, : Some Recent Finds and Observations

T.M. Keshava1, Sujana Stephen1 and Nihildas N.1

1. Archaeological Survey of , Bangalore Circle, 5th Floor, F Wing, Kendriya Sadan, 17th Main Road, Koramangala, Bangalore – 560034, Karnataka, India (Email: [email protected]; [email protected])

Received: 25 July 2015; Accepted: 27 August 2015; Revised: 19 September 2015 Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 3 (2015): 635‐647

Abstract: This article is the outcome of the explorations conducted in different locales of Brahmagiri. The settlement pattern of the site is examined on the basis of the distribution of cultural materials. An account of the present condition of the site and also the need for further intensive and extensive investigation is also noted.

Keywords: Brahmagiri, Exploration, Documentation, Megalithic Burials, Cist, Survey, Pedi‐plain

Introduction The site of Brahmagiri (14° 48ʹ N; 76° 49ʹ E) in Molakalmuru taluk, Chitradurga district, Karnataka is spread across the Pedi‐plains and undulating plain area on the foot of the Brahmagiri hill, a granite outcrop, rising from 600 feet above the surrounding plains. It is situated 99 Km north east of Chitradurga and 43 Km south west of Bellary (Fig. 1). Ashoka Siddhapura, Kaadsiddhapura, Roppa, Rampura and Devasamudra are some of the important nearby villages.

The picturesque landscape of the region is characterized by rocky hills, which are separated from each other by large stretch of undulating Pedi‐plains. The region comes under the Eastern Ghats range with a marked interior belt running from the Biligirirangan ranges in the south to Molakalmuru in the north (Fig. 2). The region has one of the oldest rock formations in India that consists of crystalline schist’s, granitic gneiss, newer granites and intrusive basic dykes. The schist’s and their associated rocks constitute a portion of the Dharwar system and are designated as the Chitradurga and the Chiknayakanahalli schist belt. The important hills of the region are Jatangi hill, Brahmagiri, Nunkappanagudda and Jogappanagudda. The whole area of Chitradurga district lies in the Valley of Vedavati River. The Tungabadra River also flows for a few miles along the boundary of the district in the North West. The main river which flows through Molakalmuru Taluk is Janahalla or Chikka Hagari and it ISSN 2347 – 5463 Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 3: 2015

Figure 1: Location Map of Brahmagiri

Figure 2: General View of the Site Brahmagiri

636 Keshava et al. 2015: 635‐647 joins the Vedavati River at Molakalmuru. The region is dry and the climate is marked by hot summer months, low rainfall and a pleasant monsoon season with the average annual rainfall for the period 1996‐2005 is 670.0 mm (http://cgwb.gov.in/District_ Profile/Karnataka/Chitradurga‐Brochure.pdf). The plains are covered mainly with a dwarf species of mimosa locally called hote jail and trees such as Tamarindus indica (tamarind), Melia indica (neem), Cacia fistula, Acacia sundra, Albizzia amara etc. The plains are utilized for agriculture and in spite of low average rainfalls; the region produces very good crops such as groundnut, cotton, ragi and maize. At present the area experiences scarcity of water and drought conditions, but it has been told by the villagers that earlier the people had utilized rainwater by trapping them in natural tanks. One such natural pond is found on the foothills near the site and it is also possible that such tanks existed in the hill also. During rainy seasons many streams originate from the hill and they are channeled into the agricultural lands. The present village settlements are also located in the plains and the main inhabitants of the Brahmagiri region are Kurubas (Sathyan 1967: 6‐20).

Brahmagiri has earned an important place in the archaeological map of India since 1892 when B Lewis Rice discovered three Asoka’s edicts in the locality and reported in Epigraphia Carnatica (Sathyan 1967: 69). Later, the site became a landmark in the history of South Indian archaeology through the excavations by Krishna (1942: 100‐109) and Wheeler (1947: 180‐310). A. Sundara classifies Brahmagiri region under the Peninsular Gneissic complex eco‐zone and the megalithic burials to the Saganakallu‐Hirebenkal Group of this zone (Sundara 1975:70). Brahmagiri and its neighborhood also yielded evidence of the rule of later dynasties like Satavahanas, Kadambas, Early Western Chalukyas and Pallavas, Rashrakutas, Later Chalukyas, Hoysalas and Vijayanagara dynasty (Sathyan 1967: 69 ‐ 80).

Recent Explorations This article is the outcome of the explorations conducted in different locales of Brahmagiri, in the hillock, Pedi‐plains and plains. The observations on the distribution of cultural materials and the settlement pattern of the site are attempted in this article. An account of the present condition of the site as observed during the resurvey and documentation is also noted.

