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Corruption and Central Banks Dissertation Corruption and Central Banks Dissertation zur Erlangung des Grades eines Doktors der Wirtschaftswissenschaften der Wirtschaftwissenschaftlichen Fakultät der Universität Passau Eingereicht von Michael Schinke Dezember 2005 Table of Content FIGURES IV TABLES V LIST OF VARIABLES AND ABBREVIATIONS VI LATIN ALPHABET VI GREEK ALPHABET VIII ZUSAMMENFASSUNG (GERMAN SUMMARY) IX I. INTRODUCTION: WHY STUDY CORRUPTION IN CENTRAL BANKS? 1 II. A CORRUPTION CASE IN THE CENTRAL BANK OF INDONESIA 5 II.1. INTRODUCTION 5 II.2. THE INDONESIAN SITUATION: THE CRISIS UNFOLDS 5 II.3. THE BANK BALI MATTER 11 II.3.1. HOW THE SCANDAL BROKE AND ITS POLITICAL REVERBERATIONS 11 II.3.2. THE PROBLEMS OF BANK BALI 15 II.3.3. THE BANK BALI DEAL 18 II.4. BANK BALI SCANDAL—A CASE OF CENTRAL BANK CORRUPTION? 25 II.5. CIRCUMSTANCES FAVORING CORRUPTION 27 I III. CENTRAL BANKS IN A CORRUPT ENVIRONMENT: HOW CORRUPTION DRIVES INFLATION 31 III.1. INTRODUCTION 31 III.2. THE BASIC MACROECONOMIC MODEL 34 III.3. CORRUPTION AND SEIGNIORAGE 41 III.4. MONETARY POLICY OF AN INCORRUPTIBLE CENTRAL BANK 46 III.5. CORRUPT MONETARY POLICY 53 III.6. AN EXTENSION OF THE MODEL: THE CORRUPT CENTRAL BANKER REVISITED 59 III.7. CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS 61 IV. INSIDER TRADING AMONG CENTRAL BANKERS: SHOULD ONE CONDONE CORRUPTION AMONG CENTRAL BANKERS? 65 IV.1. INTRODUCTION 65 IV.2. A BASIC MODEL OF STOCHASTIC SUPPLY SHOCKS IN A NATURAL RATE MODEL 65 IV.3. SHOCK TREATMENT BY AN INCORRUPTIBLE CENTRAL BANK 68 IV.4. CORRUPT CENTRAL BANKS—SOME EVIDENCE FROM THE MEDIA 75 IV.5. CORRUPT CENTRAL BANKERS IN A STOCHASTIC WORLD 82 IV.6. THE QUESTION OF SOCIAL COSTS REVISITED 103 IV.7. CONCLUSIONS 106 IV.8. APPENDIX: THE IMPACT OF CORRUPTIBILITY ON SOCIAL COSTS 109 V. WHY CORRUPTION DRIVES INFLATION—MALICIOUS VS. BENEVOLENT MOTIVATION 111 V.1. INTRODUCTION 111 V.2. THE DATA: THE WORLD ECONOMIC FORUM SOCIO-ECONOMIC INDICATORS AND THE AVERAGE INFLATION RATE 112 V.3. INFLATION AND CORRUPTION: TWO HYPOTHESES 115 V.4. SOME BASIC CONCEPTS IN ECONOMETRICS 118 V.5. AN EMPIRICAL INQUIRY INTO THE LINK BETWEEN CORRUPTION AND INFLATION 120 V.6. FURTHER TESTS ON THE LINK BETWEEN CORRUPTION AND INFLATION 140 V.7. CORRUPTION AND INFLATION IN TRANSITIONAL ECONOMIES 154 V.8. CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION 160 V.9. APPENDIX: THE DATA 164 II V.10. APPENDIX: ABSENCE OF CORRUPTION IN LOAN APPLICATIONS VERSUS ABSENCE OF CORRUPTION IN TAX COLLECTION 167 VI. A CONCLUDING SUMMARY 168 REFERENCES 172 III Figures Figure III.1: Standard Model of the Time Inconsistent Monetary Policy. 51 Figure III.2: Corruption in the Sphere of the Central Bank. 56 Figure IV.1: The Conservative Central Banker. 90 Figure IV.2: The Ultra-Conservative Central Banker. 93 Figure IV.3: The Self-Serving Central Banker. 95 Figure IV.4: Incorruptible Conservative and Incorruptible Populist Central Bankers 97 Figure IV.5: Shock Treatment by Corrupt Central Bankers. 100 Figure V.1: Indicators on the Absence of Corruption in Loan Applications and the Absence of Corruption in Tax Collection. 115 Figure V.2: Average Inflation Rates. 120 Figure V.3: Absence of Corruption and Inflation. 121 Figure V.4: Scatterplot of Inflation and Monetary Growth. 130 Figure V.5: Relation Between Corruption in the Sphere of the Central Bank and Central Bank Quality. 155 IV Tables Table II.1 Claims of Bank Bali Against Failed Banks in 1998 16 Table V.1: The Impact of Corruption in the Sphere of the Central Bank. 122 Table V.2: The Interaction of Unregistered Business with Absence of Corruption in Loan Applications 132 Table V.3: The Impact of the Absence of Corruption in Tax Collection 133 Table V.4: Tests for Robustness I 142 Table V.5: Tests for Robustness II 148 Table V.6: Tests for Robustness III 151 Table V.7: Corruption and Inflation in Transitional Economies 157 V List of Variables and Abbreviations Latin alphabet BI Bank Indonesia, the Indonesian central bank BLBI Indonesian acronym for “Bantuan Likuiditas Bank Indonesia”; name of a liquidity program that Bank Indonesia used to support failing banks during the Asian Current Account Crisis BoJ Bank of Japan, the Japanese central bank C Social costs Av CN Average labor costs of production D Discretionary; used to denote the discretionary equilibrium EBRD European Bank for Reconstruction and Development g Profit margin Gr Government expenditure, real IBRA English acronym for “Indonesian Bank Restructuring Agency” IMF International Monetary Fund INFLATION Average inflation rate of years 1994 through 2003 JB Jarque-Bera statistic K Kurtosis k Describes the relationship between the liquidity demand of private agents and real national income Y r VI M Monetary stock MoF Ministry of Finance M1_GROWTH Growth rate of money (M1) N Number of employed private agents N