copeland, J., Strandberg, K., in children of depressed mothers. Developmental Auerbach, S., & Blair, K. (1997). Parental contri- Psychology, 26(1), 3–6. butions to preschoolers’ emotional competence: Donovan, W.L., & Leavitt, L.A. (1985). Simulating Direct and indirect effects. Motivation and Emotion, conditions of learned helplessness: the effects of 21(1), 65–86. interventions and attributions. Child Development, Denzin, N.K. (1992). A phenomenological analysis of 56(3), 594–603. social referencing. In Saul Feinman (Ed.), Social ref- Donovan, W.L., Leavitt, L.A., & Walsh.R.O. (1998). erencing and the social construction of reality in infancy. Conflict and depression predict maternal sensitiv- (p. 95–114). New York: Perseus. ity to infant cries. Infant Behavior and Development, Diamond, G.W., Gurdin, P., Wiznia, A.A., Belman, A.L., 21(3), 505–517. Rubinstein, A., & Cohen, H.J. (1990). Effects of Dozier, M., Stovall, K.C., Albus, K.E., & Bates, B. congenital HIV infection on neurodevelopmental (2001). Attachment for infants in Foster Care: The status of babies in foster care. Developmental Medi- role of caregiver state of mind. Child Development, cine and Child Neurology, 32(11), 999–1004. 72(5), 1467–1477.

68 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Drotar, D. (1985). New directions in failure to thrive: In P.M.Taylor (Ed.), Parent-infant relationships. Implications for research and practice. New York: Ple- Orlando, FL: Grune & Stratton. num Press. Emde, R.N. (1988). Development terminable and in- Dudley, M., Gyler, L., Blinkhorn, S., & Barnett, B. terminable. I. Innate and motivational factors from (1993). Psychosocial interventions for very low infancy. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 69, birthweight infants: their scope and efficacy. Aus- 23–42. tralian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 27(1), Emde, R.N. (1990). Presidential address: Lessons from 74–83. infancy: New beginnings in a changing world and Duncan, G.J., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Klebanov, P.K. a morality for health. Infant Mental Health Journal, (1994). Economic deprivation and early childhood 11(3), 196–212. development. Child Development, 65, 296–318. Emde, R.N. (1992a). Individual meaning and increas- Dunst, C., Lesko, K., Holbert, L., Wilson, K., Sharpe, ing complexity: Contributions of Sigmund Freud L., & Liles, R. (1987). A systematic approach to and René Spitz to developmental psychology. In infant intervention. Topics in Early Childhood Spe- R.Parke, P.Ornstein, J.Rieser, & C.Zahn-Waxler cial Education, 7, 19–37. (Eds.), A century of developmental psychology. (p. Eagle, R.S. (1994). The separation experience of chil- 203–231). New York: American Psychological As- dren in long-term care: Theory, research, and sociation. implications for practice. American Journal of Or- Emde, R.N. (1992b). Social referencing research: Un- thopsychiatry, 64(3), 421–434. certainty, self, and the search for meaning. In Saul Earle, A.M., & Earle, B.V. (1961). Early material dep- Feinman (Ed.), Social referencing and the social con- rivation and later psychiatric illness. American Jour- struction of reality in infancy. (p. 79–94). New York: nal of Orthopsychiatry, 181–186. Perseus. Easterbrooks, M.A., & Biringen, Z. (2000). Guest edi- Emde, R.N., & Buchsbaum, H.K. (1989). Toward a tors’ introduction to the special issue: Mapping the psychoanalytic theory of affect: II. Emotional de- terrain of emotional availability and attachment. velopment and signaling in infancy. In S.Greenspan Attachment and Human Development, 2(2), 123–129. (Ed.), The course of life. (p. 193–227). Madison, CT: International Universities Press, Inc. Egeland, B., & Erickson, M.F. (1987). Psychologically unavailable caregiving. In M.R.Brassard, R.Germain, Emde, R.N., & Buchsbaum, H.K. (1990). “Didn’t you & S.M.Hart (Eds.), Psychological maltreatment of chil- hear my mommy?” Autonomy with connectedness dren and youth. New York: Pergamon Press. in moral self-emergence. In D.Cicchetti & M.Beeghley (Eds.), The self in transition: infancy to Egeland, B., & Farber, E.A. (1984). Infant mother at- childhood. (p. 35–60). Chicago: The University of tachment: Factors related to its development and Chicago Press. changes over time. Child Development, 55, 753–771. Emde, R.N., & Easterbrooks, M.A. (1985). Assessing Egeland, B., & Sroufe, L.A. (1981a). Attachment and emotional availability in early development. In early maltreatment. Child Development, 52, 44–52. W.K.Frankenburg, R.N.Emde, & J.W.Sullivan Egeland, B., & Sroufe, L.A. (1981b). Developmental (Eds.), Early identification of children at risk: an inter- sequelae of maltreatment in infancy. In R.Rizley & national perspective. (p. 79–101). New York: Plenum D.Cicchetti (Eds.), Developmental perspectives on Press. child maltreatment. (p. 77–92). San Francisco: Emde, R.N., & Harmon, R.J. (1972). Endogenous and Jossey-Bass. exogenous smiling systems in early infancy. Journal Eibl-Eibelsfeldt, I. (1975). Ethology: The biology of be- of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry., 11, haviour. 2nd Ed. New York: Holt, Rinehart & 177–200. Winston. Emde, R.N., & Sorce, J.F. (1983). The rewards of in- Eisenberg, N., Murphy, B.C., & Shepard, S. (1997). fancy: Emotional availability and maternal referenc- The development of empathic accuracy. In W.J.Ickes ing. In J.D.Call, E.Galenson, & R.Tyson (Eds.), (Ed.), Empathic accuracy. (p. 73–116). New York: Frontiers of Psychiatry. (p. 17–30). New York: Basic The Guilford Press. Books. Ekman, P., Friese, W., & Ellsworth, P. (1972). Emotion Engle, P.L. (1993). Influences of mothers’ and fathers’ in the human face. New York: Pergamon Press. income on child nutritional status in Guatemala. Emde, R.N. (1980). Emotional availability: A recipro- Social Science and Medicine, 37, 1303–1312. cal reward system for infants and parents with implications for prevention of psycho-social disorders.

69 THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN

Engle, P.L., Bentley, M., & Pelto, G. (2000). The role dicts birth weight and fetal growth in human preg- of care in nutrition programmes: current research nancy. Psychosomatic Medicine, 62(5), 715–725. and a research agenda. [Review] [47 refs]. Proceed- Feldman, R., & Greenbaum, C.W. (1997). Affect regu- ings of the Nutrition Society, 59(1), 25–35. lation and synchrony in mother-infant play as Engle, P.L., & Lhotska, L. (1999). The role of care in precursors to the development of symbolic compe- programmatic actions for nutrition: Designing pro- tence. Infant Mental Health Journal, 18 (1), 4–23. grammes involving care. Food and Nutrition Bulle- Fernald, A. (1992). Human maternal vocalizations to tin, 20, 121–135. infants as biologically relevant signals: An evolu- Engle, P.L., Pelto, G., & Bentley, P. (2000). Care for tionary perspective. In J.H.Barkow, L.Cosmides, & nutrition and development. [Review] [21 refs]. Jour- J.Tooby (Eds.), The adapted mind: Evolutionary psy- nal of the Indian Medical Association, 98(9), 530–535. chology and the generation of culture. (p. 391–428). Engle, P. L., Lhotska, L., & Armstrong, H. The care Oxford: Oxford University Press. initiative: Care for nutrition. Guidelines for assess- Feuerstein, R. (1980). Instrumental enrichment. Balti- ment, analyses and action to improve care for nu- more: University Park Press. trition. www.ifpri.cgiar.org/divs/fcnd/dp/papers/ Field, T.M. (1977). Effects of early separation, interac- dp28.pdf. 1997. (GENERIC) Ref Type: Electronic tive deficit, and experimental manipulation on Citation mother-infant face-to-face interaction. Child Devel- Engle, P.L., & Ricciuti, H.N. (1995). Psychosocial as- opment, 48, 763–771. pects of care and nutrition. Food and Nutrition Field, T.M. (1981). Infant arousal, attention and affect Bulletin Supplement, 16(4), 356–377. during early interactions. In L.Lipsitt & C.Rovee- Erickson, M.F., Sroufe, L.A., & Egeland, B. (1985). The Collier (Eds.), Advances in Infancy Research, ( Vol relationship between quality of attachment and be- 1.). Norwood, NJ: Ablex. haviour problems in preschool in a high-risk sam- Field, T.M. (1984). Early interactions between infants ple. In I.Bretherton & E.Waters (Eds.), Growing and their postpartum depressed mothers. Infant points of attachment theory and research. (p. 147– Behavior and Development, 7, 517–522. 166). Chicago: Monographs of the Society for Research Field, T.M. (1987a). Affective and interactive distur- in Child Development. bances in infants. In Joy Osofsky (Ed.), Handbook Esman, A.H. (1994). Review essay: The contributions of infant development. (p. 972–1005). New York: of Robert N. Emde, M.D. Journal of Clinical Psycho- John Wiley and Sons. analysis, 3, 47–53. Field, T.M. (1987b). Interaction and attachment in Eyberg, S.M., & Matarazzo, R.G. (1980). Training par- normal and atypical infants. Journal of Consulting ents as therapists: A comparison between individual and Clinical Psychology, 55(6), 853–859. parent-child interaction training and parent group Field, T.M. (1994). The effects of mother’s physical and didactic training. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 36(2), emotional unavailability on emotion regulation. 492–499. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child De- Fairbairn, W.R.D. (1952). Psychoanalytic studies of the velopment, 59(2–3), 208–227. personality. London: Routledge. Field, T.M. (1999). Sucking and massage therapy re- Farran, D.C., & Ramey, C.T. (1977). Infant day care duce stress during infancy. In M.Lewis & D.Ramsay and attachment behaviors toward mothers and (Eds.), Soothing and stress. (p. 157–169). Mahwah, teachers. Child Development, 48(3), 1112–1116. NJ, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Feinman, S. (1991). Bringing babies back into the so- Field, T.M. (2000a). Infant massage therapy. In cial world. In M.Lewis & S.Feinman (Eds.), Social C.H.Zeanah (Ed.), Handbook of infant mental health. influences and socialization in infancy. (p. 281–325). (p. 494–500). New York: The Guilford Press. New York: Plenum Press. Field, T.M. (2000b). Infants of depressed mothers. In Feinman, S., Roberts, D., Hsieh, K.F., Sawyer, D., & S.L.Johnson. & A.M.Hayes (Eds.), Stress, coping, and Swanson, D. (1992). A critical review of social ref- depression. (p. 3–22). Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum erencing in infancy. In Saul Feinman (Ed.), Social Associates. referencing and the social construction of reality in in- Field, T.M. (2001). Massage therapy facilitates weight fancy. (p. 15–54). New York: Perseus. gain in preterm infants. Current Directions in Psy- Feldman, P.J., Dunkel-Schetter, C., Sandman, C.A., & chological Science, 10 (2), 51–54. Wadhwa, P.D. (2000). Maternal social support pre-

70 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Field, T.M., & Fogel, A. (2004). Emotion and early in- Fonagy, P., & Higgitt, A. (2000). An attachment theory teraction. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associ- perspective on early influences on development and ates. social inequalities in health. In J.Osofsky & Field, T.M., Gewirtz, J., Cohen.D., Garcia, R., H.Fitzgerald (Eds.), WAIMH Handbook of infant Greenberg, R., & Collins, K. (1984). Leave-takings mental health (Vol 4.) Infant mental health in groups and reunions of infants, toddlers, preschoolers, and at high risk. New York: John Wiley and Sons. their parents. Child Development, 55, 628–635. Fonagy, P., & Target, M. (1999). An interpersonal view Field, T.M., Healy, B., Goldstein, S., & Guthertz, M. of the infant. In A.Hurry (Ed.), Psychoanalysis and (1990). Behavior-state matching and synchrony in developmental therapy. (p. 3–31). Madison, CT, US: mother-infant interactions of nondepressed versus International Universities Press. depressed dyads. Developmental Psychology, 26(1), Formby, D. (1967). Maternal recognition of infant’s cry. 7–14. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 9, 292– Field, T.M., Hossain, Z., & Malphurs, J. (1999). ‘De- 298. pressed’ fathers’ interactions with their infants. In- Foss, B.M. (1961). Determinants of infant behaviour. New fant Mental Health Journal, 20(3), 322–332. York: John Wiley and Sons. Field, T.M., & Liepack, S. (1999). Infancy. In Fox, N., Kimmerly, N., & Schafer, W. (1991). Attach- W.K.Silverman & T.H.Ollendick (Eds.), Develop- ment to mother/attachment to father. Child Devel- mental issues in the clinical treatment of children. (p. opment, 62, 210–225. 77–87). Needham Heights, MA, US: Allyn and Ba- Fraiberg, S., & Fraiberg, L. (1980). Clinical studies in con Publishers. infant mental health: The first year of life. London: Field, T.M., Morrow, C., & Adlestein, D. (1993). De- Tavistock. pressed mothers’ perceptions of infant behavior. Frank, D.A., Klass, P.E., Earls, F., & Eisenberg, L. Infant Behavior and Development, 16, 99–108. (1996). Infants and young children in orphanages: Field, T.M., Pickens, J., Prodromidis, M., Malphurs, one view from pediatrics and child psychiatry. [Re- J., Fox, N., Bendell, D., Yando, R., Schanberg, S., view] [173 refs]. Pediatrics, 97(4), 569–578. & Kuhn, C. (2000). Targeting adolescent mothers Fraser, B.C. (1986). Child impairment and parent/ with depressive symptoms for early intervention. infant communication. Child: Care, Health & Devel- Adolescence, 35(138), 381–414. opment, 12(3), 141–150. Field, T.M., Widmayer, S.M., Stringer, S., & Ignatoff, Freitag, M.K., Belsky, J., Grossmann, K., Grossmann, E. (1980). Teenage, lower-class, black mothers and K.E., & Scheuerer-Englisch, H. (1996). Continuity their preterm infants: An intervention and devel- in parent-child relationships from infancy to mid- opmental follow-up. Child Development, 51, 426– dle childhood and relations with friendship com- 436. petence. Child Development, 67(4), 1437–1454. Fineman, N.R., Beckwith, L., Howard, J., & Espinosa, Freud, S. (1959). Inhibitions, symptoms and anxiety. M. (1997). Maternal ego development and mother- In J.Strachey. (Ed and Trans.) (Ed.), The standard infant interaction in drug-abusing women. Journal edition of the complete works of Sigmund Freud (Vol of Substance Abuse and Treatment, 14(4), 307–317. 20.). (p. 87–195). London: Hogarth Press. Fish, M., Stifter, C., & Belsky, J. (1993). Early patterns Freud, S. (1964). An outline of psycho-analysis. In of mother-infant dyadic interaction: Infant, mother J.Strachey. (Ed and Trans.) (Ed.), The standard edi- and family demographic antecedents. Infant Behavior tion of the complete works of Sigmund Freud (Vol 23.). and Development, 16, 1–18. (p. 141–207). London: Hogarth Press. Fitzgerald, H., Lester, B., & Zuckerman, B. (1995). Friedman, S., Jacobs, B., & Werthman, M. (1982). Children of poverty: Research, health and poverty is- Preterms of low medical risk: Spontaneous behav- sues. New York: Garland Inc. iours and soothability at expected date of birth. Flick, L.H., & McSweeney, M. (1987). Measures of Infant Behavior and Development, 5, 3–10. mother-child interaction: A comparison of three Friedman, S.L., & Amadeo, J.A. (1999). The child care methods. Research in Nursing and Health, 10(3), environment: Conceptualizations, Assessments, and 129–137. Issues. In S.L.Friedman & T.D.Wachs (Eds.), Meas- Fogel, A., & Thelen, E. (1987). Development of early uring environment across the lifespan. (p. 127–165). expressive and communicative action: Reinterpret- Washington, DC: American Psychological Associa- ing the evidence from a dynamic systems perspec- tion Press. tive. Developmental Psychology, 23, 747–761.