Survey and Documentation Wheeler in his report identified the Megalithic burial complexes and named it as Area A, B and C (Wheeler 1947: 186, Plate LXXIII). Apart from this, he also records three Megalithic burial areas as unexplored. He mentions that the entire area had about 300 cist burials. During the present explorations attempt was made to relocate and document the megalithic burials, excavated areas and other features reported in Wheeler’s excavation report. The Megalithic burial area A is now under extensive cultivation and the only remnants of the existence of burials were some stone slabs and boulders scattered on the agricultural land. The Megalithic burial Area B

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consists of the plain agricultural land located on either side of the track leading to Roppa village. It also includes the protected area of (55 x 40 m) ASI, Bangalore Circle. The agricultural activities as well as the widening of the track in recent years has disturbed and buried majority of the burials in this area. On the surface of the track, the orthostats, cairn packing’s and dressed stone packing’s of some of the burials are visible (Fig.3). The Megalithic Area C now forms part of the Roppa village and no evidence of burials could be found except for a few stone blocks lying on the nearby agricultural fields.

Further the area marked by Wheeler (Wheeler 1947: 186, Plate LXXIII) as unexplored close to Area B was explored and documented. This area is located 50 m north of Area B and named as Area D (70 x 30 m) in continuation to the markings made by Wheeler.

Megalithic I and VII (Wheeler 1947: 189‐191), excavated by Wheeler was identified and it is located very close to the ASI’s protected area and falls within the prohibited area of the site. The other excavated burials are located in the nearby agricultural fields, but a proper identification of the same was not possible, due to heavy destruction and displacement caused to them by agricultural activities.

Except making note of Geo‐coordinates, no detailed documentation was possible in Areas A and C due to the highly destructed nature of the burials by agricultural activities. A detailed documentation of the burials was carried out in Areas B and D. All these burial areas are located mainly on the plain area overlooking the Brahmagiri hill on its western side. They are probably part of a single complex now looking separated since most of the burials are either destroyed or buried under the surface soil mainly due to extensive agricultural activities. All these burial areas are inter‐visible and also own a striking view from the hilltop. The natural tank is also situated in close proximity to the west of the burial areas (Fig.4).

It was noticed that most of the burials were disturbed. The capstones of all the burials were robbed by the local people for their constructions (Fig.5). The visibility of the burials above the surface varies and in some cases only a part of it is traceable above the surface, while in other cases the visibility of the burials above the surface is 10 to 70 cm. In few cases traces of dressed stone wall of the burial is also visible on the surface. In the complex, the burials lay scattered with no specific arrangement in its placement. The burials were constructed invariably on granite. Sundara (1975:162) observes that the architecture of the burial chambers of Brahmagiri show better stability and advanced stage of development. All the burials are east‐west oriented with a port hole on the eastern side. A majority of the burials noticed were cist burials with dressed stone walls or cairn packing or both placed around the chamber (Fig.6). Miniature burials are also found in the complex adjacent to the cist burials. This type of burials is named as auxiliary burials by Wheeler (Wheeler 1947: Plate LXXXV). Another type of burial observed is a cist burial with entrance, mainly found on the eastern side. In this

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Figure 3: Megalithic burials found on the road to Roppa village

Figure 4: View of Area D from the Hilltop, Brahmagiri

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Figure 5: Partially Damaged burial at Area D, Brahmagiri

Figure 6: Cist with dressed stone enclosure, Brahmagiri

640 Keshava et al. 2015: 635‐647 category on the eastern side and attached to the eastern orthostat, three or four slabs were placed in such a manner to form a miniature chamber, which acted as the entrance. Cist with slab circles and stone circles form another category of burials in the complex and the details of architecture pattern are almost similar to the single cist burials. In this type the cist has dressed stone wall or cairn packing or both placed outside it and then encircled by stone circles or slabs. In some cases outside the circle also cairn packing is visible.

Another important feature noticed is that the burials were constructed in close proximity with each other in all the localities. The cist burial along with the dressed stonewalls was built at a distance of 50 cm to 100 cm from each other and in some cases it reduces to a distance of 25 to 30 cm. In some other cases the dressed stone walls of two burials are touching each other which clearly indicate that the construction of these burials at different points of time will definitely obstruct the other. The same is noticed in the case of burials documented and excavated by Wheeler also (Wheeler 1947: Plate LXXV, LXXVI). Hence with this evidence it can be proposed that the close proximity of the burials in different burial complexes in all probability indicates that the burials were constructed at the same time (Figs. 7‐8). It is impossible to interpret at this stage for what reason such a mass burial practice might have taken place. This particular aspect needs further problem oriented probe.

In Area B, 40 burials and in Area D, 47 burials were documented (Table 1). The accurate typological classification was possible in the case of only 32 and 29 burials respectively in Areas B and D due to poor visibility of the burials on the surface. The burials are broadly classified into cist burials, miniature burials, cist burials with stone circles and cist burials with slab circles.

Table 1: List of cist burials documented at Area B and Area D Area B Type of Burial Number Cist burial 23 Cist burial with entrance 1 Cist burial with stone circle 2 Cist burial with slab circle 1 Miniature Burial 5 Area D Type of Burial Number Cist burial 21 Cist burial with stone circle 3 Cist burial with slab circle 4 Miniature Burial 4

Explorations in the Pedi‐plain and Plains The explorations and excavations conducted by the previous researchers identified

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vestiges of human habitations such as foundations and walls in bricks and rubble stones and other cultural materials, from the slopes of hill, Pedi‐plains and plains (which are now agricultural lands) close to the foothills (Krishna 1940, Wheeler 1947). Wheeler observes that the main area of occupation was along the gentle slope which forms the transition from the hill to the plain and beyond it is located the burial complex (Wheeler 1947:186). The concentration of cultural deposit decreases as one move from the foothills to the plains.

