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Women in Economics: a Lifelong Discouragement

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Women in Economics: a Lifelong Discouragement ESB Solutions ESB Solutions EXPOSITION Women in economics: a lifelong discouragement The gender gap in economics science is worse than in other Although understandable as an initial hypothesis, this disciplines. Are women treated differently than men, in does not do justice to existing knowledge, also in eco- nomics, about the influence of environmental factors school and during their careers? and prejudice as to preferences and behaviour. Three examples in economics can illustrate this bias. First, Huberman (2001), inspired by Merton HENRIËTTE n 1993, Hein Schreuder argued in ESB that (1987), explains the investor home bias as ‘familiarity’: PRAST in economics the difference between men and people more often opt for shares in companies that are Professor at Tilburg women would automatically disappear: the literally or figuratively close to home. As a consequence, University and number of female students was increasing, and not only do they diversify their financial capital insuf- member of the ‘fromI low to high’ this would result in more female doc- ficiently, they also place too many eggs in the basket in Senate for D66 toral students and academic staff. Eline van der Heijden which their human capital is invested. Secondly, in a (1993) had her doubts about this, and enumerated the Harvard Business Case, Avery (2012) shows that Coca structural obstacles that women faced when choosing Cola misjudged the use of the word Diet in Diet Coke: economics and making a career in it. men did not buy it, because the word ‘diet’ evokes a Ten years later Aart Jan de Geus, the Minister of realm unbefitting to the stereotypical man. However, Social Affairs at the time, also claimed that due to the Coke Zero does not have that problem. Thirdly, there is influx of female students, the difference between men a significant difference between men and women as to and women as to careers would disappear. As a result, their self-declared financial risk attitudes. Never theless, the Dutch newspaper Trouw wrote that the emancipa- when risk attitude is measured objectively, on the basis tion had been completed, and there was no role left of skin reaction, there is no difference and women are for the government in this respect (Prast, 2016). This just as risk-tolerant as men (Brighetti and Lucarelli, ‘pipeline idea’ of Schreuder and De Geus remains a 2015). Apparently, women fill out the questionnaire persistent misunderstanding, because there don’t seem in a way that is expected of them, which is due to the to be or have been any facts to support this. stereotyping effect. With a mere ten percent of female economics pro- To what extent can such factors contribute to the fessors in the Netherlands, economics is doing worse gender gap in economics science? First of all, a few facts. than any of the other disciplines. This craves an expla- nation. In this article, I will look into the influx in eco- ECONOMICS IN SECONDARY EDUCATION nomic studies and the careers of economic researchers. Over half of the university students in the Netherlands are women – but, with approximately 35 percent of PREFERENCES AND BEHAVIOUR female economics students, their share in economics is Economists traditionally assume that behaviour reveals a lot lower than that. Since almost all graduates with preferences, and they regard preferences as given facts. a pre-university education (vwo) meet the admission 52 Volume 103 (4767S) 1 November 2018 Solutions ESB requirements for studying economics, it is obvious to products not at all. Furthermore, football is mainly asso- attribute this diversity to a congenital or biological ciated with men as to sports (SCP, 2009; CBS, 2010). gender difference as to preference. Such an explanation The exams evoke an image of a world in which assumes that the context in which decisions are made men achieve a lot, and women little. In addition, being is neutral, though this is, as is shown by behavioural an economist is something for men, and also the spend- sciences, hardly ever the case. ing and use of time refers to men. In itself, this might In order to demonstrate this bias, Box 1a presents already influence the attitude of girls towards econom- the sexes and professions mentioned in the final exams ics negatively. Activating a stereotype, which these for economics in 2016–2018. These are the individuals exam questions seem to do, leads to people behaving explicitly indicated as being male or female (he/she, his/ accordingly, to wit stereotypically (Wheeler and Petty, her). If the gender is unclear, the person is not included. 