71 THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN

Frodi, A., & Thompson, R.A. (1985). Infant’s affective George, C. (1996). A representational perspective of responses in the strange situation. Child Develop- child abuse and prevention: internal working mod- ment, 56, 1280–1290. els of attachment and caregiving. Child Abuse and Gagan, R.J., Cupoli, J.M., & Watkins, A.H. (1984). The Neglect, 20(5), 411–424. families of children who fail to thrive: Preliminary George, C., Kaplan, N., & Main, M. (1985). The Adult investigations of parental deprivation among organic Attachment Interview. Berkeley, CA: University of and non-organic cases. Child Abuse and Neglect, 8(1), California. 93–103. Gergely, G., & Watson, J.S. (1996). The social biofeed- Galler, J.R., Harrison, R.H., Biggs, M.A., Ramsey, F., & back theory of parental affect-mirroring: the devel- Forde, V. (1999). Maternal moods predict breast- opment of emotional self-awareness and self-control feeding in Barbados. Journal of Developmental and in infancy. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, Behavioral Pediatrics, 20(2), 80–87. 77(6), 1181–1212. Galler, J.R., Harrison, R.H., Ramsey, F., Forde, V., & Gewirtz, J. (1969). Mechanisms of social learning. In Butler, S.C. (2000). Maternal depressive symptoms D.A.Goslin (Ed.), Handbook of socialization theory affect infant cognitive development in Barbados. and research. (p. 57–212). Chicago, Illinois: Rand Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied McNally. Disciplines, 41(6), 747–757. Gewirtz, J.L. (1972). Attachment and dependence and Galler, J.R., & Ramsey, F. (1985). The influence of early a distinction in terms of stimulus control. In malnutrition on subsequent behavioural develop- J.Gewirtz (Ed.), Attachment and dependency. (p. 139– ment: VI. The role of the microenvironment of the 177). Washington, D.C.: Winston. household. Nutrition and Behavior, 2, 161–173. Gewirtz, J.L. (1991). Social influence on child and Galler, J.R., Ricciuti, H., Crawford, M., & Kucharski, parent via stimulation and operant-learning mecha- L. (1984). The role of the mother-infant interaction nisms. In Michael Lewis & Saul Feinman (Eds.), in eating disorders. In J.Galler (Ed.), Nutrition and Social influences and socialization in infancy. (p. 137– behaviour (Vol 5.). New York : Plenum Press. 163). New York: Plenum Press. Garbarino, J. (1988). Preventing childhood injury: Gewirtz, J., & Boyd, E. (1977). Experiments on mother- Developmental and mental health issues. American infant interaction underlying mutual attachment Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 58, 25–45. acquisition: The infant condition the mother. In Garbarino, J., & Sherman, D. (1980). High risk T.Alloway, P.Pliner, & L.Kramer (Eds.), Advances in neighborhoods and high risk families: The human the study of communication and affect. (p. 109–143). ecology of child maltreatment. Child Development, New York: Plenum Press. 51, 188–198. Gewirtz, J.L., & Pelaez-Nogueras, M. (1992). Social Garber, J., & Dodge, K.A.E. (1991). The development referencing as a learned process. In Saul Feinman of emotion regulation and dysregulation. New York: (Ed.), Social referencing and the social construction of Cambridge University Press. reality in infancy. (p. 151–173). New York: Perseus. Gardner, D.B., Hawkes, G.R., & Burchinal, L.G. (1961). Gilgun, J.F. (1991). Resilience and the intergenerational Noncontinuous mothering in infancy and develop- transmission of child sexual abuse. In M.Q.Patton ment in later childhood. Child Development, 32, (Ed.), Family sexual abuse: Frontline research and 225–234. evaluation. (p. 93–105). Thousand Oaks, CA, US: Sage Publications. Garmezy, N. (1985). Broadening research on developmental risk: Implications from studies of vulner- Giovannoni, J.M., & Billingsley, A. (1970). Child ne- able and stress-resistant children. In W. glect among the poor: A study of parental adequacy Frankenburg, R.Emde, & J.Sullivan (Eds.), Early in families of three ethnic groups. Child Welfare, (4), identification of children at risk: an international per- 196. spective. (p. 45–58). New York: Plenum Press. Glaser, K., & Eisenberg, L. (1956). Maternal depriva- Garmezy, N. (1988). Stressors of childhood. In tion. Pediatrics, 626–642. N.Garmezy & M.Rutter (Eds.), Stress, coping and Goldberg, S. (1972). Infant care and growth in urban development in children. (p. 43–84). New York: Zambia. Human Development, (15), 77–89. McGraw Hill. Goldberg, S. (1978). Prematurity: Effects on parent- Garmezy, N. (1991). Resiliency and vulnerability to infant interaction. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 3, adverse developmental outcomes associated with 137–144. poverty. American Behavioral Scientist, 34, 416–430.

72 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Goldberg, S. (1979). Infant development and mother- Gottfried, A.E. (1988). Maternal employment and chil- infant interaction in urban Zambia. In M.Lewis & dren’s development: Longitudinal research. New York: L.A.Rosenblum. (Eds.), The child and its family. (p. Plenum Press. 211–243). New York: Plenum. Gottfried, A.W. (1984). Home environment and early Goldberg, S. (1988). Risk factors in infant-mother at- cognitive development: Longitudinal research. New tachment. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 42(2), York: Academic Press. 173–188. Gottlieb, G. (1976). Conceptions of prenatal develop- Goldberg, S., Lojkasek, M., Gartner, G., & Corter, C. ment: Behavioural embryology. Psychological Review, (1989). Maternal responsiveness and social devel- 83, 215–234. opment in preterm infants. In M.Bornstein (Ed.), Grantham-McGregor, S., Desai, P., & Buchanan, E. Maternal responsiveness: Characteristics and conse- (1977). The identification of infants at risk of mal- quences. (p. 89–103). San Francisco: Jossey Bass Inc. nutrition in Kingston, Jamaica. Tropical and Geo- Goldberg, S., Perrotta, M., Minde, K., & Corter, C. graphical Medicine, 29(2), 165–171. (1986). Maternal behavior and attachment in low- Grantham-McGregor, S., Powell, C.A., Walker, S., birth-weight twins and singletons. Child Develop- Chang, S., & Fletcher, P. (1994). The long-term ment, 57, 34–46. follow-up of severely malnourished children who Goldsmith, H.H., & Alansky, J.A. (1987). Maternal and participated in an intervention program. Child De- infant temperamental predictors of attachment: A velopment, 65, 428–439. meta-analytic review. Journal of Consulting and Clini- Grantham-McGregor, S., Powell, C.A., Walker, S.P., & cal Psychology, 55( 6), 805–816. Himes, J.H. (1991). Nutritional supplementation, Goldstein, F.C., & Rollins, H.A. (1983). Maternal teach- psychosocial stimulation, and mental development ing styles, children’s response patterns, and mother- of stunted children: The Jamaican study. Lancet, 338, child reflection-impulsivity. Journal of Genetic 1–5. Psychology, 142(2), 315–316. Grantham-McGregor, S., Schonfield, W., & Powell, C. Gomby, D.S., Larner, M.B., Stevenson, C.S., Lewit, (1987). Development of severely malnourished chil- E.M., & Behrman, R.E. (1995). Long term outcomes dren who received psychosocial stimulation: Six- of early childhood programs: Analysis and recom- year follow-up. Pediatrics, 79, 247–254. mendations. The future of children, 5( 3), 6–24. Grantham-McGregor, S., Walker, S.P., Chang, S.M., & Goodall, J. (1979). A social score for kwashiorkor: Powell, C.A. (1997). Effects of early childhood sup- Explaining the look in the child’s eyes. Developmen- plementation with and without stimulation on later tal Medicine and Child Neurology, 21, 374–384. development in stunted Jamaican children. Ameri- Goodman, S.H., Brogan, E., Lynch, M.E. & Fielding, can Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 66, 247–253. B. (1993). Social and emotional Competence in Graves, P. (1976). Nutrition, infant behavior, and ma- Children of Depressed Mothers. Child Development, ternal characteristics: A pilot study in West Bengal, 64, 516–531. India. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 29, 305– Goodman, S.H., & Gotlib, I.H. (1999). Risk for psy- 319. chopathology in the children of depressed moth- Graves, P. (1978). Nutrition and infant behaviour: A ers: A developmental model for understanding replication study in the Katmandu Valley. American mechanisms of transmission. Psychological Review, Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 31, 541–551. 106(3), 458–490. Graves, P. (1989). The functioning fetus. In S.Green- Goodnow, J.J. (1988). Parents’ ideas, actions and feel- span & G.Pollock (Eds.), The course of life (Vol 1.). ings: Models and method from developmental and (p. 433–465). Madison: International Universities social psychology. Child Development, 59, 286–320. Press. Gopaldas, T., Patel, P., & Bakshi, M. (1988). Selected Green, A.H. (1981). Core affective disturbance in socioeconomic, environmental, maternal and child abused children. Journal of the American Academy of factors associated with the nutritional status of in- Psychoanalysis, 9(3), 435–446. fants and toddlers. Food and Nutrition Bulletin, 10. Greenfield, P. (1994). Independence and interdepend- Gordon, B.N. (1983). Maternal perception of child tem- ence as developmental scripts: Implications for perament and observed mother-child interaction. theory, research and practice. In P.Greenfield & Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 13(3), R.Cocking (Eds.), Cross-cultural roots of minority child 153–167. development. (p. 1–37). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

73 THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN

Greenough, W.T., & Black, J.E. (1992). Induction of Halfon, N. (2001). Primary care services promoting brain structure by experience: Substrates for cog- optimal child development from birth to age 3 years: nitive development. In M.R.Gunnar & C.A.Nelson Review of the literature. Archives of Pediatrics and (Eds.), Minnesota Symposia on Child Psychology: De- Adolescent Medicine, 155, 1311–1322. velopmental neuroscience, Vol. 24. (p. 155–200). Halfon, N., Mendonca, A., & Berkowitz, G. (1995). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Health status of children in foster care. The experi- Grieve, K., & Richter, L. (1990). A factor analytic study ence of the Center for the Vulnerable Child. Archives of the Home Screening Questionnaire for infants. of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 149(4), 386– South African Journal of Psychology, 20, 277–281. 392. Grolnick, W.S., Bridges, L.J., & Connell, J.P. (1996). Halliday, M. (1975). Learning how to mean – Explora- Emotion regulation in two-year-olds: Strategies and tions in the development of language. London: Arnold. emotional expression in four contexts. Child Devel- Halliday, S., & Leslie, J.C. (1986). A longitudinal semi- opment, 67(3), 928–941. cross-sectional study of the development of mother- Grossmann, K., Grossmann, K.E., Spangler, G., Seuss, child interaction. British Journal of Developmental G., & Unzner, L. (1985). Maternal sensitivity and Psychology, 4(3), 211–222. newborns’ orientation responses as related to qual- Halpern, R. (1990). Poverty and early childhood ity of attachment in northern Germany. In I.Brether- parenting: Toward a framework for intervention. ton & E.Waters (Eds.), Growing points in attachment American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 60(1), 6–18. theory and research. (p. 233–256). Halpern, R., & Larner, M.B. (1987). Lay family sup- Grossmann, K.E., & Grossmann, K. (1990). The wider port during pregnancy and infancy: the child concept of attachment in cross-cultural research. survival/Fair Start initiative. Infant Mental Health Human Development, 33, 31–47. Journal, 8(2), 130–143. Grossmann, K.E., & Grossmann, K. (1991). Attach- Hamilton, A.B., & Zeltzer, L.K. (1994). Visceral pain ment quality as an organizer of emotional and in infants. Journal of Pediatrics, 125(6 Pt 2), 95–102. behavioral responses in a longitudinal perspective. Hamilton, C.E. (2000). Continuity and discontinuity In C.M.Parkes & J.Stevenson-Hinde (Eds.), Attach- of attachment from infancy through adolescence. ments across the life cycle. (p. 93–114). London: Child Development, 71(3), 690–694. Routledge. Hammen, C., Burge, D., & Stansbury, K. (1990). Rela- Guedeney, A. (1995). Kwashiorkor, depression and tionship of mother and child variables to child out- attachment disorders. Lancet, 346, 1293. comes in a high-risk sample: A causal modeling Guedeney, A. (2000). Infant depression and with- analysis. Developmental Psychology, 26(1), 24–30. drawal: Clinical assessment. In J.Osofsky & Harlow, H.F. (1958). The nature of love. American Psy- H.Fitzgerald (Eds.), WAIMH Handbook of infant men- chologist, 13, 673–685. tal health (Vol 4.) Infant mental health in groups at high risk. New York: John Wiley and Son. Harlow, H.F., & Harlow, M. (1962). The social deprivation of monkeys. Scientific American, 207, 136– Gunnar, M.R. (1998). Quality of early care and buffer- 146. ing of neuroendocrine stress reactions: potential effects on the developing human brain. Preventa- Harlow, H.F., & Harlow, M. (1969). Effects of various tive Medicine, 27(2), 208–211. mother-infant relationships on rhesus monkey behaviours. In B.Foss (Ed.), Determinants of infant be- Gunnar, M., Mangelsdorf, S., Larson, M., & Hertsgaard, haviour. (p. 15–36). London: Methuen. L. (1989). Attachment, temperament, and adrenocortical activity in infancy: A study of psycho- Harmon, R.J., Wagonfeld, S., & Emde, R.N. (1982). endocrine regulation. Developmental Psychology, Anaclitic depression: A follow-up from infancy to 25(3), 355–363. puberty. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 37: 67–94. Guskin, K.A., Mumme, D.L., Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Hart, S.N., & Brassard, M.R. (1991). Psychological Wolfson, A. Mastery problem-solving in children of maltreatment: Progress achieved. Development and depressed mothers. (un pub) Psychopathology, 3(1), 61–70. Haft, W.L., & Slade, A. (1989). Affect attunement and Hart, S., Field, T.M., Jones, N.A., & Yando, R. (1999). maternal attachment: A pilot study. Infant Mental Intrusive and withdrawn behaviours of mothers Health Journal, 10(3), 157–172. interacting with their infants and boyfriends. Jour- nal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Dis- Haith, M. (1981). Rules that newborns look by. Hillsdale, ciplines, 40(2), 239–245. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

