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Pseudonymity and Pseudepigraphy Pseudonymity and Pseudepigraphy 649-82; O. Eissfeldt, The Old Testament: An Intro­ bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1891); ]. duction (Oxford: Blackwell, 1974);]. A. Fitzmyer, Schroter, "Gerechtigkeit und Barmherzigkeit: "KUPIOS-," EDNT 2:328-31; O . von Gebhardt, ed., Das Gottesbild der Psalmen Salomos in seinem Psalmoi Solomontos: Die Psalmen Salomos, zum Verhaltnis zu Qumran und Paulus," NTS 44 ersien Male mit Benutzung der Athoshandschriften (1998) 566-67; ]. Schiipphaus, Die Psalmen Salo­ und des Codex Casanatensis (TU 13.2; Leipzig: mos: Ein Zeugnis jerusaiemer Theologie und From­ Hinrichs, 1895); G. B. Gray, "The Psalms of migkeit in der Mitte des vorchristlichen jahrhunderts Solomon," APOT 2:625-52; R R Hann, "Christos (ALGHJ 7; Leiden: E. ]. Brill, 1977); E. Schiirer, Kyrios in PsSoI 17.32: The Lord's Anointed' The History of the jewish People in the Age ofjesus Reconsidered," NTS 31 (1985) 620-27; idem, Christ (175 B.C.-A.D. 135), rev. and ed. G. Ver­ "The Community of the Pious: The Social Set­ mes, F. Millar and M. Goodman (3 vols.; Edin­ ting of the Psalms of Solomon," SR 17 (1988) burgh: T & T Clark, 1973-87) vol. 3.1; ]. L. 169-89; idem, The Manuscript History of the Psalms Trafton, "The Psalms of Solomon in Recent of Solomon (SB15CS 13; Chico, CA: Scholars Research," jSP 12 (1994) 3-19; idem, "The Press, 1982); R Harris and A. Mingana, eds., The Psalms of Solomon: New Light from the Syriac Odes and Psalms of Solomon (Manchester: Version?" JBL 105 (1986) 227-37; idem, Manchester University Press, 1916, 1920) vols. 1- "Solomon, Psalms of," ABD 6:115-17; idem, The 2; S. Holm-Nielsen, Die Psalmen Salomos (JSHRZ Syriac Version of the Psalms of Solomon: A Critical 4.2; Gutersloh: Gerd Mohn, 1977); H. L. Jansen, Evaluation (SB15CS 11; Atlanta: Scholars Press, Die spiitjUdische Psalmendichtung: Ihr Entstehung­ 1985);]. Tromp, "The Sinners and the Lawless skreis und ihr "Sitz im Leben ": Eine literaturgeschich­ in Psalm of Solomon 17," NovT35 (1993) 344-61; tlich-soziologische Untersuchung (SNVAO.HF 1937; M. Winninge, Sinners and the Righteous: A Com­ no. 3; Oslo: Jacob Dybwad, 1937); R Kittel, "Die parative Study of the Psalms of Solomon and PauZ:s Psalmen Salomos," APAT 2 (1900 = 2d repr. Letters (ConBNT 26; Stockholm: Almquist & Wik­ 1962) 12748; K G. Kuhn,Die iilteste Textgestalt der sell, 1995); R. B. Wright, "Psalms of Solomon Psalmen Salomos: Insbesondere auf Grund der (First Century B.C.): A New Translation and syrischen Ubersetzung neu untersucht (BWANT 73; Introduction," OTP 2:639-70. M. Lattke Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1937); W L. Lane, . , "Paul's Legacy from Pharisaism; Light from the .. PSEUDO-DANIEL (4Q243-245). See PRAYER OF Psalms of Solomon," Conj 8 (1982) 130-38; M. NABONIDUS (4Q242) AND PSEUDO-DANIEL Lattke, Hymnus: Materialien zu -einer Geschichte (4Q243-245). der antiken Hymnologie (NTOA 19; Freiburg: Uni­ versitatsverlag; Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & PSEUDO-EUPOLEMUS. See JEWISH LITERA­ Ruprecht, 1991); idem, "On the Jewish Back­ l1JRE: HISTORIANS AND POETS ground of the Synoptic Concept 'The Kingdom of God,' " in The Kingdom of God in the Teaching of PSEUDO-EZEKIEL. See PsEUDO-PROPHETS jesus, ed. B. Chilton (IRT 5; Philadelphia: For­ (4Q385-388, 390-391) tress, 1984) 72-91; idem, "Salomo III. Apokryphe Schriften," LTK3 8:1492; G. T. Milazzo, "Psalms PSEUDONYMITY AND PSEUDEPIG· of Solomon," in Dictionary of Biblical Interpreta­ RAPHY tion, ed.]. H. Hays (2 vols.; Nashville: Abingdon, Pseudonymity and pseudepigraphy denote the 1999) 2:329-331;]. O'Dell, "The Religious Back­ practice of ascribing written works to someone ground of the Psalms of Solomon (Re-evaluated other than the author-that is, the works in in the Light of the Qumran Texts)," RevQ 3 question are falsely (pseud~) named (onoma, (1961-62) 241-57; P. Prigent, "Psaumes de "name") or attributed (epigraphos, "superscrip­ Salomon," in La Bible, Ecrits Intertestamentaires, tion"). This must not be confused with anonym­ ed. A. Dupont-Sommer et al. (BP; Paris: Galli­ ity, in which no formal claim is made (e.g., mard, 1987) 945-92; A. Rahlfs, ed., Septuaginta: Id Matthew, John and Hebrews are all formally est lktus Testamentum graece iuxta LXX interpretes anonymous). Similarly one must distinguish be­ (ed. octava; Stuttgart: Wiirttembergische Bibel­ tween pseudepigraphical and *apocryphal anstalt. 