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Lithium-Ion Batteries for Electric Vehicles: the U.S

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Lithium-Ion Batteries for Electric Vehicles: the U.S Design for the Environment Program EPA’s Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics National Risk Management Research Laboratory EPA’s Office of Research and Development Application of Life- Cycle Assessment to Nanoscale Technology: Lithium-ion Batteries for Electric Vehicles April 24, 2013 EPA 744-R-12-001 For More Information To learn more about the Design for the Environment (DfE)/Office of Research and Development (ORD) Li-ion Batteries and Nanotechnology for Electric Vehicles Partnership, or the DfE Program, please visit the DfE Program web site at: www.epa.gov/dfe. Application of LCA to Nanoscale Technology: Li-ion Batteries for Electric Vehicles ▌pg. i Acknowledgements Shanika Amarakoon, Jay Smith, and Brian Segal of Abt Associates, Inc. prepared this life-cycle assessment (LCA) under contract to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency‘s (EPA) Design for the Environment (DfE) Program in the Economics, Exposure, and Technology Division (EETD) of the Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics (OPPT). The project was also co-funded and co-led by EPA‘s National Risk Management Research Laboratory (NRMRL) in the Office of Research and Development (ORD). This document was produced as part of the DfE/ORD Li-ion Batteries and Nanotechnology for Electric Vehicles Partnership, under the direction of the project‘s Core Group members, including: Kathy Hart, EPA DfE Project Co-Chair, and Dr. Mary Ann Curran, EPA ORD Project Co-Chair; Clive Davies, EPA/DfE, Dr. David E. Meyer, EPA/ORD; Dr. Linda Gaines, Dr. Jennifer Dunn, and Dr. John Sullivan, Argonne National Laboratory, Department of Energy (DOE); Jack Deppe, consultant to DOE; Dr. Thomas Seager and Ben Wender, Arizona State University; Gitanjali Das Gupta and Raj Das Gupta, Electrovaya, Inc.; Casey Butler and Pam Dickerson, EnerDel, Inc.; Mark Caffarey, Umicore Group; Shane Thompson and Todd Coy, Kinsbursky Brothers, Inc. (Toxco); Steve McRae and Tim Ellis, RSR Technologies, Inc.; Barry Misquitta, Novolyte Technologies, Inc.; Gabrielle Gaustad, Rochester Institute of Technology; Roland Kibler, NextEnergy; George Kirchener, Rechargeable Battery Association; and Ralph Brodd and Carlos Helou, National Alliance for Advanced Technology Batteries (NAATBatt). The authors gratefully acknowledge the outstanding contributions of the following individuals for their assistance in providing technical support, data, and guidance that was important for the successful completion of the report: Dr. Thomas Seager of Arizona State University for the important feedback and guidance during the goal and scope definition phase of the project and assistance in developing the life- cycle inventory data methodology. Dr. Seager, with support from Ben Wender, provided analysis regarding the rate of SWCNT manufacturing improvements and use-phase modeling of SWCNT anode technology. Dr. Brian Landi of the Rochester Institute of Technology, for the important feedback and guidance during the goal and scope definition phase of the project. Dr. Troy Hawkins of EPA‘s ORD, for his important technical support and guidance, particularly in the life-cycle impact assessment phase, and in assessing impacts from varying grid mixes, as well as the overall presentation of results. Maria Szilagyi of EPA‘s Risk Assessment Division (OPPT), Dr. Emma Lavoie of the DfE Program, Economics, Exposure, and Technology Division (OPPT), Jim Alwood and Kristan Markey of the Chemical Control Division (OPPT), and Jay Tunkel of Syracuse Research Corporation. Their assistance in reviewing and providing health and environmental toxicity information for the project was greatly appreciated. The authors would also like to acknowledge the contributions of the Abt Associates staff who assisted the authors, including: Dr. Alice Tome for her technical quality review, and Brenden Cline for his technical support. Application of LCA to Nanoscale Technology: Li-ion Batteries for Electric Vehicles ▌pg. ii Li-ion Batteries for and Nanotechnology for Electric Vehicles LCA Study Table of Contents For More Information ........................................................................................................................... i Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................... ii Abstract ................................................................................................................................................. 1 Summary ............................................................................................................................................... 4 1. Goal and Scope Definition ....................................................................................................... 15 1.1 Purpose and Goals ........................................................................................................... 15 1.1.1 Background ........................................................................................................ 15 1.1.2 Purpose .............................................................................................................. 16 1.1.3 Previous Research .............................................................................................. 16 1.1.4 Market Trends .................................................................................................... 18 1.1.5 Need for the Project ........................................................................................... 19 1.1.6 Target Audience and Stakeholder Objectives .................................................... 19 1.2 Product System ................................................................................................................ 20 1.2.1 Battery System ................................................................................................... 20 1.2.2 Functional Unit .................................................................................................. 22 1.3 Assessment Boundaries ................................................................................................... 22 1.3.1 Life-Cycle Stages and Unit Processes ............................................................... 22 1.3.2 Spatial and Temporal Boundaries ...................................................................... 26 1.3.3 General Exclusions ............................................................................................ 27 1.3.4 LCIA Impact Categories .................................................................................... 27 1.4 Data Collection Scope ..................................................................................................... 27 1.4.1 Data Categories .................................................................................................. 28 1.4.2 Data Collection and Data Sources ..................................................................... 29 1.4.3 Allocation Procedures ........................................................................................ 29 1.4.4 Data Management and Analysis Software ......................................................... 30 Application of LCA to Nanoscale Technology: Li-ion Batteries for Electric Vehicles ▌pg. iii 1.4.5 Data Quality ....................................................................................................... 30 1.4.6 Critical Review .................................................................................................. 30 2. Life-Cycle Inventory ................................................................................................................ 32 2.1 Upstream Materials Extraction and Processing Stage ..................................................... 32 2.1.1 Bill of Materials ................................................................................................. 32 2.1.2 Methodology and Data Sources ......................................................................... 33 2.1.3 Limitations and Uncertainties ............................................................................ 39 2.2 Manufacturing Stage........................................................................................................ 41 2.2.1 Manufacturing Process ...................................................................................... 41 2.2.2 Methodology and Data Sources ......................................................................... 43 2.2.3 Limitations and Uncertainties ............................................................................ 44 2.3 Use Stage ......................................................................................................................... 46 2.3.1 Energy and Consumption Estimates .................................................................. 46 2.3.2 Methodology and Data Sources ......................................................................... 52 2.3.3 Limitations and Uncertainties ............................................................................ 55 2.4 End-of-Life Stage ............................................................................................................ 56 2.4.1 Recycling Processes Modeled ........................................................................... 56 2.4.2 Methodology and Data Sources ......................................................................... 58 2.4.3 Limitations and Uncertainties ............................................................................ 59 2.5 LCI Summary
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