74 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Hart, S., Field, T.M., & Roitfarb, M. (1999). Depressed Hinde, R.A. (1991). Relationships, attachment and mothers’ assessments of their neonates’ behaviors. culture: A tribute to John Bowlby. Infant Mental Infant Mental Health Journal, 20(2), 200–210. Health Journal, 12, 154–163. Hart, S., Jones, N.A., Field, T.M., & Lundy, B. (1999). Hinde, R.A. (1994). Developmental psychology in the One-year-old infants of intrusive and withdrawn context of other behavioural sciences. In R.Parke, depressed mothers. Child Psychiatry and Human P.Ornstein, J.Riese, & C.Zahn-Waxler (Eds.), A cen- Development, 30(2), 111–120. tury of developmental psychology. (p. 617–643). New Hay, D. (1979). Cooperative interactions and sharing York: American Psychological Association. between very young children and their parents. Hinde, R.A., & Tamplin, A. (1983). Relations between Developmental Psychology, 15, 647–653. mother-child interaction and behaviour in pre- Hayes, A., Goodnow, J.J., & Murray, J. (1984). school. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, Analyzing states in the behavior of mother and in- 1(3), 231–257. fant. In R.A.Glow (Ed.), Advances in the behavioral Hofer, M.A. (1996). On the nature and consequences measurement of children: A research annual. (p. 1– of early loss. Psychosomatic Medicine, 58(6), 570– 27). Greenwich: JAI Press Inc. 581. Haynes, C.F., Cutler, C., Gray, J., & Kempe, R.S. (1984). Holmes, J. (1993). John Bowlby and attachment theory. Hospitalized cases of nonorganic failure to thrive: London: Routledge. The scope of the problem and short-term lay health Homel, R., Burns, A., & Goodnow, J.J. (1987). Paren- visitor intervention. Child Abuse and Neglect, 8(2), tal social networks and child development. Journal 229–242. of Social and Personal Relationships, 4, 159–177. Heckhausen, J. (1988). Becoming aware of one’s com- Honig, A.S. (2000). Cross-cultural study of infants and petence in the second year: Developmental progres- toddlers. In A.L.Comunian & U.P.Gielen (Eds.), sion within the mother-child dyad. International International perspectives on human development. (p. Journal of Behavioral Development, 11(3), 305–326. 275–308). Lengerich, Germany: Pabst Science Pub- Hepner, R., & Maiden, N. (1971). Growth rate, nutri- lishers. ent intake and “mothering” as determinants of mal- Hoogsteder, M., Maier, R., & Elbers, E. (1996). The nutrition in disadvantaged children. Nutrition architecture of adult-child interaction: Joint prob- Reviews, 29, 219–223. lem solving and the structure of cooperation. Learn- Herbert, M., Sluckin, W., & Sluckin, A. (1982). Mother- ing and Instruction, 6(4), 345–358. to-infant ‘bonding’. Journal of Child Psychology and Hopkins, J. (1990). The observed infant of attachment Psychiatry, 23(3), 205–221. theory. British Journal of Psychotherapy, 6(4), 460– Hernandez-Reif, M., Field, T.M., Del Pino, N., & Di- 470. ego, M.A. (2000). Less exploring by mouth occurs Hopkins, B., & Westra, T. (1989). Maternal expecta- in newborns of depressed mothers. Infant Mental tions of their infants’ development: some cultural Health Journal, 21(3), 204–210. differences. Developmental Medicine and Child Neu- Hertsgaard, L., Gunnar, M., Erickson, M.F., & rology, 31, 384–390. Nachmias, M. (1995). Adrenocortical response to Hopkins, B., & Westra, T. (2002). Motor development, the Strange Situation in infants with disorganized/ maternal expectations, and the role of handling. disoriented attachment relationships. Child Devel- Infant Behavior and Development, 13, 117–122. opment, 66, 1100–1106. Hornik, R., & Gunnar, M.R. (1988). A descriptive Hess, R.D., Kashiwagi, K., Azuma, H., Price, G.G., & analysis of infant social referencing. Child Develop- Dickson, W.P. (1980). Maternal expectations for ment, 59, 626–634. mastery of developmental tasks in Japan and the Horns, K.M. (1998). Being-in-tune caregiving. Journal United States. International Journal of Psychology, 15, of Perinatal and Neonatal Nursing, 12(3), 38–49. 259–271. Horowitz, F. (1987). Exploring developmental theories: Hewlett, B. (1992). Father-child relations, cultural and Toward a structural/behavioural model of development. biosocial contexts. Hawthorne, NY: Aldine de Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Gruyter. Hubbard, F.O.A., & van Ijzendoorn, M.H. (1991). Hinde, R.A. (1976). On describing relationships. Jour- Maternal unresponsiveness and infant crying across nal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 17, 1–19. the first 9 months: A naturalistic longitudinal study. Infant Behavior and Development, 14, 299–312.

75 THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN

Hubert, N.C., Wachs, T.D., Peters-Martin, P., & Johnson, D.E. (2000). Medical and developmental se- Gandour, M.J. (1982). The study of early tempera- quelae of early childhood institutionalization in ment: Measurement and conceptual issues. Child Eastern European adoptees. In C. A. Nelson (Ed.), Development, 53, 571–600. The Minnesota symposia on child psychology, Vol 31: Hubley, P., & Trevarthen, C. (1979). Sharing a task in The effects of early adversity on neurobehavioral de- infancy. In I.C.Uzgiris (Ed.), Social interaction and velopment. (p. 113–162). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence communication during infancy. (p. 57–75). San Fran- Erlbaum Associates. cisco: Jossey-Bass. Jones, N.A., Field, T.M., & Davalos, M. (1998). Mas- Hundeide, K. (1991). Helping disadvantaged children. sage therapy attenuates right frontal EEG asymme- London: Jessica Kingsley. try in one-month-old infants of depressed mothers. Infant Behavior and Development, 21(3), 527–530. Hundeide, K. The indigenous approach to early deprivation and development. (un pub) Jones, N.A., Field, T.M., & Davalos, M. (2000). Right frontal EEG asymmetry and lack of empathy in pre- Hunt, J.M. (1976). Environmental programming to school children of depressed mothers. Child Psy- foster competency and prevent mental retardation chiatry and Human Development, 30(3), 189–204. in infancy. In R.Walsh & W.Greenough (Eds.), En- vironments as therapy for brain dysfunction. New York: Jones, N.A., Field, T.M., Hart, S.N., Lundy, B., & Plenum Press. Davalos, M. (2001). Maternal self-perceptions and reactions to infant crying among intrusive and with- Huston, A.C., McLoyd, V.C., & Garcia-Coll, C.T. drawn depressed mothers. Infant Mental Health Jour- (1994). Children and poverty: Issues in contempo- nal, 22(5), 576–586. rary research. Child Development, 65, 275. Juffer, F., Hoksbergen, R.A.C., Riksen-Walraven, J.M., Isabella, R.A. (1993). Origins of attachment: Maternal & Kohnstamm, G.A. (1997). Early intervention in interactive behaviour across the first year. Child adoptive families: Supporting maternal sensitive Development, 64, 605–621. responsiveness, infant-mother attachment, and in- Isabella, R.A., & Belsky, J. (1991). Interactional syn- fant competence. Journal of Child Psychology and chrony and the origins of infant-mother attachment: Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 38(8), 1039–1050. A replication study. Child Development, 62, 373–384. Kagan, J. (1979). Reflections on infancy. Young Chil- Isabella, R.A., Belsky, J., & von Eye, A. (1989). Ori- dren, 6, 4–10. gins of infant-mother attachment: An examination Kagan, J. (1982). Psychological research on the human of interactional synchrony during the infant’s first infant: An evaluative summary. New York: W.T. Grant year. Developmental Psychology, 25(1), 12–21. Foundation. Izard, C.E., Haynes, O.M., Chisholm, G., & Baak, K. Kagan, J. (1983). Stress and coping in early develop- (1991). Emotional determinants of infant-mother ment. In N.Garmezy & M.Rutter (Eds.), Stress, cop- attachment. Child Development, 62, 906–917. ing and development in children. (p. 191–216). New Izuora, G.I., & Ebigbo, P. (1983). Emotional reactions York: McGraw-Hill. of adult Africans to children with severe kwash- Karen, R. (1994). Becoming attached: Unfolding the mys- iorkor. Child Abuse and Neglect, 7(3), 351–356. tery of the infant-mother bond and its impact on later Jackson, J.F. (1993). Multiple caregiving among Afri- life. New York: Warner Books, Inc. can Americans and infant attachment: The need for Katz, L.C. (1999). What’s critical for the critical pe- an emic approach. Human Development, 36, 87–102. riod in visual cortex? Cell, 99, 673–676. Jacobson, S.W., & Frye, K.F. (1991). Effect of mater- Kaufman, J., & Charney, D. (2001). Effects of early nal social support on attachment: Experimental stress on brain structure and function: implications evidence. Child Development, 62, 572–582. for understanding the relationship between child Jacobvitz, D., Morgan, E., Kretchmar, M.D., & Morgan, maltreatment and depression. Development and Psy- Y. (1991). The transmission of mother-child bound- chopathology, 13(3), 451–471. ary disturbances across three generations. Develop- Kaufman, J., Plotsky, P.M., Nemeroff, C.B., & Charney, ment and Psychopathology, 3, 513–527. D.S. (2000). Effects of early adverse experiences on Jacobvitz, D., & Sroufe, L.A. (1987). The early brain structure and function: clinical implications. caregiver-child relationship and attention deficit Biological Psychiatry, 48(8), 778–790. disorder with hyperactivity in kindergarten: A pro- Kaufman, J., & Zigler, E.F. (1988). Do abused chil- spective study. Child Development, 58, 1496–1503. dren become abusive parents? Annual Progress in Child Psychiatry and Child Development, 591–600.

76 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Kaufman, J., & Zigler, E.F. (1989). The intergenera- Kessen, W., & Leutzendorff, A. (1963). The effects of tional transmission of child abuse. In D.Cicchetti non-nutritive sucking on movement in the human & V.Carlson (Eds.), Child maltreatment: Theory and newborn. Journal of Comparative Physiology and Psy- research on the causes and consequences of child abuse chology, 56, 69–72. and neglect. (p. 129–150). New York, NY, US: Cam- Kilbride, P., & Kilbride, J. (1974). Sociocultural fac- bridge University Press. tors and the early manifestation of sociability Kaye, K. (1982). The mental and social life of babies: How behavior among Baganda infants. Ethos, 2, 296–314. parents create persons. Chicago: The Harvester Press. Kimble, C. (1992). Nonnutritive sucking: adaptation Kearney, J.A. (1997). Emotional development in in- and health for the neonate. Neonatal Network – Jour- fancy: theoretical models and nursing implications. nal of Neonatal Nursing, 11(2), 29–33. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, Kimchie, J., & Schaffner, B. (1990). Childhood pro- 10(4), 7–17. tective factors and stress risk. In L.Arnold (Ed.), Keating, D., & Hertzman, C. (2005). Developmental Childhood stress. (p. 476–500). New York: John health and the wealth of nations. New York: The Wiley and Son. Guilford Press. Kindermann, T., & Skinner, E.A. (1988). Developmen- Keller, H., Chasiotis, A., Risau-Peters, J., Voelker, S., tal tasks as organizers of children’s ecologies: Moth- Zach, U., & Restemeier, R. (1996). Psychobiological ers’ contingencies as children learn to walk, eat, and aspects of infant crying. Early Development and dress. In J.Valsiner (Ed.), Social co-construction and Parenting, 5(1), 1–13. environmental guidance in development. (p. 66–105). Keller, H., Miranda, D., & Gauda, G. (1984). The na- Stamford, CT: Ablex Publishing Corp. ive theory of the infant and some maternal attitudes: Kjellberg, K. (1953). A brief review of W.H.O. activi- A two-country study. Journal of Cross Cultural Psy- ties. In M.Senn (Ed.), Problems in infancy and child- chology, 15(2), 165–179. hood. Transactions of the Sixth Conference 1952: Keller, H., & Schölmerich, A. (1987). Infant vocal- Josiah Macy Foundation. izations and parental reactions during the first 4 Klaus, M., & Kennell, J. (1976). Maternal-infant bond- months of life. Developmental Psychology, 23(1), 62– ing. St Louis: Mossy. 67. Klein, P., & Hundeide, K. (1989). Manual for MISC Keller, H., Schölmerich, A., & Eibl-Eibelsfeldt, I. Programme. Sri Lanka: UNICEF. (1988). Communication patterns in adult-infant Klein, P.S. (1991). Improving the quality of parental interactions in Western and non-Western cultures. interaction with very low birth weight children: A Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology, 19, 427–445. longitudinal study using a mediated learning expe- Kennedy, J.H., & Bakeman, R. (1984). The early rience model. Infant Mental Health Journal, 12(4), mother-infant relationship and social competence 321–337. with peers and adults at three years. The Journal of Klein, P.S. (2001). Seeds of hope: Twelve years of early Psychology, 116, 23–34. intervention in Africa. Oslo: Unipub forlag. Kennell, J., & Klaus, M. (1983). Early events: Later Klinnert, M.D., Campos, J.J., Sorce, J.F., Emde, R.N., effects on the infant. In J.D.Call, E.Galenson, & & Svedja, M. (1983). The development of social R.Tyson (Eds.), Frontiers of Psychiatry, (Vol 2.). (p. referencing in infancy. In R.Plutchik & H.Kellerman 7–16). New York: Basic Books. (Eds.), Emotions, theory, research and experience: Keren, M., Feldman, R., & Tyano, S. (2001). Diagnoses Vol 2. Emotion in early development. New York: Aca- and interactive patterns of infants referred to a com- demic Press. munity-based infant mental health clinic. Journal Kochanska, G. (1991a). Patterns of inhibition to the of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psy- unfamiliar in children of normal and affectively ill chiatry., 40, 27–35. mothers. Child Development, 62, 250–263. Kermoian, R., & Liederman, P.H. (1986). Infant at- Kochanska, G. (1991b). Socialization and temperament tachment to mother and child caretaker in an east in the development of guilt and conscience. Child African community. International Journal of Development, 62, 1379–1392. Behavioral Development, 9, 455–469. Kochanska, G. (1994). Beyond cognition: Expanding Kerr, M., Bogues, J., & Kerr, D. (1978). Psychosocial the search for the early roots of internalization and functioning of mothers of malnourished children. conscience. Developmental Psychology, 30(1), 20–22. Pediatrics, 62, 778–784.

77 THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN

Kochanska, G., & Thompson, R.A. (1997). The emer- Lamb, M.E. (1977). Father-infant and mother-infant gence and development of conscience in interaction in the first year of life. Child Develop- toddlerhood and early childhood. In J.E.Grusec ment, 48, 167–181. (Ed.), Parenting and children’s internalization of val- Lamb, M.E. (1981). Developing trust and perceived ues: a handbook of contemporary theory. (p. 53–77). effectance in infancy. In L.P.Lipsitt & C.K.Rovee- New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Collier (Eds.), Advances in Infancy Research. (p. 101– Konner, M. (1977). Infancy among the Kalahari Desert 127). Norwood, New Jersey: Ablex Publishing San. In P.Liederman, S.Tulkin, & A.Rosenthal (Eds.), Corporation. Culture and infancy: Variations in the human experi- Lamb, M.E. (1983). The effects of the social context ence. (p. 69–109). New York: Academic Press. on dyadic interaction. In M.Lamb, S.Suomi, & Kopp, C.B. (1982). Antecedents of self-regulation: A G.Stephenson (Eds.), Social interaction analysis. (p. developmental perspective. Developmental Psychol- 253–268). Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin ogy, 18(2), 199–214. Press. Kop.C.B. (1989). Regulation of distress and negative Lamb, M.E. (1987a). Predictive implications of indi- emotions: A developmental view. Developmental vidual differences in attachment. Journal of Consult- Psychology, 25( 3), 343–354. ing and Clinical Psychology, 55, 817–824. Kopp, C.B., & Kaler, S.R. (1989). Risk in infancy. Lamb, M.E. (1987b). Strange situation behaviour of American Psychologist, 44, 224–230. infants with adolescent mothers. Infant Behavior and Kuhn, C.M., & Schanberg, S.M. (1998). Responses to Development, 10, 39–48. maternal separation: Mechanisms and mediators. Lamb, M.E., Gaensbauer, T.J., Malkin, C., & Schultz, International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience, L.A. (1985). The effects of child maltreatment on 16(3–4), 261–270. security of infant-adult attachment. Infant Behavior Kumar, R., & Hipwell, A.E. (1996). Development of a and Development, 8, 35–45. clinical rating scale to assess mother-infant interac- Lamb, M.E., Morrison, D.C., & Malkin, C. (1987). The tion in a psychiatric mother and baby unit. British Development of infant social expectations in face- Journal of Psychiatry, 169(1), 18–26. to-face interaction: A longitudinal study. Merrill Kurstjens, S., & Wolke, D. (2001). Effects of maternal Palmer Quarterly, 33(2), 241–254. depression on cognitive development of children Lamb, M.E., Thompson, R.A., Gardner.W.P., Charnov, over the first 7 years of life. Journal of Child Psychol- E.L., & Estes, D. (1984). Security of infantile at- ogy and Psychiatry, 42, 623–636. tachment as assessed in the “strange situation”: Its Kysela, G.M., & Marfo, K. (1983). Mother-child inter- study and biological interpretation. The Behavioral actions and early intervention programmes for and Brain Sciences, 7, 127–171. handicapped infants and young children. Educa- Lamontagne, J.F., Engle, P.L., & Zeitlin, M.F. (1998). tional Psychology, 3(3–4), 201–212. Maternal employment, child care, and nutritional Labouvie-Vief, G., Hakim-Larson, J., DeVoe, M., & status of 12–18-month-old children in Managua, Schoeberlein, S. (2002). Emotions and self- Nicaragua. Social Science and Medicine, 46(3), 403– regulation:A life span view. Human Development, 32, 414. 279–299. Lanata, C. (2001). Children’s health in developing Lachenmeyer, J.R., & Davidovicz, H. (1987). Failure countries: Issues of coping, child neglect and inter- to thrive: A critical review. In B.B.Lahey & national marginalisation. In D.Leon & G.Walt A.E.Kazdin (Eds.), Advances in clinical child psychol- (Eds.), Poverty, inequality and health: An international ogy. (p. 335–358). New York: Plenum Press. perspective. (p. 137–158). Oxford: Oxford Univer- sity Press. Ladden, M., & Damato, E. (1992). Parenting and supportive programs. NAACOGS.Clin.Issu.Perinat. Landau, R. (1989). Affect and attachment: Kissing, Womens Health Nurs., 3(1), 174–187. hugging and patting as attachment behaviours. In- fant Mental Health Journal, 10, 59–69. Lakatos, K., Toth, I., Nemoda, Z., Ney, K., Sasvari- Szekely, M., & Gervai, J. (2000). Dopamine D4 Laucht, M., Esser, G., & Schmidt, M.H. (2001). Dif- receptor (DRD4) gene polymorphism is associated ferential development of infants at risk for psycho- with attachment disorganization in infants. Molecu- pathology: the moderating role of early maternal lar Psychiatry, 5(6), 633–637. responsivity. Developmental Medicine and Child Neu- rology, 43(5), 292–300.

