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The Stones of Cumbria The Stones of Cumbria by Amy R. Miller A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Art University of Toronto © Copyright by Amy R. Miller 2012 The Stones of Cumbria Amy R. Miller Doctor of Philosophy Department of Art University of Toronto 2012 Abstract Gosforth, in the English province of Cumbria, is home to a group of tenth-century sculptures that are among the most intricate and best-preserved examples of Anglo-Scandinavian monumental stone carving. These sculptures are essential for appreciating the complex and rich culture that developed in the late first millennium in northern England. This thesis offers a detailed analysis of the Gosforth sculptural group through multiple facets of its construction, design, and location to gain a broader understanding of the role of public sculpture in the unsettled but dynamic regions of Viking England. The complexity of Anglo-Scandinavian sculpture is examined first through an archaeological and material reassessment that reveals the method of the monuments’ construction and further supports the attribution for most of the sculptures to a single artist, whose craftsmanship, composition, and style match works across northern England, several of which were previously unattributed to him. This corpus expands our understanding of at least one professional early medieval artist and enables us to refine the general timeline of sculptural production in England. This artist sculpted in support of a new Anglo-Scandinavian elite, who adopted the local practice of ornamenting carved crosses but consciously adapted the ii iconography to reflect and reaffirm their otherness. By referencing one another, the sculptures forged and reflected the complex process of mutual acculturation and competition among communities and served as fixed spatial and mental foci in the Viking Age settlement of northern England. This thesis illuminates the Gosforth sculptures as markers of the distinct tenth-century Anglo-Scandinavian culture through a holistic examination of the sculptural group, their historical community, and their broad cultural context, redefining Cumbria as a bastion of the Danelaw where some of the greatest public works of pre-Norman England still stand, thus allowing us more accurately to understand the forces that shaped the English nation. iii Acknowledgments I would first like to state the importance of such projects as the Corpus of Anglo-Stone Sculpture in England. Its volumes allowed me to work on a thesis such as this from North American and were absolutely vital in establishing the connection between Gosforth and the Tees Valley. I hope this and other such long-term cataloging initiatives continue and evolve as new evidence comes to light. I wish to thank the groups and institutions that provided me with assistance through work on this thesis. First, I am grateful for the support of the faculty and staff of the Art department at the University of Toronto. I did not have an easy course through graduate school and my success was only made possible by their unwavering patience, kindness, and generosity. Among these, I would like specifically to thank Linda Safran, Christy Anderson, Jenny Purtle, and Elizabeth Legge. Second, I would like to thank my committee readers: Sarah Semple, Andy Orchard, Carl Knappett, and Jill Caskey. Not only did they all provide stimulating and critical feedback, but each of them has inspired in me further research through their suggestions. Rather than my thesis being the end result of a long course of research, it rather feels like the first step. Third, I would like to acknowledge the staff of the Cumbrian Records Office at Whitehaven for their knowledge and assistance. Not only did they provide on-site expertise but they were also available for remote consultation. Fourth, I thank the researchers of the IRCHSS Christ on the Cross project at the University of Cork and conference organizers for allowing me to present my work to them and I thank Heather Pulliam and the organizers of the Scotland and Beyond conference at the University of Edinburgh for giving me the opportunity to address what was a fantastic group of sculptural scholars. The feedback and support I received at these venues helped me to develop better details of my thesis. Finally, I would like to thank the School of Graduate Studies and the Art department for their financial support during my graduate tenure. This project would have been entirely impossible without the faith, support, and scholarship of my advisor, Adam S. Cohen. I cannot put into my own words the impact and value of his mentorship for none sufficiently convey the difference he has made in both my intellectual and personal life, so I borrow humbly from another: I esteem myself happy to have as great an ally as you in my search for truth. iv Finally, I thank my friends and family for their unwavering support in this endeavor. My absent friends, Margretta de Vries and Ravi Shanmugam, for always being on the other end of a communication device, and my present friends, Linda Stone, Betsy Moss, Lila Fontes and Rory Tulk, and Stephanie Azzarello, all of whom I will miss dearly and carry with me beyond the city on the lake; my mother, Patricia, for believing in me, the purest form of love; and most of all my husband, Justin. Being deeply loved by someone gives you strength, while loving someone deeply gives you courage. This work is dedicated to Charles Arundel Parker, who loved Gosforth, and Douglas Luther Miller, who loved me. v Table of Contents Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................................... iv Table of Contents........................................................................................................................... vi List of Plates ................................................................................................................................ viii List of Figures .............................................................................................................................. xvi 1 “This Wonderful Pillar” ............................................................................................................. 1 2 The Monuments ....................................................................................................................... 16 2.1 The Gosforth Cross ........................................................................................................... 17 2.2 Gosforth 2 ......................................................................................................................... 31 2.3 Gosforth 3 ......................................................................................................................... 34 2.4 The Warrior’s Tomb ......................................................................................................... 35 2.5 The Saint’s Tomb.............................................................................................................. 37 2.6 The Fishing Stone ............................................................................................................. 41 2.7 Gosforth 7 ......................................................................................................................... 44 2.8 Conclusions....................................................................................................................... 44 3 Cumbria to the Tenth Century: the Place of Gosforth and its Sculptures................................ 51 3.1 Neolithic and Bronze Age Cumbria.................................................................................. 52 3.2 The Iron Age Carvetti ....................................................................................................... 53 3.3 Roman Cumbria ................................................................................................................ 54 3.4 Sub-Roman Cumbria ........................................................................................................ 57 3.5 Anglo-Saxon Cumbria ...................................................................................................... 64 3.6 Viking Age Cumbria......................................................................................................... 68 3.7 Gosforth and Identity ........................................................................................................ 73 4 The Making of Gosforth: Stone and Substance ....................................................................... 87 vi 4.1 The Gosforth Crosses........................................................................................................ 89 4.2 The Hogbacks and “Fishing Stone”................................................................................ 119 4.3 Conclusions..................................................................................................................... 130 5 The Making of a Master: Style and Influence in Western Cumbria ...................................... 132 5.1 The Making of the Gosforth Artist and his Figural Style ............................................... 133 5.2 The Genesis of the Gosforth Artist and his Volumetric Style ........................................ 141 5.3 The Gosforth Artist in Cumbria...................................................................................... 154 5.4 The Gosforth Artist at Gosforth.....................................................................................
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