2001), and lowers women’s self-confidence in areas that In these exams, 26 men and 6 women appear. The are associated with men. Stereotyping therefore influ- women include a welfare recipient, her girl friend, an ences performance, study choice and career (Carlana, economics teacher, a journalist, a spokeswoman for the 2018; Lavy and Sand, 2015). Nosek et al. (2009) com- Consumers’ Association, and a woman with a negative pare 34 countries and find that scientific gender bias – net return on her savings account. Most men in the measured by the extent to which people tend to asso- exams are economists, directors, ministers or governors ciate alpha-studies more with women and beta studies of central banks. more with men – is largest in the Netherlands. The products mentioned in the final exam also The stronger a teacher has a stereotypical notion evoke a man’s world. Men and women differ in their about pupils, the stronger her or his confirmation bias consumer expenditure (Figure 1). The biggest differ- will be – the degree to which he or she filters and weighs ence is cars (m >> f ), followed by personal care (f >> m), and computers and accessories (m >> f ). Box 1b gives an overview of the companies and BOX 1 products mentioned in the exams (not including finan- The vwo final economics exam (2016–2018) cial products). If we consider mobile telephony to be 1a. The sexes in the exam included in ‘computers and accessories’, men’s favourite products are mentioned five times and women’s favourite Men (26) • Economist (11×) • Investor • Director of a football club • Friend of investor • Director of a pension fund • Employee with an income of FIGURE 1 Spending for single men • Managing director of an online 50,000 euros and women, 2008 stock broker’s • Managing director of a theatre • Women (6) Veetbles • Manager multi-storey car park • Welfare recipient ruit • Manager of a telecom company • Friend of welfare recipient everes • Researcher (2×) • Journalist Etin in a resurnt • Governor of the Central Bank • Economics teacher • Saver with negative net return ren n loers • Minister of transport • Egg farmer • Spokeswoman of Consumers’ urniture • Journalist Association lotin Personl re Comuters n essories 1b. Companies and products in the exam io, TV, vieos, CDs etc. • Multi-storey car park • Football club Cars • Second-hand cars • Physiotherapy eminin (on) • Car manufacturer • Pharmaceuticals trnsorttion • Toll tunnel • Mobile telephony 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 In erente o totl eeniture • House (3×): renting, buying, • Eggs omen en mortgage • Airbnb Source: CBS Volume 103 (4767S) 1 November 2018 53 ESB Solutions up information about the pupil so that it confirms the parative advantages. Moreover, they used the example stereotype judgment (Bordalo et al., 2016). It seems of the man who marries his housekeeper to illustrate that the authors of these exam questions – economics that GDP is an imperfect measure. The evaluation of teachers – have a stereotypical image of the sexes. the VWO Economics Examination Programme (2011) Box 2 shows the composition of the committees does indeed include a chapter on the exam, but it does advising upon the final exam programme for eco- not include any mention of the sexes that crop up in nomics, and the external experts they have consult- the exam. In Van Dalen and Koedijk (2012), fourteen ed ( Teulings, 2002; Commissie-Teulings I, 2002; economists give their view on economics education. Commissie-Teulings II, 2005). Women are a minority Thirteen of them are Dutch males, the fourteenth is here, none of them have graduated in economics, and a non-Dutch author who has become a woman. The they have all adopted their husband’s name. illustration on the cover is a shirt and tie. The first committee (rightly) advocated a broad- ening of the economy’s domain, giving as an example STUDY CHOICE the division of tasks in the household. The second nar- By no means do all students who are able to study eco- rowed this down by explaining why women do more nomics take the vwo economics exam. That is why it household chores than men, using the theory of com- is also important to look at what students encounter when they orientate themselves towards economics studies. An inventory of the texts in which the univer- sities and economics faculties in our country describe Composition of advisory committees for the BOX 2 and recommend the economics studies shows that vwo economics programme they are generic, with terms such as ‘broad’, ‘social’, Teulings-1 (2002) Chiel Renique MSc Male ‘macro’, ‘meso’, ‘micro’, ‘current issues’, ‘many perspec- Prof. Coen Teulings Male Jan Klaver MSc Male tives’, or with specific emphasis on business, growth, Prof. Eric van Damme Male Marc Mittelmeijer MSc Male cost prices, stock exchange and market forces. Scarcity Prof. Hugo Keuzenkamp Male of raw materials, labour-market participation, climate, Dr Henk Don Male Teulings-2 (2005) unemployment, social security, income distribution Dr Sierk Keuning Male Prof. Coen Teulings Male and pensions are not included in these descriptions, Els Borghols MSc Female Prof. Eric van Damme Male Dorien Klarenbeek MSc Female Prof. Jules Theeuwes Male although they are not the least challenges as regards A.
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