78 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Lawhon, G. (1997). Providing developmentally sup- infant-child risk in the presence of maternal men- portive care in the newborn intensive care unit: an tal illness. Child Abuse and Neglect, 21(7), 589–606. evolving challenge. Journal of Perinatal and Neonatal Lozoff, B. (1989). Nutrition and behaviour. American Nursing, 10(4), 48–61. Psychologist, 44, 231–236. Lay, K., Waters, E., & Park, K. (1989). Maternal re- Lutz, W.J., & Hock, E. (1995). Maternal separation sponsiveness and child compliance: The role of anxiety: relations to adult attachment representa- mood as a mediator. Child Development, 60, 1405– tions in mothers of infants. Journal of Genetic Psy- 1411. chology, 156(1), 57–72. Leavitt, L.A. (1999). Research to practice: emotional Lyons-Ruth, K., Aspen, L., & Repacholi, B. (1993). development and maternal/infant attachment. Jour- Disorganized attachment classification and maternal of Pediatric Health Care, 13(3), S4–S7. nal psychosocial problems as predictors of hostile- Lennenberg, E. (1976). Biological functions of language. aggressive behaviour in the preschool classroom. New York: John Wiley and Son. Child Development, 64, 572–585. Leonard, M., Rhymes, J., & Solnit, A. (1966). Failure Lyons-Ruth, K., Connell, D.B., Grunebaum, H., & to thrive infants: A family problem. American Jour- Botein, S. (1990). Infants at social risk: Maternal nal of Diseases of Children, 111, 600–612. depression and family support services as media- Lewis, M., Feiring, C., McGuffog, C., & Jaskir, J. tors of infant development and security of attach- (1984). Predicting psychopathology from early so- ment. Child Development, 61, 85–98. cial relations. Child Development, 55, 123–136. Lyons-Ruth, K., Connell, D.B., Grunebaum, H., Botein, Lewis, M., & Goldberg, S. (1969). Perceptual-cogni- S., & Zoll, D. (1984). Maternal family history, tive development in infancy: A generalized expect- maternal caretaking, and infant attachment in multi- ancy model as a function of the mother-infant problem families. Journal of Preventative Psychiatry, interaction. Merrill Palmer Quarterly, 15, 81–100. 2, 403–425. Lewis, M., & Ramsay, D. (1999). Soothing and stress. Lyons-Ruth, K., Connell, D.B., Zoll, D., & Stahl, J. NJ:Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., (1987). Infants at social risk: Relations among in- Publishers. fant maltreatment, maternal behavior, and infant attachment behavior. Developmental Psychology, Lewis, M., & Ramsay, D. (1999). Effects of maternal 23(2), 223–232. soothing on infant stress response. Child Develop- ment, 70, 11–20. Lyons-Ruth, K., Easterbrooks, M.A., & Cibelli, C.D. (1997). Infant attachment strategies, infant mental Liebermann, A. (1977). Preschoolers’ competence with lag, and maternal depressive symptoms: predictors a peer: Relations with attachment and peer experi- of internalizing and externalizing problems at age ence. Child Development, 48, 1277–1287. 7. Early Human Development, 33(4), 681–692. Lindskog, U., Bjorksten, B., & Gebre-Medhin, M. Lyons-Ruth, K., Repacholi, B., McLeod, S., & Silva, E. (1994). Infant care in rural Malawi. A prospective (1991). Disorganized attachment behaviour in in- study of morbidity and growth in relation to envi- fancy: Short-term stability, maternal and infant cor- ronmental factors. Annals of Tropical Paediatrics, relates, and risk-related subtypes. Development and 14(1), 37–45. Psychopathology, 3, 377–396. Lis, S. (2000). Characteristics of attachment behaviour Lyons-Ruth, K., Zoll, D., Connell, D.B., & Grunebaum, in institution-reared children. In P.M.Crittenden & H. (1986). The depressed mother and her one-year- A.H.Claussen (Eds.), The organization of attachment old infant: Environment, interaction, attachment, relationships. (p. 141–189). Cambridge: Cambridge and infant development. In E.Z.Tronick & T.Field. University Press. (Eds.), Maternal depression and infant disturbance. (p. Little, C. The expression of affect in late infancy: The role 61–82). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Inc., Publish- of dyadic regulation and emotional availability. (un pub) ers. Lombardi, K.L. (1990). Depressive states and somatic Maccoby, E.E. (1983). Social-emotional development symptoms. In B.B.Wolman & G.Stricker (Eds.), and response to stressors. In N.Garmezy (Ed.), Depressive disorders: Facts, theories, and treatment Stress, coping, and development in children. (p. 217– methods. (p. 149–161). New York: John Wiley & 234). Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins Univer- Sons. sity Press. Louis, A., Condon, J., Shute, R., & Elzinga, R. (1997). Maccoby, E.E. (1992). The role of parents in the The development of the Louis MACRO (Mother and socialization of children: an historical overview. Child Risk Observation) forms: assessing parent- Developmental Psychology, 28, 1006–1017.

79 THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN

Maccoby, E.E., & Martin, J. (1983). Socialization in (Eds.), Attachment in the preschool years. theory, re- the context of the family: Parent-child interaction. search, and intervention. (p. 161–182). Chicago: In P.Mussen (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology. (p. University of Chicago Press. 1–101). New York: John Wiley. Main, M., Kaplan, N., & Cassidy, J. (1985). Security in Maccoby, E.E., & Masters, J. (1970). Attachment and infancy, childhood, and adulthood: A move to the dependency. In P.Mussen (Ed.), Carmichael’s manual level of representation. In I.Bretherton & E.Waters of child psychology. New York: John Wiley and Son. (Eds.), Growing points of attachment theory and re- MacDonald, K.B. (1992). Warmth as a developmental search. (p. 66–104). Monographs of the Society for construct: An evolutionary analysis. Child Develop- Research on Child Development. ment, 63, 753–773. Main, M., & Solomon.J. (1986). Discovery of an inse- Macy, T., Harmon, R.J., & Easterbrooks, M.A. (1987). cure-disorganized/disoriented attachment pattern. Impact of premature birth on the development of In T.B.Brazelton & M.W.Yogman (Eds.), Affective the infant in the family. Journal of Consulting and development in infancy. (p. 95–124). Norwood, New Clinical Psychology, 55, 846–852. Jersey: Ablex. Madden, J., O’ Hara, J., & Levenstein, P. (1984). Home Main, M., Tomasini, L., & Tolan, W. (1979). Differ- again: Effects of the mother-child home program ences among mothers of infants judged to differ in on mother and child. Child Development, 55(2), security. Developmental Psychology, 15, 472–473. 636–647. Malatesta, C.Z. (1982). The expression and regulation Madu, S.N., & Onya, H.E. (1998). Separation fever in of emotion. In T.M.Field & A.Fogel (Eds.), Emo- a 22 month old child in Nigeria. In S.N.Madu, P.K., tions and early interaction. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence & aguma (Eds.), In quest for psychotherapy for mod- Erlbaum. ern Africa. (p. 286–294). Sovenga, South Africa: Malatesta, C.Z. Facial expressions of infants and mothers UNIN Press. during early interaction. (un pub) Magnus, K.B., Cowen, E.L., Wyman, P.A., Fagen, D.B., Malone, C.A., & Drotar, D. (1988). Failure to thrive: & Work, W.C. (1999). Parent-child relationship Preliminary report of a family-oriented prospective qualities and child adjustment in highly stressed study. In E.J.Anthony & C.Chiland (Eds.), The child urban black and white families. Journal of Commu- in his family, Vol. (p. 243–261). New York: John nity Psychology, 27(1), 55–71. Wiley & Sons. Mahler, M., Pine, F., & Bergman, A. (1975). The psy- Mangelsdorf, S.C., & Frosch, C.A. (1999). Tempera- chological birth of the human infant. New York: Basic ment and attachment: one construct or two? Ad- Books. vances in Child Development and Behavior, 27, Main, M. (1983). Exploration, play, and cognitive func- 181–220. tioning related to infant-mother attachment. Infant Mangelsdorf, S.C., Gunnar, M., Kestenbaum, R., Behavior and Development, 6, 167–174. Lang.R., & Andreas, D. (1990). Infant proneness- Main, M. (1990). Cross-cultural studies of attachment to-distress temperament, maternal personality, and organization: Recent studies, changing methodolo- mother-infant attachment: Associations and good- gies, and the concept of conditional strategies. Hu- ness of fit. Child Development, 61(3), 820–831. man Development, 33, 48–61. Marcovitch, S., Goldberg, S., Gold, A., & Washington, Main, M. (2002). Cross-cultural studies of attachment J. (1997). Determinants of behavioural problems organization: Recent studies, changing methodolo- in Romanian children adopted in Ontario. Interna- gies, and the concept of conditional strategies. Hu- tional Journal of Behavioral Development, 20(1), 17– man Development, 33, 48–61. 31. Main, M., & Goldwyn, R. (1984). Predicting rejection Martin, J. (1981). A longitudinal study of the conse- of her infant from mother’s representation of her quences of early mother-infant interaction: A own experience: Implications for the abused-abus- microanalytic approach. Monographs of the Society ing intergenerational cycle. Child Abuse and Neglect, for Research in Child Development, (3, Serial No 8, 203–217. 190)(46), 1–58. Main, M., & Hesse, E. (1990). Parents’ unresolved trau- Martin, J. (1989). Personal and interpersonal compo- matic experiences are related to infant disorganized nents of responsiveness. In M.Bornstein (Ed.), Ma- attachment status: Is frightened and/or frightening ternal responsiveness: Characteristics and consequences. parental behaviour the linking mechanism? In (p. 5–14). San Francisco: Jossey Bass Inc. M.T.Greenberg, D.Cicchetti, & E.M.Cummings

80 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Martini, M., & Kirkpatrick, J. (1981). Early interac- McLennan, J.D., & Kotelchuck, M. (2000). Parental tions in the Marquesas Islands. In T.M.Field, prevention practices for young children in the con- A.Sostek, P.Vietze, & P.Liederman (Eds.), Culture and text of maternal depression. Pediatrics, 105(5), early interactions. (p. 189–213). Hillsdale: Lawrence 1090–1095. Erlbaum. McLennan, J.D., Kotelchuck, M., & Cho, H. (2001). Martins, C., & Gaffan, E.A. (2000). Effects of early Prevalence, persistence, and correlates of depres- maternal depression on patterns of infant-mother sive symptoms in a national sample of mothers of attachment: A meta-analytic investigation. Journal toddlers. Journal of the American Academy of Child of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disci- and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40(11), 1316–1323. plines, 41(6), 737–746. McLennan, J.D., & Offord, D.R. (2002). Should post- Marvin, R.S., VanDevender, T.L., Iwanaga, M.I., LeVine, partum depression be targeted to improve child S., & LeVine, R.A. (1977). Infant-caregiver attach- mental health? Journal of the American Academy of ment among the Hausa of Nigeria. In H.McGurk Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41(1), 28–35. (Ed.), Ecological factors in human development. (p. McLoyd, V.C. (1990). The impact of economic hard- 247–260). Amsterdam: North Holland Publishers. ship on Black families and children: Psychological Masten, A.S., & O’ Connor, M.J. (1989). Vulnerability, distress, parenting and socioemotional develop- stress, and resilience in the early development of a ment. Child Development, 61, 311–346. high risk child. Journal of the American Academy of McLoyd, V.C. (1995). Poverty, parenting, and policy: Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 28(2), 274–278. Meeting the support needs of poor parents. In Matas, L., Arend, R.A., & Sroufe, L.A. (1978). Conti- H.Fitzgerald, B.Lester, & B.Zuckerman (Eds.), Chil- nuity of adaptation in the second year: The relation dren of poverty: Research, health and poverty issues. between quality of attachment and later compe- (p. 269–299). New York: Garland Inc. tence. Child Development, 49, 547–556. McLoyd, V.C., & Flanagan, C. (1990). Economic stress: McCarthy P.L., Cicchetti, D., Sznajderman, S.D., Effects on family life and child development. San Fran- Forsyth, B.C., Baron, M.A., Fink, H.D., Czarkowski, cisco: Jossey Bass Inc. N., Bauchner, H., & Lustman, F.K. (1991). Demo- Meins, E., Fernyhough, C., Fradley, E., & Tuckey, M. graphic, clinical, and psychosocial predictors of the (2001). Rethinking maternal sensitivity: Mental reliability of mothers’ clinical judgments. Pediatrics, processes predict security of attachment at 12 88, 1041–1046. months. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, McCarton, C.M., Wallace, I.F., & Bennett, F.C. (1995). 42, 637–648. Preventive interventions with low birth weight pre- Melson, G., Fogel, A., & Mistry, J. (1986). The study mature infants: an evaluation of their success. Semi- of nurturant interactions. In A.Fogel & G.Melson. nars in Perinatology, 19(4), 330–340. (Eds.), Origins of nurturance: Developmental, biologi- McCollum, J. (1984). Social interaction between par- cal and cultural perspectives on caregiving. (p. 69–90). ents and babies: validation of an intervention pro- Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. cedure. Child: Care, Health and Development, 10, Meltzoff, A., & Moore, M. (1977). Imitation of facial 301–315. and manual gestures by human neonates. Science, McDonough, S. (1995). Promoting positive early par- 198, 75–78. ent-infant relationships through interactions guid- Menahem, S. (1994). Conservation-withdrawal reac- ance. Child and Adolescent Psychiatirc Clinics of North tion in infancy: An under described entity. Child: America, 4, 661–672. Care, Health & Development, 20, 15–26. McGillicuddy-DeLisi, A.V. (1982). Parental beliefs Mercer, B.M., Goldenber, R.L., Das, A., Moawad, A.H., about developmental processes. Human Develop- Iams, J.D., Meis, P.J., Copper, R.L., Johnson, F., ment, 25, 192–200. Thom, E., Mc Neilis, D., Miodovnik, M., Menard, McGowan, R., & Johnson, D.E. (1984). The mother- M.K., Caritis, S.N., Thurnau, G.R., Bottoms, S.F., child relationship and other antecedents of child- & Roberts, J. (1991). The preterm prediction study: hood intelligence: A causal analysis. Child clinical risk assessment system. American Journal of Development, 55, 810–820. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 174(6), 1885–1893. McKay, H., Sinisterra, L., McKay, K., Gomez, H., & Merrill, B. (1946). A measurement of mother-child Lloreda, P. (1978). Improving cognitive ability in interaction. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychol- chronically deprived children. Science, 200, 270–278. ogy, 1946–1949.