1965) vols. 1-2; H. E. Ryle and M. R works. The word apocrypha is tied rather more to James, Psalmoi Solomimtos: Psalms of the Pharisees, notions of canon than to notions of authenticity. Commonly Called the Psalms of Solomon (Cam- The matter 0 f false attribution played little or no 857 - ' .. ~ . Pseudonymity and Pseudepigraphy part in the identification of the fourteen or fif­ quire copies of the works of ancient authors. teen books or parts of books that constitute the Among other things, Galen feels outraged and Apocrypha, most of which Roman Catholics betrayed by the interpolations and corruptions view as deuterocanonical. A book is either ca­ introduced into the medical works he and nonical or apocryphal (or, for Roman Catholics, Hippocrates had written (in Hippocrates Nat. deuterocanonical), regardless of whether or not Hom. l.42). it is pseudepigraphical. At this juncture it is vital to distinguish be­ Although pseudonymity and pseudepigraphy tween pseudepigraphical works and literary are today used almost synonymously, only- the forgeries (Metzger, 4): A literary forgery is a latter term has been traced back to antiquity (as work written or modified with the intent to de­ early as an inscription from the second century ceive. All literary forgeries are pseudepigraphi­ B.C., found at Priene). Apart from the intrinsic cal, but not all pseudepigrapha are literary interest of the subject-by what criteria do forgeries. There is a substantial class of pseude­ scholars decide that a document makes false pigraphical writings that, in the course of their claims regarding its authorship?-its bearing on transmission, somehow became associated with NT interpretation arises from the fact that a ma­ some figure or other. These connections be­ jority of contemporary scholars hold that some tween a text and an ancient figure, however fal­ of the NT books are pseudonymous. The list of lacious, were judgments made with the best will books varies considerably, but a broad consen­ in the world. We do not know how the commen­ sus would label Ephesians and the Pastoral taries of Pelagius on Paul came to be associated Epistles (attributed to Paul) pseudepigraphical, with the name of Jerome (who violently op­ as well as 2 Peter (attributed to Peter). Some posed Pelagius), but that is what happened. Most would add other books: Colossians, 2 Thessalo­ hold that Lobon of Argos wrote the Hymn to nians, I Peter. Poseidon in the third century B.C., even though l. Extrabiblical Evidence the hymn is widely attributed to Arion; but it is 2. The Stance of the Church Fathers doubtful that Lobon himself had anything to do 3. Evidence Internal to the New Testament with the attribution. The reason this distinction Documents is important is that debates over the authenticity 4. Some Contemporary Theories of NT books are tied up with the motives of ac­ tual authors, since the texts are so early and so 1. ExtrabiblicaI Evidence. stable that the putative author's name is there 1.1. Preliminary Observations. Given the from the beginning. For the purposes of this ar­ broadest definition, pseudonymity is a more ex­ ticle, then, it will be well to focus only on cases tensive phenomenon than some have thought where demonstrable intent is involved and thus It embraces every false claim of authorship, to exclude all pseudepigrapha that have become whether for good motive or ill, and whether ad­ such owing to nothing more than the irretriev­ vanced by the real author or by some later his­ able accidents of history. torical accident. It includes every instance of an The motives of pseudepigraphers, ancient author adopting, for whatever reason, a nom de and modem, have been highly diverse and in­ plum-Mary Ann Evans writing under the name clude the following. (1) Sometimes literary forg­ of George Eliot or the three Bronte sisters eries have been crafted out of pure malice. (Charlotte, Emily and Anne) publishing their According to Pausanias (Descr. 6.l8.2-6) and Jo­ poems under the title Poems by Currier, Ellis and sephus (Ag. Ap. l.24 §221), in the fourth century Acton Bell, or the English scholar Gervase Fen B.C. Anaximenes of Lampsacus destroyed the writing detective fiction under the name of Ed­ reputation of a contemporary historian, Theo­ mund Crispin. According to Galen, a learned pompus of Chios, by writing, under the name of physician from the second century A.D. , literary his rival, horrible invectives against three Greek forgeries first circulated in large numbers when cities (Athens, Sparta and Thebes) and circulat­ *Alexandria and Pergamum began a race to ing them. Eusebius (Hist. Eat. 9.5.l) reports that outdo each other by increasing the number of in the fourth century the Acts of Pilate began to volumes in their respective libraries (see Alexan­ circulate (possibly written by the apostate Theo­ drian Library): the *Ptolemies of Egypt and King tecnus), full of bitter slanders against the moral Eumenes of Pergamum offered large sums to ac- character ofJesus . In modern times, czarist Rus- 858 Pseudonymity and Pseudepigraphy sia produced the "Protocols of the Learned El­ One easily imagines that this motive runs ders of Zion." into another: (6) A deep desire to get published (2) More commonly, as we have already seen, and be widely read, for both personal and ideo­ literary forgeries were prompted by promise of logical reasons, doubtless characterizes more financial payment. authors than the Bronte sisters and may be the (3) Sometimes the pseudepigrapher used an motive behind the motive of Salvian.
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