Natural number of employed private agents n Describes the relationship between the target value of real national income Yˆ r and its natural level p Price level R Rules; used to denote the rules of equilibrium S Skewness T Trick; used to denote the trick or deception equilibrium t Denotes time in periods SKB Indonesian acronym for a set of rules under which one has to register claims for the government guarantee scheme SBI Indonesian acronym for “Sertifikates Bank Indonesia”; these are money market certificates that Bank Indonesia uses in the conduct of monetary policy U Number of unemployed private agents U Natural number of unemployed private agents w Nominal wage or a shock variable, which has a normal 2 distribution with a zero mean and a variance of σw WB World Bank WEF World Economic Forum VII Y r National income, real Y r Natural level of real national income Yˆ r Target value of real national income, is equal to n Greek alphabet α Parameter in the Phillips-Curve; describes the relationship between unemployment and inflation β ' Marginal and average productivity of labor κ Preference for additional corrupt income; corruptibility of the central banker λ Preference for high overall employment π Inflation rate π * Expected inflation rate, average; inflation expectation πˆ Target value of the inflation rate π% Average inflation rate 2 σW Variance of the stochastic supply side shock VIII Zusammenfassung (German Summary) Diese Arbeit widmet sich der Analyse korrupter Strukturen in Zentralbanken und deren Auswirkungen auf die Geldpolitik. Die wirtschaftswissenschaftliche Theorie unterstellt grundsätzlich in der Modellierung des Verhaltens von Zentralbanken, dass Zentralbanken sich in ihren Entscheidungen an dem wohlverstandenen Zielen der Gesellschaft orientieren. Im Rahmen dieser Modelle haben die Entscheidungen von Zentralbankern negative Folgen für die Gesellschaft, gerade weil die Entscheidungsträger versuchen, durch ihre Entscheidungen die Lage der Gesellschaft zu verbessern. Das wohlwollende Verhalten des Zentralbankers führt in diesen Modellen zu Wohlfahrtseinbußen der Gesellschaft. Betrachtet man Zentralbankverhalten in der Realität, muss man erkennen, dass die Annahme eines benevolenten Verhaltens nicht immer gegeben sein muss. Fallstudien aus so unterschiedlichen Ländern wie Zaire (demokratisch Kongo), Indonesien, Brasilien und Japan werden im Rahmen dieser Arbeit präsentiert. Sie sollen darlegen, dass korruptes Verhalten in einer Zentralbank nicht nur denkbar ist, sondern auch tatsächliche Relevanz hat. Eine Fallstudie aus Indonesien bildet den Ausgangspunkt der Analyse. Die Arbeit beginnt mit einer Beschreibung eines Skandals, der im Anschluss an die südostasiatische Finanzkrise Indonesien im Atem hielt. Bedingt durch Schließungen und Übernahmen von Banken durch die staatlichen Regulierungsbehörde mussten verschiedene Interbank- Geldmarktgeschäfte abgewickelt werden. Im Rahmen dieser Abwicklungen kam es zu einer Reihe von Unregelmäßigkeiten und Korruptionsfällen. Von diesen wird der „Bank Bali“- Fall vorgestellt. Basierend auf die Fallbeschreibung werden Umstände identifiziert, die der Korruption in diesem Fall der Bankenregulierung und Bankenkontrolle Vorschub geleistet haben. Nach dieser ersten Annäherung an das Problem korrupter Transaktionen von Zentralbanker wird ein erstes Modell eines korrupten Zentralbankers entwickelt. Dieses Modell basiert auf der Modellierung IX zeitinkonsistenten Verhaltens der Zentralbank. Eine nominale Rigidität des Geldlohnsatzes ermöglicht es der Zentralbank; temporär realwirtschaftliche Effekte durch Veränderung der Geldmengenwachstumsrate zu erreichen. In dieses Modell wird neben den traditionellen Zielen der Preisniveaustabilität und der Stabilisierung der Beschäftigung das Seigniorageaufkommen als zusätzliches Ziel berücksichtigt. Dieses Modell beschreibt auch eine Situation, in der die politische Führung eines Landes selbst die Rolle des Zentralbankers übernimmt und der Gouverneur der Bank lediglich die Aufgabe hat die beschlossene Politik zu implementieren. Diese Einmischung in die Entscheidungen der Zentralbank resultiert in einem zusätzlichen Inflationsbias. Das zweite Modell untersucht, wie sich Verkäufe von Insiderinformationen durch Zentralbankangestellte auswirken. Der Modellrahmen ähnelt bis auf den korrupten Anreiz des Zentralbankers und den stochastischen Angebotsschocks dem ersten Modell. In diesem Modell ist sowohl eine prozyklische als auch eine antizyklische Reaktion des Zentralbankers auf die Angebotsschocks möglich. Wie er auf die Schocks reagiert hängt von der Präferenz des Zentralbankers für das Ziel der Preisniveaustabilität ab. Eine empirische Studie bildet den Abschluss dieser Arbeit. Für eine große Stichprobe von 80 Ländern und eine kleinere von 23 Transformationsländern wird untersucht,
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