81 THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN

Messer, D., & Vietze, P. (1988). Does mutual influence Murray, L. (1985). Emotional regulation of interactions occur during mother-infant social gaze? Infant two-month-olds and their mothers. In T.M.Field & Behavior and Development, 11, 97–110. N.A.Fox (Eds.), Social perception in infancy. (p. 177– Milberger, S., Biederman, J., Faraone, S.V., Chen, L., 197). Norwood, New Jersey: Ablex. & Jones, J. (1996). Is maternal smoking during Murray, L. (1991). Intersubjectivity, object relations pregnancy a risk factor for Attention Deficit Hyper- theory, and empirical evidence from mother-infant activity Disorder in children? American Journal of interactions. Infant Mental Health Journal, 12, 219– Psychiatry, 153(9), 1138–1142. 232. Miller, A.R., Barr, R.G., & Eaton, W.O. (1993). Crying Murray, L. (1992). The impact of postnatal depression and motor behavior of six-week-old infants and on infant development. Journal of Child Psychology postpartum maternal mood. Pediatrics, 92(4), 551– and Psychiatry, 33(3), 543–561. 558. Murray, L., Hyswell, A., & Hooper, R. (1996). The Miller, B.D., Hollingsworth, E., & Sander, L.W. (1985). cognitive development of 5-year-old children of Assessment of infant-caregiver interaction using postnatally depressed mothers. Journal of Child Psy- cardiac, respiratory, and behavioral monitoring: chology and Psychiatry, 73, 27–35. Conceptual and Technical issues in a new method- Murray, L., Kempton, C., Woolgar, M., & Hooper, R. ology. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psy- (1993). Depressed mothers’ speech to their infants chiatry, 24(3), 286–297. and its relation to infant gender and cognitive de- Miller, G., Galanter, E., & Pribram, K. (1960). Plans velopment. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychia- and the structure of behaviour. New York: Holt, try, 31(7), 1083–1101. Rinehart and Winston. Murray, L., Sinclair, D., Cooper, P.A., Ducournau, P., Miller, J.E. (1998). Developmental screening scores & Turner, P. (1999). The socioemotional develop- among preschool-aged children: The roles of pov- ment of 5-year-old children of postnatally depressed erty and child health. Journal of Urban Health, 75(1), mothers. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 135–152. 40, 1259–1271. Mitchell, R., & Trickett, E. (1980). Task force report: Murray, L., Stanley, C., Hooper, R., King, F., & Fiori- Social networks as mediators of social support. Cowley, A. (1996). The role of infant factors in post- Community Mental Health Journal, 16, 27–44. natal depression and mother-infant interactions. Mitchell, S.A. (1998). Attachment theory and the psy- Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 38 (2), choanalytic tradition: Reflections on human 109–119. relationality. British Journal of Psychotherapy, 15(2), Murray, L., & Trevarthen, C. (1986). The infant’s role 177–193. in mother-infant communications. Journal of Child Moore, C., & Dunham, P.J.E. (1995). Joint attention: Its Language, 13, 15–29. origins and role in development. Hillsdale, NJ: Law- Myers, B. (1984). Mother-infant bonding: The status rence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. of this critical-period hypothesis. Developmental Moustakas, C., Sigel, I.E., & Sachalock, H. (1956). An Review, 4, 240–274. objective method for the measurement and analy- Myers, R. (1992). The twelve who survive: Strengthening sis of chid-adult interaction. Child Development, 27, programmes of early childhood development in the third 109–134. world. New York: Routledge. Mundy-Castle, A. (1980). Perception and communi- Nakamichi, M., Silldorff, A., & Sexton, P. (2002). cation in infancy: A cross-cultural study. In Behavioral responses of an infant gorilla to mater- D.R.Olson (Ed.), The social foundations of language nal separation in a captive social group of lowland and thought: Essays in honor of Jerome Bruner? (p. gorillas. Primates, 42(3), 245–252. 231–253). New York: W.W. Norton & Company. Narayan, D., & Petesch, P. (2002). Voices of the poor: Munoz-Hoyos, A., Augustin-Morales, M.C., Ruiz- From many lands. Washington, DC: Oxford Univer- Cosano, C., Molina-Carballo, A., Fernandez-Garcia, sity Press and the World Bank. J.M., & Galdo-Munoz, G. (2001). Institutional Nelson, C.A.E., & Bloom, F.E. (1997). Child develop- childcare and the affective deficiency syndrome: ment and neuroscience. Child Development, 68, 970– consequences on growth, nutrition and develop- 987. ment. Early Human Development, 65 Suppl, 145– Nelson, C.A.E., & Luciana, M. (2001). Handbook of 152. developmental cognitive neuroscience. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.

82 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Nelson, K. (1973). Structure and strategy in learning Implications for prevention. American Journal of to talk. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Public Health, 79(9), 1295–1296. Development, 38(1–2), 136. Osborn, A. (1990). Resilient children: A longitudinal Newson, J. (1979). The growth of shared understand- study of high achieving socially disadvantaged chil- ings between infant and caregiver. In M.Bullowa dren. Early Child Development and Care, 62, 23–47. (Ed.), Before speech: the beginning of interpersonal Osofsky, J.D. (1976). Neonatal characteristics and communication. (p. 207–222). Cambridge: Cam- mother-infant interaction in two observational situ- bridge University Press. ations. Child Development, 47, 1138–1147. Nugent, J.K., & Brazelton, T.B. (1989). Preventative Osofsky, J.D. (1993). Applied Psychoanalysis: How interventions with infants and families: The NBAS research with infants and adolescents at high psy- Model. Infant Mental Health Journal, 10(2), 84–99. chosocial risk informs psychoanalysis. Journal of the Nugent, J.K., Lester, B.M.E., & Brazelton, T.B. (1991). American Psychoanalytic Association Supplement, 41, The cultural context of infancy, Vol. 2: Multicultural 193-207. and interdisciplinary approaches to parent-infant rela- Osofsky, J.D., & Danzger, B. (1974). The relationships tions. Stamford, CT: Ablex Publishing Corp. between neonatal characteristics and mother-infant O’Connor, M.E., & Szekely, L.J. (2001). Frequent interactions. Developmental Psychology, 10, 124–130. breastfeeding and food refusal associated with fail- Osofsky, J.D., & Eberhart-Wright, A. (1988). Affective ure to thrive. A manifestation of the vulnerable child exchanges between high risk mothers and infants. syndrome. Clinical Pediatrics, 40(1), 27–33. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 69, 221–231. O’ Connor, T.G. (2002). Annotation: The “effects” of Otieno, P.A., Nduati, R.W., Musoke, R.N., & Wasunna, parenting considered: Findings, challenges and ap- A.O. (1999). Growth and development of aban- plications. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychia- doned babies in institutional care in Nairobi. East try, 43, 555–572. African Medical Journal, 76(8), 430–435. O’ Connor, T.G., Bredenkamp, D., & Rutter, M. (1999). Owens, E.B., Shaw, D.S., & Vondra, J.I. (1998). Rela- Attachment disturbances and disorders in children tions between infant irritability and maternal re- exposed to early severe deprivation . Infant Mental sponsiveness in low-income families. Infant Behavior Health Journal, 20(1), 10–29. and Development, 21(4), 761–777. O’Hara, M.T., Church, C.C., & Blatt, S.D. (1998). Paine, B.J., Makrides, M., & Gibson, R.A. (1999). Du- Home-based developmental screening of children ration of breast-feeding and Bayley’s Mental Devel- in foster care. Pediatric Nursing, 24(2), 113–117. opmental Index at 1 year of age. Journal of Paediatrics Ogbu, J. (1981). Origins of human competence: a cul- and Child Health, 35(1), 82–85. tural-ecological perspective. Child Development, 52, Panksepp, J., Nelson, E., & Bekkedal, M. (1997). Brain 413–429. systems for the mediation of social separation-dis- Ogbu, J. (1994). From cultural differences to differ- tress and social-reward. Evolutionary antecedents ences in cultural frame of reference. In P.Greenfield and neuropeptide intermediaries. In C.S.Carter & & R.Cocking (Eds.), Cross-cultural roots of minority I.I.Lederhendler (Eds.), The integrative neurobiology child development. (p. 365–391). Hillsdale, NJ: Law- of affiliation. (p. 78–100). New York: New York rence Erlbaum Associates. Academy of Sciences. Okagaki, L., & Divecha, D. (1993). Development of Papou˘sek, H. (2000). Intuitive parenting. In J.Osofsky parent beliefs. In T.Luster & L.Okagaki (Eds.), & H.Fitzgerald (Eds.), WAIMH Handbook of infant Parenting: An ecological perspective. (p. 35–68). mental health, Vol. 3: Parenting and child care. New Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. York: John Wiley and Son. Olson, S.L., Bates, J.E., & Bayles, K. (1982). Maternal Papou˘sek, H., & Papou˘sek, M. (1979). Early ontogeny perceptions of infant and toddler behavior: A lon- of human social interactions: Its biological roots and gitudinal, construct validation study. Infant Behavior social dimensions. In K.Foppa, W.Lepenies, & and Development, 5(4), 397–410. D.Ploog (Eds.), Human Ethology. (p. 456–489). New Olson, S.L., Bates, J.E., & Kaskie, B. (1992). Caregiver- York: Cambridge University Press. infant interaction antecedents of children’s school- Papou˘sek, H., & Papou˘sek, M. (1981). How human is age cognitive ability. Merrill Palmer Quarterly, 38(3), the human newborn, and what else is to be done? 309–330. In K.Bloom (Ed.), Prospective issues in infancy re- Orr, S.T., James, S.A., Burns, B.J., & Thompson, B. search. (p. 137–155). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence (1989). Chronic stressors and maternal depression: Erlbaum Associates.

83 THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN

Papou˘sek, H., & Papou˘sek, M. (1983). Interactional Patel, R.B. (1989). Care of low birth weight babies in failures: Their origins and significance in infant psy- slums. Indian Journal of Pediatrics, 56(2), 231–237. chiatry. In J.D.Call, E.Galenson, & R.Tyson (Eds.), Patel, V. (2002). Gender, poverty and postnatal depres- Frontiers of psychiatry Vol 2. (p. 31–37). New York: sion: A study of mothers in Goa, India. American Basic Books. Journal of Psychiatry, 159. Papou˘sek, H., & Papou˘sek, M. (1986). Structure and Penman, R., Meares, R., Baker, K., & Milgrom-Fried- dynamics of human communication at the begin- man, J. (1983). Synchrony in mother-infant inter- ning of life. European Archives of Psychiatry and Neu- action: A possible neurophysiological base. British rological Science, 236(1), 21–25. Journal of Medical Psychology, 56, 1–7. Papou˘sek, H., & Papou˘sek, M. (1997). Preverbal com- Perry, B.D., Pollard, R.A., Blakley, T.L., Baker, W.L., & munications in humans and the genesis of culture. Vigilante, D. (1995). Childhood trauma, the neu- In U.C.Segerstrale & P.Molnar (Eds.), Nonverbal robiology of adaptation, and “use-dependent” de- communication: Where nature meets culture. (p. 87– velopment of the brain: How “states” become 107). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. “traits”. Infant Mental Health Journal, 16, 271–291. Papou˘sek, H., & Papou˘sek, H. (1991). Early Peters, K.L. (1998). Neonatal stress reactivity and cor- verbalizations as precursors of language develop- tisol. Journal of Perinatal and Neonatal Nursing, 11(4), ment. In M.E.Lamb & H.Keller (Eds.), Infant devel- 45–59. opment: Perspectives from German-speaking countries. Peterson, G.H., & Mehl, L.E. (1978). Some determi- (p. 299–328). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum nants of maternal attachment. American Journal of Associates, Inc. Psychiatry, 135(10), 1168–1173. Papou˘sek, H., & Papou˘sek, H. (1996). Infantile per- Petterson, S.M., & Albers, A.B. (2001). Effects of pov- sistent crying, state regulation, and interaction with erty and maternal depression on early child devel- parents: A systems view. In M.H.Bornstein & opment. Child Development., 72(6), 1794–1813. J.L.Genevro (Eds.), Child development and behavioral pediatrics. Crosscurrents in contemporary psychology. Phillips, A. (1987). Winnicott. London: Fontana. (p. 11–33). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Asso- Phillips, A. (1988). Winnicott: An introduction. Brit- ciates, Inc., Publishers. ish Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 612–618. Paret, I. (1983). Night waking and its relationship to Phillips, N.K. (1985). Mother-child interaction group: mother-infant interaction in nine-month-old in- Model for joint treatment. Social Casework, 66(2), fants. In J.D.Call, E.Galenson, & R.Tyson (Eds.), 91–97. Frontiers of psychiatry. (p. 171–177). New York: Ba- Piaget, J. (1936). The origins of intelligence in children. sic Books. 2nd Ed. (1952). New York: International Universi- Parke, R.D. (1978). Parent-infant interaction: Para- ties Press. digms, and problems. In G.P.Sackett. (Ed.), Observ- Pierrehumbert, B., Iannotti, R.J., Cummings, E.M., & ing behavior Vol. 1. Theory and application in mental Zahn-Waxler, C. (1989). Social functioning with retardation. (p. 69–94). Baltimore: University Park mother and peers at 2 and 5 years: The influence of Press. attachment. International Journal of Behavioral De- Parkes, C., & Stevenson-Hinde, J. (1982). The place of velopment, 12(1), 85–100. attachment in human behavior. New York: Basic Pike, K. (1974, 1954). Language in Relation to a Unified Books. Theory of the Structure of Human Behavior. The Parks, P.L., Lenz, E.R., & Jenkins, L.S. (1992). The Hague: Mouton. role of social support and stressors for mothers and Pinneau, S.R. (1955). Reply to Dr. Spitz. Psychological infants. Child: Care, Health and Development, 18, Bulletin, 52(2), 459–462. 151–171. Pinneau, S.R. (1955). The infantile disorders of hospi- Parmalee, A.H., Howard, J., & Beckwith, L. (1984). talism and anaclitic depression. Psychological Bulle- Infant mental health and biological risk. Child Abuse tin, 52(5), 429–452. and Neglect, 8, 219–226. Plunkett, J.W., Meisels, S.J., Stiefel, G.S., Pasick, P.L., Pascoe, J.M., Loda, F.A., Jeffries, V., & Earp, J.A. (1981). & Roloff, D.W. (2002). Patterns of attachment The association between mothers’ social support and among preterm infants of varying biological risk. provision of stimulation to their children. Develop- Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, mental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 2(1), 15–19. 25(6), 794–800.

84 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Polan, H., & Ward, M. (1994). Role of the mother’s Pridham, K.F., Schroeder, M., & Brown, R. (1999). The touch in failure to thrive: A preliminary investiga- adaptiveness of mothers’ working models of tion. Journal of the American Academy of Child and caregiving through the first year: infant and mother Adolescent Psychiatry, 33, 1098–1105. contributions. Research in Nursing and Health, 22(6), Polansky, N.A., Borgman, R., & DeSaix, C. (1972). 471–485. Roots of futility. London: Jossey-Bass. Pridham, K.F., Becker, P., & Brown, R. (2000). Effects Polansky, N.A., Gaudin, J.M., Ammons, P.W., & Davis, of infant and caregiving conditions on an infant’s K.B. (1985). The psychological ecology of the ne- focused exploration of toys. Journal of Advanced glectful mother. Child Abuse and Neglect, 9, 265–275. Nursing, 31(6), 1439–1448. Poley-Strobel, B.A., & Beckman, C.A. (1987). The ef- Pridham, K.F., Lin, C.Y., & Brown, R. (2001). Moth- fects of a teaching-modeling intervention on early ers’ evaluation of their caregiving for premature and mother-infant reciprocity. Infant Behavior and De- full-term infants through the first year: contribut- velopment, 10, 467–476. ing factors. Research in Nursing and Health, 24(3), 157–169. Pollitt, E. (1975). Failure to thrive: Socioeconomic, dietary intake and mother-child interaction data . Provence, S., & Lipton, R. (1962). Infants in institu- Federation Proceedings, 34, 1593–1597. tions. New York: International Universities Press. Pollitt, E., Durnin, J.V., Husaini, M., & Jahari, A. Provence, S., & Ritvo, S. (1961). Effects of depriva- (2000). Effects of an energy and micronutrient sup- tion on institutionalized infants. Psychoanalytic Study plement on growth and development in undernour- of the Child, 16, 189–205. ished children in Indonesia: methods. European Puckering, C. (1989). Annotation: Maternal depres- Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 54, S16–S20. sion. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 30(6), Pollitt, E., Eichler, A.W., & Chan, C.-K. (1975). Psy- 807–817. chosocial development and behavior of mothers of Puckering, C. (1995). Mother-child interaction and the failure-to-thrive children. American Journal of Or- cognitive and behavioural development of four-year- thopsychiatry, 45(4), 525–537. old children with poor growth. Journal of Child Psy- Pollitt, E., Jahari, A., & Walka, H. (2000). A develop- chology and Psychiatry, 36, 573–595. mental view of the effects of an energy and micro- Radke-Yarrow, M., & Brown, E. (1993). Resilience and nutrient supplement in undernourished children in vulnerability in children of multiple-risk families. Indonesia. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 54, Development and Psychopathology, 5, 581–592. 107–113. Ragozin, A., Basham, R., Crnic, K., Greenberg, M.T., Portes, P.R., Franke, S., & Alsup, R. (1987). Parent- & Robinson, N. (1982). Effects of maternal age on child interaction: Processes related to scholastic parenting role. Developmental Psychology, 18, 627– achievement in urban elementary children. Journal 634. of Human Behavior and Learning, 4(1), 2–9. Rahman, A., Harrington, R., & Bunn, J. (2002). Can Posada, G., Jacobs, A., Carbonell, O.A., Alzate, G., maternal depression increase infant risk of illness Bustamante, M.R., & Arenas, A. (1999). Maternal and growth impairment in developing countries? care and attachment security in ordinary and emer- Child: Care, Health and Development, 28(1), 51–56. gency contexts. Developmental Psychology, 35(6), Rahmanifar, A., Kirksey, A., Wachs, T., McCabe, G., & 1379–1388. Bishry, Z. (1993). Diet during lactation associated Powell, C., & Grantham-McGregor, S. (1989). Home with infant behaviour and caregiver-infant interac- visiting of varying frequency and child develop- tion in a semirural Egyptian village. Journal of Nu- ment. Pediatrics, 84(1), 157–164. trition, 123, 164–175. Price, G.M. (1983). Sensitivity in mother-infant inter- Ramey, C.T., Bryant, D.M., Wasik, B.H., Sparling, J.J., actions: The AMIS scale. Infant Behavior and Devel- Fendt, K.H., & LaVange, L.M. (1992). Infant Health opment, 6, 353–360. and Development Program for low birth weight, Pridham, K.F. (1984). Information needs and problem premature infants: program elements, family par- solving behavior of parents of infants. Birth Defects ticipation, and child intelligence. Pediatrics, 89(3), Original Article Series, 20(5), 125–165. 454–465. Pridham, K.F. (1998). Guided participation and de- Ramey, C.T., & Ramey, S.L. (1998). Early intervention velopment of care-giving competencies for families and early experience(:History, theory, findings, and of low birth-weight infants. Journal of Advanced contemporary issues.). American Psychologist, 53(2), Nursing, 28(5), 948–958. 109–120.

85 THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN

Ratner, N., & Bruner, J. (1978). Games, social exchange Richter, L.M. (1994). Economic stress and its influ- and the acquisition of language. Journal of Child ence on the family and caretaking patterns. In Language, 5, 391–401. A.Dawes & D.Donald (Eds.), Childhood and Adver- Reading, R., & Reynolds, S. (2001). Debt, social dis- sity in South Africa: Psychological Perspectives from advantage and maternal depression. Social Science South African Research. (p. 28–50). Cape Town: and Medicine, 53(4), 441–453. David Philip. Reddy, S.N. (1987). Parental deprivation and mental Richter, L.M. (1995). Are early adult-infant interac- health status. Child Psychiatry Quarterly, 20(3–4), tions universal? A South African view. Southern Af- 85–96. rican Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 7(1), 2–18. Reed, B.A., Habicht, J.P., & Niameogo, C. (1996). The effects of maternal education on child nutritional Richter, L.M. (1998). The role of care in the health of status depend on socio-environmental conditions. infants and young children. Southern African Jour- International Journal of Epidemiology, 25(3), 585– nal of Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 9, 95–106. 592. Richter, L.M. (1999). Parenting in poverty: Young chil- Reed, G., & Liederman, P.H. (1981). Age-related dren and their families in South Africa. In L.Eldering changes in attachment behaviour in polymatrically & P.Leseman (Eds.), Effective early education: Cross- reared infants: The Kenyan Gusii. In T.M.Field, cultural perspectives. (p. 191–211). New York: A.Sostek, & P.Vietze (Eds.), Culture and early inter- Falmer Press. actions. (p. 215–234). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Richter, L.M., Bac, M., & Hay, I. (1990). Psychological Erlbaum Associates. aspects of the health care of young children. South Regalado, M., & Halfon, N. (2001). Primary care serv- African Family Practice, 11, 490–497. ices promoting optimal child development from Richter-Strydom, L.M., Griesel, R.D., & Glatthaar, I. birth to age 3 years: Review of the literature. Ar- (1985). Effects of a nutrition education programme chives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 155, on the psychological performance of malnourished 1311–1122. children. A 3-year follow-up study. South African Reifsnider, E. (1995). The use of human ecology and Medical Journal, 68(9), 659–662. epidemiology in nonorganic failure to thrive. Pub- Richter, L.M. & Griesel, R. D. (1994). Malnutrition, lic Health Nursing, 12(4), 262–268. low birthweight and related influences on psycho- Reifsnider, E. (1998). Reversing growth deficiency in logical development. In A.Dawes & D.Donald children: the effect of a community-based interven- (Eds.), Childhood and Adversity in South Africa: Psy- tion. Journal of Pediatric Health Care, 12(6 Pt 1), chological Perspectives from South African Research. 305–312. (p. 66–91). Cape Town: David Philip. Reis, J. (1988). Child rearing expectations and devel- Richter, L.M. & Grieve, K. (1991). Home environment opmental knowledge according to maternal age and and cognitive development of black infants in im- parity. Infant Mental Health Journal, 9, 287–304. poverished South African families. Infant Mental Health Journal, 12, 88–102. Resnick, M.B., Armstrong, S., & Carter, L. (1988). Developmental intervention program for high-risk Richter, L.M., Grieve, K.W., & Austin, D. (1988). Scaf- premature infants: Effects on development and par- folding by Bantu mothers during object play with ent-infant interactions. Journal of Developmental and their infants. Early Child Development and Care, 34, Behavioral Pediatrics, 9(2), 73–78. 63–75. Rhodes, S., & Hennessy, E. (2000). The effects of spe- Richters, J.E., Waters, E., & Vaughn, B.E. (1988). cialized training on caregivers and children in early- Empirical classification of infant-mother relation- years settings: An evaluation of the foundation ships for interactive behavior and crying during course in playgroup practice. Early Childhood Re- reunion. Child Development, 59, 512–522. search Quarterly, 15(4), 559–576. Ricks, M. (1985). The social transmission of parental Ricciuti, H. (1981). Adverse environmental and nutri- behavior: Attachments across generations. In tional influences on mental development: A per- I.Bretherton & E.Waters (Eds.), Growing points in spective. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, attachment theory and research. (p. 211–230). 79, 115–120. Chicago: Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development. Richards, M.P.M. (1974). The integration of a child into a social world. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univer- Robertson, J. (1953). A two-year-old goes to hospital sity Press. [Film]. Tavistock Child Development Research Unit.

86 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Robertson, J., & Robertson, J. (1989). Separation and Rutter, M. (1979). Protective factors in children’s mes- the very young. London: Free Association Books. sages to stress and disadvantage. In M.W. Kent and Roggman, L.A., Langlois, J.H., & Hubbs-Tait, L. (1987). J.E. Rolf (Eds.), Primary Prevention of Psychopathol- Mothers, infants, and toys: Social play correlates of ogy, Vol. 3: Social Competence in Children. (p. 49– attachment. Infant Behavior and Development, 10, 74). Hanover, NH: University Press of New England. 233-237. Rutter, M. (1980). Maternal deprivation, 1972–1978: Roggman, L.A., & Peery, J.C. (1988). Caregiving, emo- New findings, new concepts, new approaches. Child tional involvement, and parent-infant play. Early Development, 50, 283–305. Child Development and Care, 34, 191–199. Rutter, M. (1987). Continuities and discontinuities Rogoff, B. (1991). The joint socialization of develop- from infancy. In J.D.Osofsky. (Ed.), Handbook of in- ment by young children and adults. In M. Lewis & fant development. (p. 1256–1296). New York.: John S. Feinman (Eds.), Social influences and socialization Wiley. in infancy. (p. 253–280). New York: Plenum Press. Rutter, M. (1989). Pathways from childhood to adult Rogoff, B., Malkin, C., & Gilbride, K. (1984). Interac- life. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 30(1), tion with babies as guidance in development. In 23–51. B.Rogoff & J.V.Wertsch (Eds.), Children’s learning in Rutter, M. (1990a). Commentary: Some focus and proc- the “Zone of Proximal Development”. (p. 31–44). San ess considerations regarding effects of parental de- Francisco: Jossey-Bass. pression on children. Developmental Psychology, Rogoff, B., & Wertsch, J.V. (1984). Children’s learning 26(1), 60–67. in the “zone of proximal development”. San Francisco: Rutter, M. (1990b). Psychosocial resilience and pro- Jossey-Bass Inc. tective mechanisms. In J.Rolf, A.S.Masten, D.Cicchetti, Roosa, M.W., Fitzgerald, H.E., & Carlson, N.A. (1982). K.N.Nuechterlein, & S.Weintraub (Eds.), Risk and Teenage parenting and child development: A litera- protective factors in the development of psychopathol- ture review. Infant Mental Health Journal, 3(1), 4–18. ogy. (p. 181–214). Cambridge: Cambridge Univer- sity Press. Rosen, K.S., & Rothbaum, F. (1993). Quality of parental caregiving and security of attachment. Develop- Rutter, M. (1995). Clinical implications of attachment mental Psychology, 29(2), 358–367. concepts: retrospect and prospect. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 36(4), 549–571. Rosenblatt, J. (1989). The physiological and evolutionary background of maternal responsiveness. In Rutter, M., & Quinton, D. (1984). Long-term follow- M.Bornstein (Ed.), Maternal responsiveness: Charac- up of women institutionalized in childhood: Fac- teristics and consequences. (p. 15–30). San Francisco: tors promoting good functioning in adult life. British Jossey Bass Inc. Journal of Developmental Psychology, 2, 191–204. Rosenfeld, H.M. (1981). Whither interactional syn- Rutter, M., Shaffer, D., & Shepherd, M. (1975). A multi- chrony? In K.Bloom (Ed.), Prospective issues in in- axial classification of child psychiatric disorders. Ge- fancy research. (p. 71–97). Hillsdale, New Jersey: neva: World Health Organization. Lawrence Erlbaum. Saavedra, J.M., Henderson, R.A., Perman, J.A., Hutton, Rossetti-Ferreira, M. (1978). Malnutrition and mother- N., Livingston, R.A., & Yolken, R.H. (1995). Lon- infant asynchrony: Slow mental development. In- gitudinal assessment of growth in children born to ternational Journal of Behavioural Development, 1, mothers with human immunodeficiency virus in- 207–219. fection. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medi- cine, 149(5), 497–502. Rossi, A.S., & Rossi, P.H. (1990). Of human bonding: Parent-child relations across the life course. Hawthorne, Saco-Pollitt, C., Triana, N., Harahap, H., Husaini, M., NY: Aldine de Gruyter. Jahari, A.B., & Pollitt, E. (2000). The eco-cultural context of the undernourished children in a study Rothbaum, F., Weisz, J., Pott, M., Miyake, K., & Morelli, on the effects of early supplementary feeding in G. (2000). Attachment and culture: Security in the Indonesia. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 54, United States and Japan. American Psychologist, S11–S15. 55(10), 1093–1104. Sagi, A. (1990). Attachment theory and research from Rutter, M. (1962). Deprivation of maternal care: A re- a cross-cultural perspective. Human Development, assessment of its effects. World Health Organization 33, 10–22. Public Health Papers. Sagi, A., & Hoffman, M. (1976). Empathic distress in Rutter, M. (1981). Maternal deprivation reassessed. newborns. Developmental Psychology, 12, 175–176. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books.

87 THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN

Saint-Anne Dargassies, S. (1977). Long-term neuro- Sawin, D., Langlois, J.H., & Leitner, W. (1977). What logical follow-up of 286 truly premature infants. 1: do you do after you say hello? Observing, coding Neurological sequelae. Developmental Medicine and and analyzing parent-infant interactions. Behavior Child Neurology, 19, 462–478. Research Methods and Instrumentation, 9, 425–428. Salt, P., Galler, J.R., & Ramsey, F.C. (1988). The influ- Sayre, J.M., Pianta, R.C., Marvin, R.S., & Saft, E.W. ence of early malnutrition on subsequent behavioral (2001). Mothers’ representations of relationships development. VII. The effects of maternal depres- with their children: relations with mother charac- sive symptoms. Developmental and Behavioral teristics and feeding sensitivity. Journal of Pediatric Pediatrics, 9(1), 1–5. Psychology, 26(6), 375–384. Sameroff, A.J. (1975a). Early influences on develop- Scarr, S. (1992). Developmental theories for the 1990’s: ment: Fact or fancy? Merrill-Palmer Quarterly of Development and individual differences. Child De- Behaviour and Development, 21, 267–294. velopment, 63, 1–19. Sameroff, A.J. (1975b). Transactional models in early Scarr, S. (1993). Biological and cultural diversity: The social relations. Human Development, 18, 65–79. legacy of Darwin for development. Child Develop- Sameroff, A.J., & Chandler, M.J. (1975). Reproductive ment, 64, 1333–1353. risk and the continuum of caretaking casualty. In Scarr, S., Phillips, D., & McCartney, K. (1990). Facts, F.D Horowitz, M.Hetherington, S.Scarr-Salapatek, fantasies and the future of child care in the United & G.Siegel (Eds.), Review of child development re- States. Psychological Science, 1, 26–35. search. (p. 187–244). Chicago: University of Chi- Schaefer, E.S. (1989). Dimensions of mother-infant cago. interaction: Measurement, stability, and predictive Sameroff, A.J., & Emde, R.N. (1989). Relationship dis- validity. Infant Behavior and Development, 12, 379– turbances in early childhood: A developmental ap- 393. proach. New York: Basic Books. Schaffer, H.R. (1962). Activity level as a constitutional Sameroff, A.J., & Fiese, B.H. (2000). Transactional determinant of infantile reaction to deprivation. regulation: The developmental ecology of early in- Child Development, 37, 595–602. tervention. In J.P.Shonkoff. & S.J.Meisels (Eds.), Schaffer, H.R. (1977). Early interactive development. Handbook of early childhood intervention. 2nd Ed. (p. In H.R.Schaffer (Ed.), Studies in mother-infant inter- 119–159). New York, NY: Cambridge University action. (p. 3–16). London: Academic Press. Press. Schaffer, H.R., & Emerson, P.E. (1964). The develop- Sander, L.W. (1969). The longitudinal course of early ment of social attachments in infancy. Monographs mother-child interaction – Cross case comparison of the Society for Research in Child Development 29, in a sample of mother-child pairs. In B.M.Foss. No. 94. (Ed.), The determinants of behavior. (p. 189–227). Schellenberg, A., Abdulla, N., Mukasa, S., Marchant, London: Methuen & Company, Ltd. T., Tanner, M., & Lengeler, C. (2002). Risk factors Sander, L.W. (1987). Awareness of inner experience: a for child mortality in rural Tanzania. Tropical Medi- systems perspective on self-regulatory process in cine and International Health, 7, 506–511. early development. Child Abuse and Neglect, 11(3), Scheper-Hughes, N. (1984). Infant mortality and in- 339–346. fant care: Cultural and economic constraints on Sander, L.W. (1989). Investigation of the infant and its nurturing in Northeast Brazil. Social Science and caregiving environment as a biological system . In Medicine, 19(5), 535–546. S.I.Greenspan & G.H.Pollock (Eds.), The course of Scheper-Hughes, N. (1992). Death without weeping: the life. (p. 359–391). Madison: International Univer- violence of everyday life in Brazil. Berkeley, CA: Uni- sities Press, Inc. versity of California Press. Sandler, J., & Rosenblatt, B. (1962). The concept of Schmale, A., & Engel, G. (1975). The role of conser- the representational world. Psychoanalytic Study of vation-withdrawal in depressive reactions. In the Child, 17, 128–145. E.Anthony & T.Benedek (Eds.), Depression and hu- Sartorius, N. (1974). Depressive illness as a worldwide man existence. (p. 183–198). phenomenon. In P.Keilholz (Ed.), Depression in eve- N, A.N. (1998). The experience-dependent matura- ryday practice. Berne, Switzerland: H. Huber . tion of an evaluative system in the cortex. In Satter, E. (1990). The feeding relationship: problems K.H.Pribram (Ed.), Brain and values: Os a biological and interventions. [Review] [45 refs]. Journal of science of values possible. (p. 337–358). Mahwah, Pediatrics, 117(2 Pt 2), S181–S189. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

88 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Schore, A.N. (2001a). Effects of a secure attachment Sigel, I.E. (1985). Parental belief systems: The psycho- relationship on right brain development, affect regu- logical consequences for children. (1st Ed.). Hillsdale, lation, and infant mental health. Infant Mental Health NJ: Erlbaum. Journal, 22(1–2), 7–66. Sigman, M., Cohen, S.E., & Beckwith, L. (2000). Why Schore, A.N. (2001b). The effects of early relational does infant attention predict adolescent intelligence? trauma on right brain development, affect regula- In D.Muir & A.Slater (Eds.), Infant development: The tion, and infant mental health. Infant Mental Health essential readings. (p. 239–253). Malden, MA: Journal, 22(1–2), 201–269. Blackwell Publishers Inc. Schore, R. (1997). Rethinking the brain: New insights into Sigman, M., Cohen, S.E., Beckwith, L., & Parmalee, early development. New York: Families and Work A.H. (1981). Social and familial influences on the Institute. development of preterm infants. Journal of Pediatric Schölmerich, A., Fracasso, M., Lamb, M., & Broberg, Psychology, 6, 1–13. A. (1995). Interactional harmony at 7 and 10 Sigman, M., Neumann, C., Baksh, M., Bwibo, N., & months of age predicts security of attachment as McDonald, M. (1989). Relationship between nu- measured by Q-sort ratings. Social Development, 4, trition and development in Kenyan toddler. Journal 62–74. of Pediatrics, 115, 357–364. Scott, D. (1992). Early identification of maternal de- Sigman, M., Neumann, C., Carter, E., Cattle, D.J., pression as a strategy in the prevention of child D’Souza, S., & Bwibo.N. (1988). Home interactions abuse. Child Abuse and Neglect, 16(3), 345–358. and the development of Embu toddlers in Kenya. Sears, R.R., Maccoby, E.E., & Levin, H. (1957). Pat- Child Development, 59, 1251–1261. terns of childrearing. New York: Harper. Simner, M. (1971). Newborn’s response to the cry of Seguin, L., Potvin, L., St.Denis, M., & Loiselle, J. another infant. Developmental Psychology, 5, 136– (1999). Depressive symptoms fn the late postpar- 150. tum among low socioeconomic status women. Birth- Singer, L.T., & Zeskind, P.S. (2001). Biobehavioral as- Issues in Perinatal Care, 26(3), 157–163. sessment of the infant. New York, The Guilford Press. Shaw, D., & Vondra, J. (1993). Chronic family adver- Skeels, H.M., & Dye, H.B. (1939). A study of the ef- sity and infant attachment. Journal of Child Psychol- fects of differential stimulation on mentally retarded ogy and Psychiatry, 34, 1205–1215. children. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, Shaw, D.S., Owens, E.B., Giovannelli, J., & Winslow, 44, 114–136. E.B. (2001). Infant and toddler pathways leading Skeels, H.M. (1966). Adult status of children with con- to early externalizing disorders. Journal of the Ameri- trasting early life experiences. Chicago, Ill.: Mono- can Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40(1), graphs of the Society for Research in Child Development. 36–43. Skinner, B.F. (1938). The behavior of organisms. New Sherry, B., Embree, J.E., Mei, Z., Ndinya-Achola, J.O., York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. Njenga, S., Muchunga, E.R., Bett, J., & Plummer, Skinner, E.A. (1985). Determinants of mother-sensi- F.A. (2000). Sociodemographic characteristics, care, tive and contingent-responsive behavior: The role feeding practices, and growth of cohorts of chil- of child-rearing beliefs and socioeconomic status. dren born to HIV-1 seropositive and seronegative In I. E. Sigel (Ed.), Parental belief systems: The psy- mothers in Nairobi, Kenya. Tropical Medicine and chological consequences for children. (p. 51–88). International Health, 5(10), 678–686. Hilldale, NJ.: Erlbaum. Shonkoff, J., & Phillips, D. (2000). From neurons to Snow, C., & Ferguson, C. (1977). Talking to children: neighbourhoods: The science of early childhood devel- Language input and acquisition. Cambridge: Cam- opment. New York: National Academy Press. bridge University Press. Siebert, J., Hogan, A., & Mundy, P. (1982). Assessing Sorce, J.F., Emde, R.N., Klinnert, M.D., & Campos, interactive competencies: The Early Social Commu- J.J. (1981). Maternal emotional signaling: Its effect nication Scales. Infant Mental Health Journal, 3, 244– on the visual cliff behaviour of one-year-olds. De- 258. velopmental Psychology, 21, 195–200. Siegel, D.J. (2001). Toward an interpersonal neurobi- Spieker, S.J., & Booth, C.L. (1988). Maternal anteced- ology of the developing mind: Attachment relation- ents of attachment quality. In J.Belsky & ships, “mindsight”, and neural integration. Infant T.Nezworski (Eds.), Clinical implications of attach- Mental Health Journal, 22(1–2), 67–94. ment. (p. 95–135). Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum.

89 THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN

Spitz, R.A. (1945). Hospitalism: An Inquiry into the Stein, A., Murray, L., Cooper, P.A., & Fairburn, C. genesis of psychiatric conditions in early childhood. (1996). Infant growth in the context of maternal Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 1, 53–74. eating disorders and maternal depression: a com- Spitz, R.A. (1947). Grief: A peril in infancy [Film]. New parative study. Psychological Medicine, 26, 569–574. York University Film Library. Stein, M.T., & Call, J.D. (2001). Extraordinary changes Spitz, R.A. (1964). The derailment of dialogue: Stimu- in behavior in an infant after a brief separation. Jour- lus overload, action cycles, and the completion nal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 22(2), gradient. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic As- 11–15. sociation, 12, 752–775. Stern, D.N. (1974). Mother and infant at play: The Spitz, R.A. (1965). The first year of life: A psychoana- dyadic interaction involving the facial, vocal and lytic study of normal and deviant development of ob- gaze behaviours. In M.Lewis & L.Rosenblum (Eds.), ject relations. Madison: International Universities The effect of the infant on its caregivers. (p. 187–213). Press. New York: John Wiley and Sons. Spitz, R.A., & Wolf, K.M. (1946). Anaclitic depression; Stern, D.N. (1977). The first relationship. Cambridge, an inquiry into the genesis of psychiatric conditions MA: Harvard University Press. in early childhood, II. Psychoanalytic Study of the Stern, D.N. (1984). Affect attunement. In J.D.Call, Child, 2, 313–342. E.Galenson, & R.Tyson (Eds.), Frontiers of Infant Sroufe, L.A. (1979). The coherence of individual de- Psychiatry, Vol. 2. New York: Basic Books. velopment. American Psychologist, 34, 834–841. Stern, D.N. (1985). The interpersonal world of the in- Sroufe, L.A. (1983). Infant-caregiver attachments and fant: A view from psychoanalysis and developmental patterns of adaptation in preschool: The roots of psychology. New York: Basic Books. maladaption. In M.Perlmutter (Ed.), (p. 41–81). Stern, D.N., Beebe, B., Jaffe, J., & Bennett, S.L. (1977). Hilldale, NJ.: Erlbaum. The infant’s stimulus world during social interac- Sroufe, L.A. (1985). Attachment classification from the tion: A study of caregiver behaviours with particu- perspective of infant-caregiver relationships and lar reference to repetition and timing. In H.R infant temperament. Child Development, 56, 1–14. Schaffer. (Ed.), Studies in mother-infant interaction. (p. 177–202). New York: Academic Press. Sroufe, L.A. (1986). Appraisal: Bowlby’s contribution to psychoanalytic theory and developmental psy- Stern, D.N., Spieker, S., & MacKain, K. (1982). Into- chopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psy- nation contours as signals in maternal speech to chiatry, 27(6), 841–849. prelinguistic infants. Developmental Psychology, 18, 727–735. Sroufe, L.A. (1988). The role of infant-caregiver attachment in adult development. In J.Belsky & Stevenson, M., Ver Hoeve, J., Roach, M., & Leavitt, T.Nezworski (Eds.), Clinical Implications of attach- L.A. (1986). The beginning of conversation: Early ment. (p. 18–38). Hillsdale, NJ.: Erlbaum. patterns of mother-infant vocal responsiveness. In- fant Behavior and Development, 9, 423–440. Sroufe, L.A. (1989). Relationships and relationship disturbances. In A.Sameroff & R.Emde (Eds.), Re- Stott, D.H. (1962a). Abnormal mothering as a cause lationship disturbances in early childhood. (p. 3–17). of mental subnormality: I. A critique of some clas- Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. sic studies of maternal deprivation in the light of possible congenital factors. Journal of Child Psychol- Sroufe, L.A., & Fleeson, J. (1986). Attachment and the ogy and Psychiatry, 3(2), 79–91. construction of relationships. In W.W.Hartup & Z.Rubin. (Eds.), Relationships and development. (p. Stott, D.H. (1962b). Abnormal mothering as a cause 51–72). Hillsdale, NJ.: Lawrence Erlbaum. of mental subnormality: II. Case studies and conclusions. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, Sroufe, L.A., & Sampson, M.C. (2000). Attachment 3, 133–148. theory and systems concepts. Human Development, 43(6), 321–326. Sullivan, J.M. (1997). Learning the baby: a maternal thinking and problem-solving process. Journal of Sroufe, L.A., & Waters, E. (1977). Attachment as an Social and Pediatric Nursing, 2(1), 21–28. organizational construct. Child Development, 48, 1184–1199. Super, C.M., Herrera, M.A., & Mora, J.O. (1990). Long term effects of food supplementation and psycho- Stacey, B. (1980). Infant-mother attachment: A social social intervention on the physical growth of psychological perspective. Social Behavior and Per- Colombian Infants at risk of malnutrition. Child De- sonality, 8, 33–40. velopment, 61, 29–49.

90 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Swendsen, J.D., & Mazure, C.M. (2000). Life stress as Trevarthen, C. (1987a). Sharing makes sense. In a risk factor for postpartum depression: Current R.Steele & T.Threadgold (Eds.), Language topics: research and methodological issues. Clinical Psychol- Essays in honour of Michael Halliday. (p. 177–199). ogy-Science and Practice, 7(1), 17–31. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Symington, A., & Pinelli, J. (2001). Developmental care Trevarthen, C. (1987b). Universal co-operative mo- for promoting development and preventing mor- tives: How infants begin to know the language and bidity in preterm infants. [update of Cochrane Da- culture of their parents. In G.Jahoda & I.Lewis tabase Syst Rev. 2000;(4):CD001814 ; 11034730.]. (Eds.), Acquiring culture: Cross-cultural studies in child [Review] [80 refs]. Cochrane Database System Re- development. (p. 37–90). London: Croon Helm. view, (4), CD001814. Trevarthen, C. (2002). Intrinsic motives for compan- Tanner, J., & Inhelder, B. (2002). Discussions on child ionship in understanding: Their origin, develop- development: Proceedings of the WHO Study Group on ment, and significance for infant mental health. the Psychobiological Development of the Child. New Infant Mental Health Journal, 22(1), 95–131. York: International Universities Press. Trevarthen, C., & Aitken, K.J. (2001). Infant inter- Tarabulsy, G.M., Tessier, R., & Kappas, A. (1996). Con- subjectivity: Research, theory, and clinical applica- tingency detection and the contingent organization tions. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and of behavior in interactions: implications for Allied Disciplines, 42(1), 3–48. socioemotional development in infancy. Psychologi- Trevarthen, C., & Hubley, P. (1978). Secondary inter- cal Bulletin, 120(1), 25–41. subjectivity: Confidence, confiding and acts of Tessier, R., Cristo, M., Velez, S., Giron, M., de Calume, meaning in the first year. In A.Lock (Ed.), Action, Z.F., Ruiz-Palaez, J.G., Charpak, Y., & Charpak, N. gesture and symbol. London: Academic Press. (1998). Kangaroo mother care and the bonding Trevarthen, C., Murray, L., & Hubley, P. (1981). Psy- hypothesis. Pediatrics, 102(2), 390–391. chology of infants. In J.Davis & J.Dobbing (Eds.), Thoman, E.B. (1979). Changing views of the being and Scientific foundations of clinical paediatrics. (p. 211– becoming of infants. In E.B.Thoman (Ed.), Origins 274). London: Heinemann Medical. of the infant’s social responsiveness. (p. 445–459). Tronick, E.Z. (1979). Structure of early face-to-face Thoman, E.B., & Freese, M. (1982). A model for the communicative interactions. In M.Bullowa (Ed.), study of early mother-infant communication. In Before Speech. Cambridge: Cambridge University R.Bell & W.Smotherman (Eds.), Maternal influences Press. and early behaviour. (p. 375–402). New York: Spec- Tronick, E.Z. (1989). Emotions and emotional com- trum. munication in infants. American Psychologist, 44(2), Thompson, R.A. (2001). Development in the first years 112–119. of life. [Review] [31 refs]. Future Choices, 11(1), 20– Tronick, E.Z., Als, H., Adamson, L.B., Wise, S., & 33. Brazelton, T.B. (1978). The infant’s response to en- Tomasello, M. (1999). The human adaptation for cul- trapment between contradictory messages in face- ture. Annual Review of Anthropology, 28, 509–529. to-face interaction. Journal of the American Academy Tomasello, M. (2001). Cultural transmission: A view of Child Psychiatry, 17, 1–13. from chimpanzees and human infants. Journal of Tronick, E.Z., & Beeghly, M. (1999). Prenatal cocaine Cross Cultural Psychology, 32(2), 135–146. exposure, child development, and the compromis- Trevarthen, C. (1977). Descriptive studies of infant ing effects of cumulative risk. Clinics in Perinatology, communicative behaviour. In H.Schaffer (Ed.), Stud- 26(1), 151–171. ies in mother-infant interaction. New York: Academic Tronick, E.Z., & Gianino, A. (1986a). Interactive mis- Press. match and repair: Challenges to the coping infant. Trevarthen, C. (1979). Communication and coopera- Zero to Three, 6(3), 1–6. tion in early infancy: a description of primary Tronick, E.Z., & Gianino, A.F. (1986b). The transmis- intersubjectivity. In M.Bullowa (Ed.), Before Speech. sion of maternal disturbance to the infant. In (p. 321–347). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. E.Z.Tronick & T.M.Field (Eds.), Maternal depression Trevarthen, C. (1980). The foundations of intersubject- and infant disturbance. (p. 5–11). San Francisco: ivity: Development of interpersonal and coopera- Jossey-Bass Inc. tive understanding in infants. In D.R.Olson (Ed.), Tulkin, S.R., & Kagan, J. (1972). Mother-child inter- The social foundations of language and thought. (p. actions in the first year of life. Child Development, 316–342). Toronto: W.W. Norton and Company. 43, 31–41.

91 THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN

Tulloch, J. (1999). Integrated approach to child health Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind and society: The develop- in developing countries. Lancet, 354(Suppl 2), SII ment of higher psychological processes. MA: Cam- 16–20. bridge: Harvard University Press. Udani, P.M. (1992). Protein energy malnutrition (PEM), Vygotsky, L.S. (1981). The development of higher brain and various facets of child development. [Re- forms of attention in childhood. In J.V. Wertsch view] [47 refs]. Indian Journal of Pediatrics, 59(2), (Ed.), The concept of activity in Soviet psychology. (p. 165–186. 134–143). Armonk, NY: Sharpe. UNICEF. (1990). Strategy for improving nutrition of chil- Wachs, T. (1984). Proximal experience and early cog- dren and women in developing countries. New York: nitive-intellectual development: The social environ- UNICEF. ment. In A.Gottfried (Ed.), Home environment and Uzgiris, I.C., & Kruper, J.C. (1992). The links between early cognitive development. New York: Academic imitation and social referencing. In Saul Feinman Press. (Ed.), Social referencing and the social construction of Wachs, T.D. (1992). The nature of nurture. New York: reality in infancy. (p. 115–148). New York: Perseus. Sage. Valenzuela, M. (1990). Attachment in chronically un- Wachs, T.D., Bishry, Z., Sobhy, A., McCabe, G., Galal, derweight young children. Child Development, 61, O., & Shaheen, F. (1993). Relation of rearing envi- 1984–1986. ronment to adaptive behavior of Egyptian toddlers. Van Goor-Lambo, G., Orley, J., Poustka, F., & Rutter, Child Development, 64, 586–604. M. (1990). Classification of abnormal psychosocial Wachs, T.D., & Gruen, G. (1982). Early experience and situations: Preliminary report of a revision of a WHO human development. New York: Plenum Press. scheme. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, Wahler, R.G. (1967). Infant social attachments: A re- 31, 229–241. inforcement theory interpretation and investigation. van Ijzendoorn, M.H. (1995). Adult attachment rep- Child Development, 38, 1079–1088. resentations, parental responsiveness and infant at- Wahler, R.G., & Dumas, J.E. (1989). Attentional prob- tachment: A meta-analysis on the predictive validity lems in dysfunctional mother-child interactions: An of the Adult Attachment Interview. Psychological interbehavioral model. Psychological Bulletin, 105(1), Bulletin, 117, 387–403. 116–130. van Ijzendoorn, M.H., & Kroonenberg, P. (1988). Walden, T.A. (1988). A developmental approach to Cross-cultural patterns of attachment: A meta-analy- social behavior. Journal of Social Behavior and Per- sis of the Strange Situation. Child Development, 59, sonality, 3, 67–84. 147–156. Walden, T.A. (1991). Infant social referencing. In van Ijzendoorn, M.H., & Sagi, A. (1999). Cross cul- J.Garber & K.A.Dodge (Eds.), The development of tural patterns of attachment: Universal and contex- emotion regulation and dysregulation. (p. 69–88). New tual dimensions. In J.Cassidy & P.Shaver (Eds.), York: Cambridge University Press. Handbook of attachment: Theory, research and clinical Walden, T.A. (1993). Communicating the meaning of applications. (p. 713–734). New York: Guilford events through social referencing. In A.P.Kaiser & Press. D.B.Gray (Eds.), Enhancing children’s communication: Vazir, S., Naidu, A.N., & Vidyasagar, P. (1998). Nutri- research foundations for intervention. (p. 187–199). tional status, psychosocial development and the Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing. home environment of Indian rural children. Indian Walker-Andrews, A.S. (1988). Infants’ perception of Pediatrics, 35(10), 959–966. the affordances of expressive behaviors. Advances Vickers, A., Ohlsson, A., Lacy, J.B., & Horsley, A. in Infancy Research, 173–221. (2000). Massage for promoting growth and devel- Walker-Andrews, A.S. (1997). Infants’ perception of opment of preterm and/or low birth-weight infants. expressive behaviors: Differentiation of multimodal [Review] [22 refs]. Cochrane Database System Re- information. Psychological Bulletin, 121(3), 437–456. view, (2), CD000390. Walker-Andrews, A.S., & Dickson, L.R. (1997). Infants’ Violato, C., & Russell, C. (2000). Effects of non- understanding of affect. In S.Hala (Ed.), The devel- maternal care on child development: A meta-analy- opment of social cognition. (p. 161–186). East Sus- sis of published research. In C.Violato & sex, UK: Psychology Press. E.Oddone-Paolucci (Eds.), The changing family and child development. (p. 268–301). Aldershot, England: Walters, J., Connor, R., & Zunich, M. (1964). Interac- Ashgate Publishing Ltd. tion of mothers and children from lower-class families. Child Development, 35(2), 433–440.

92 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ward, M., Kessler, D., & Altman, S. (1993). Infant- Weinfield, N., Sroufe, L.A., & Egeland, B. (2000). At- mother attachment in children with failure to thrive. tachment from infancy to early adulthood in a high- Infant Mental Health Journal, 14, 208–220. risk sample: Continuity, discontinuity and their Wasik, B.H., Ramey, C.T., Bryant, D.M., & Sparling, correlates. Child Development, 71, 695–702. J.J. (1990). A longitudinal study of two early inter- Weissman, M., Paykel, E., & Klerman, G. (1972). The vention strategies: Project CARE. Child Development, depressed woman as a mother. Social Psychiatry, 7, 61, 1682–1696. 98–108. Waters, E. (1978). The reliability and stability of indi- Wendland-Carro, J., Piccinini, C.A., & Millar, W.S. vidual differences in infant-mother attachment. (1999). The role of an early intervention on enhanc- Child Development, 49, 483–494. ing the quality of mother-infant interaction. Child Waters, E. (1981). Traits, behavioral systems, and re- Development, 70(3), 713–721. lationships: Three models of infant-mother attach- Werner, E. (1988). A cross-cultural perspective on in- ment. In K.Immelman, G.Barlow, L.Petrinovitch, & fancy: Research and social issues. Journal of Cross M.Main (Eds.), Behavioral Development: The Bielefeld Cultural Psychology, 19(1), 96–113. Interdisciplinary Project. (p. 621–650). New York: Werner, E. (1989). High-risk children in young adult- Cambridge University Press. hood: A longitudinal study from birth to age 32. Waters, E., & Cummings, E.M. (2000). A secure base American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 59, 72–78. from which to explore close relationships. Child Werner, E., & Smith, R. (1992). Overcoming the odds: Development, 71(1), 164–172. High risk children from birth to adulthood. Ithaca, New Waters, E., Kondo-Ikemura, K., Posada, G., & Richters, York.: Cornell University Press. J.E. (1991). Learning to love: Mechanisms and mile- Werner, H., & Kaplan, B. (1963). Symbol formation. stones. In M. Gunnar & L. A. Sroufe (Eds.), Self- New York: John Wiley and Sons. processes and development. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Wertsch, J.V., & Tulviste, P. (1992). L.S. Vygotsky and Erlbaum Associates. contemporary developmental psychology. Develop- Waters, E., Merrick, S., Treboux, D., Crowell, J., & mental Psychology, 28, 543–553. Albersheim, L. (2000). Attachment security in Westphal, R., Phillips, G., & Irwig, L.M. (1981). In- infancy and early adulthood: A twenty-year longi- fant care and feeding in an urban black population. tudinal study. Child Development, 71(3), 684–689. South African Medical Journal, 60(20 ), 778–781. Watson, J. (1979). Perception of contingency as a de- Whitt, J.K., & Casey, P.H. (1982). The mother-infant terminant of social responsiveness. In E.Thoman relationship and infant development: The effect of (Ed.), The origin of social responsiveness. (p. 33–64). pediatric intervention. Child Development, 53, 948– Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum and As- 956. sociates. Widlocher, D. (1983). Psychomotor deprivation: Clini- Watson, K.W. (1997). Bonding and attachment in adop- cal, theoretical and psychometric aspects. Psychiat- tion: Towards better understanding and useful defi- ric Clinics of North America, 6, 27–40. nitions. Marriage and Family Review, 25(3–4), 159–173. Williams, C. (1933). A nutritional disease of childhood associated with a maize diet. Archives of Diseases of Watson, K.W., & Kemper, K. (1995). Maternal factors Childhood, 8, 423–433. and child’s health care use. Social Science and Medi- cine, 40, 623–628. Winn, S., Tronick, E.Z., & Morelli, G. (1991). The infant and the group: A look at Efe caretaking prac- Webb, G., Sanson-Fisher, R., & Bowman, J. (1988). tices in Zaire. In J.K.Nugent, B.Lester, & T.B.Brazel- Psychosocial factors related to parental restraint of ton (Eds.), The cultural context of infancy, Vol 1. preschool children in motor vehicles. Accidents Biology, culture and infant development. Norwood, NJ: Analysis and Prevention, 20, 87–94. Ablex Publishing. Webster, M., & Foschi, M. (1992). Social referencing Winnicott, D.W. (1956). Primary maternal occupation. and theories of status and social interaction. In Saul In Anonymous, Collected Papers. (p. 300–305). New Feinman (Ed.), Social referencing and the social con- York: Basic Books. struction of reality in infancy. (p. 269–294). New York: Plenum Press. Winnicott, D.W. (1960). The theory of the parent-infant relationship. The International Journal of Psy- Webster, M.L., Thompson, J.M.D., Mitchell, E.A., & choanalysis, 41, 585–595. Werry, J.S. (1994). Post-natal depression in a community cohort. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 28(1), 42–49.

93 THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN

Winnicott, D.W. (1965). The maturational processes and Young, J. (1964). A model for the brain. London: Ox- the facilitating environment. London: Hogarth Press. ford University Press. Winnicott, D.W. (1971). Playing and reality. London: Young, M. (1996). Early child development: Investing in Tavistock Press. the future. New York: World Bank. Wise, S., & Grossman, F.K. (1980). Adolescent moth- Young, M. (2002). From early child development to hu- ers and their infants: Psychological factors in early man development: Investing in our children’s future. attachment and interaction. American Journal of Washington, DC: World Bank. Orthopsychiatry, 50( 3), 454–468. Zahn-Waxler, C., & Radke-Yarrow, M. (1990). The Wohlwill, J., & Heft, H. (1977). Environments fit for origins of empathic concern. Motivation and Emo- the developing child. In H.McGurk (Ed.), Ecologi- tion, 14, 107–130. cal factors in human development. (p. 125–137). Zahn-Waxler, C., Radke-Yarrow, M., Wagner, E., & Amsterdam: North Holland. Chapman, M. (1992). Development of concern for Wood, D. (1980). Teaching the young children: Some others. Developmental Psychology, 28( 1), 126–136. relationships between social interaction, language, Zaman, S., Jalil, F., & Karlberg, J. (1993). Early child and thought. In D.R.Olson (Ed.), The social founda- health in Lahore, Pakistan: IV. Child care practices. tions of language and thought. (p. 280–296). New Acta Paediatrica Supplement, 390, 39–46. York: W.W. Norton & Company. Zaslow, M., & Rogoff, B. (2002). The cross-cultural Woodhead, M. (1988). When psychology informs pub- study of early interaction: Implications from re- lic policy: The case of early childhood intervention. search on culture and cognition. In T.Field., American Psychologist, 43(June), 443–454. A.Sostek, P.Vietze, & P.Liederman (Eds.), Culture and Woodson, R., Reader, J., & Chamberlain, G. (1981). early interactions. (p. 237–256). Hillsdale, N.J.: Law- Blood pH and crying in the newborn infant. Infant rence Erlbaum. Behavior and Development, 4, 41–45. Zeanah, C.H. (1996). Beyond insecurity: a reconcept- World Health Organization. (1955). Study Group on the ualization of attachment disorders of infancy. Jour- child in hospital. Geneva: World Health Organiza- nal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64(1), tion. 42–52. World Health Organization Expert Committee. Child Zeanah, C.H., & Anders, T.F. (1987). Subjectivity in Mental Health and Psychological Development. (1977). parent-infant relationships: A discussion of inter- Anonymous. Geneva: WHO. Technical Report Se- nal working models. Infant Mental Health Journal, ries 613. 8(3), 237–250. World Health Organization. (1978). WHO activities Zeanah, C.H., Anders, T.F., Seifer, R., & Stern, D.N. in child mental health and psychosocial develop- (1989). Implications of research on infant development. International Journal of Mental Health, 7(1– ment for psychodynamic theory and practice. Jour- 2), 148–157. nal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Wright, C.M., Callum, J., Birks, E., & Jarvis, S. (1998). Psychiatry, 28(5), 657–668. Effect of community based management in failure Zeanah, C.H., & Barton, M.L. (1989). Introduction: to thrive: randomised controlled trial. British Medi- Internal representations and parent-infant relation- cal Journal, 317(7158), 571–574. ships. Infant Mental Health Journal, 10(3), 135–141. Wyatt, D.T., Simms, M.D., & Horwitz, S.M. (1997). Zeanah, C.H., Boris, N.W., & Larrieu, J.A. (1997). In- Widespread growth retardation and variable growth fant development and developmental risk: a review recovery in foster children in the first year after ini- of the past 10 years. Journal of the American Acad- tial placement. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent emy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36(2), 165– Medicine, 151(8), 813–816. 178. Yamada, H., Sadato, N., Konishi, Y., Muramoto, S., Zeanah, C.H., Boris, N.W., & Scheeringa, M.S. (1997). Kimura, K., Tanaka, M., Yonekuyra, Y., Ishii, Y., & Psychopathology in infancy. Journal of Child Psychol- Itoh, H. (1977). A milestone for normal develop- ogy and Psychiatry, 38(1), 81–99. ment of the infantile brain detected by functional Zeanah, C.H., & Zeanah, P.D. (1989). Intergenerational MRI. Neurology, 55, 218–223. transmission of maltreatment: Insights from attach- Yarrow, L.J. (1961). Maternal deprivation: Toward an ment theory and research. Psychiatry: Journal for the empirical and conceptual re-evaluation. Psychologi- Study of Interpersonal Processes, 52(2), 177–196. cal Bulletin, 58, 459–490.

94 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Zeitlin, M., Ghassemi, H., & Mansour, M. (1990). Posi- Zigler, E., Taussig, C., & Black, K. (1992). Early child- tive deviance in child nutrition. Tokyo: United Na- hood intervention: A promising preventative for tions University Press. juvenile delinquency. American Psychologist, 47, Zero to Three. (1994). Diagnostic Classification of Men- 997–1000. tal Health and Developmental Disorders of Infancy and Zuravin, S. (1989). The ecology of child abuse and Early Childhood. Arlington, VA: Zero to Three/Na- neglect: Review of the literature and presentation tional Centre for Clinical Infant Programs. of data. Violence and Victims, 4, 101–120. Zhou, Q., Eisenberg, N., Losoya, S., Fabes, R., Reiser, M., Guthrie, I., & et al. (2002). The relations of parental warmth and positive expressiveness to children’s empathy-related responding and social functioning. Child Development, 73, 893–915.

95 For further information please contact:

Department of Child and Adolescent Health and Development (CAH) World Health Organization 20 Avenue Appia 1211 Geneva 27 ISBN 92 4 159134 X Switzerland tel +41-22 791 3281 fax +41-22 791 4853 email [email protected] website http://www.who.int/child-adolescent-health