Figure 7: Documented Cist burials at Area D, Brahmagiri

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Figure 8: Documented Cist burials at Area B, Brahmagiri

The recent explorations in the area also yielded cultural materials such as pottery, Neolithic tools mostly of dolerite in various stages of manufacturing, iron slag’s and crucibles etc. A stone sculpture of female deity probably datable to Chola period was found in the agricultural land on the Pedi‐plain (Fig.9). The development of land for agricultural activities has brought a drastic change to the landscape especially in the case of Pedi‐plain area.

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Figure 9: Chamundi found at Pedi‐plain area

Explorations in the hillock As far as Brahmagiri is concerned, the early researches pointed only to the cultural materials deposited on the foothills, Pedi‐plains and the plain areas. But the present explorations carried out revealed rich cultural deposit on the hillock as well. Even though the hill looks like a cluster of boulders perching on one another from below, a closer examination gives a different picture of the hill, with large open spaces having thick soil cover between the boulders (Fig.10). During exploration it is noticed that thick soil deposits along with cultural materials from the hillock got deposited on the Pedi‐plain area which is now under extensive cultivation (Fig.11), thus causing heavy destruction to the site. The hillocks are abode of animals such as bear, fox, cheetah, wild pig, peacocks etc. and are frequented by the villagers for grazing cattle.

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Figure 10: boulders area where human occupation noticed

Figure 11: Neolithic Tools collected from the Pedi‐plain area

This area yielded cultural materials such as pottery, iron slag’s, stone objects like pressers, mullers etc. The pottery found consists of Russet Coated Painted Ware, Black and Red Ware, Red Ware, Red Slipped Ware and Black Slipped Ware datable to the Iron Age and Early Historic periods (Fig. 12). It also yielded remnants of human habitation including circular and rectangular rubble stone structures part of foundations or walls and brick fragments (Fig.13). Ruins of a fort in dry stone masonry datable to medieval period is noticed on the top of the hill. A religious mutt is also located on the hill top and the villagers used to visit the mutt during festive occasions.

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Figure 12: Russet Coated Pottery and Red ware collected from Pedi‐plain area

Figure 13: Rough stone structure found on the hilltop

Thus the early people not only utilized the hillock for raw materials and other natural resources, but also inhabited them. As evidenced from the pottery collected during exploration, the hillocks were inhabited mainly during the Iron Age and during the later periods the habitation might have extended to the Pedi‐plains and plains. It is also probable that the Neolithic settlements also existed on the hilltop as is the case with other sites such as Saganakallu‐Kupgal complexes that comes under the same physiographic zone (Shipton et al. 2012).

Discussion and Conclusion The present survey was only preliminary in nature and still large areas in Brahmagiri hillock and Asoka Siddhapura village are left unexplored for archaeological remains.

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In this study attempts were made to understand the settlement pattern of the site. Soil erosion and agricultural activities are not only constantly altering the landscape but also causing the movement of cultural materials. This makes it difficult to get an accurate picture of the original locus of the different cultural materials at the site. However, the explorations carried out revealed extensive habitation remains in the hillock. It is possible that the open space in hillock was also inhabited during the Neolithic‐Iron Age Period while the Pedi‐plains and plains were chosen for the cemetery. Further extensive explorations and excavations are necessary to get a clear picture of the settlement pattern of the area.

Another aspect which calls for further probe is the continuity of culture in the form of cultural transitions and survival of former cultural traits during the latter cultural period. Further, Wheeler’s observations need to be reanalyzed and interpreted by incorporating new data. The other facets of the site such as the different aspects of the relation between Iron Age people and the Mauryan Empire, the cultural contacts of the site with other contemporaries also needs to be addressed. On the whole, Brahmagiri proposes a number of queries that demands considerable problem oriented archaeological research.

Acknowledgements The authors express their sincere gratitude to Prof. R.K. Mohanty for going through the draft and offering valuable comments. We are also highly indebted to Shri. Basavaraj Mayachari (Photographer, ASI, Bangalore Circle) for the photographs and constant support throughout the explorations. We also extend our sincere thanks to Shri. Narasimha Prasad and Shri Kumar (ASI, Hampi Mini Circle) for the drawings. Thanks are also due to Shri Manjunath and Shri Siddhalingappa (ASI, Bangalore Circle) for their timely help.

References http://cgwb.gov.in/District_Profile/karnataka/Chitradurga‐Brochure.pdf Krishna, M.H.1941. Annual Report of the Mysore Archaeological Department for the year 1940, Assistant Superintend, Government Press, Mysore 63‐68. Krishna, M.H.1942. Annual Report of the Mysore Archaeological Department for the year 1941, Assistant Superintend, Government Press, Mysore 100‐109. Sathyan, B.N. (ed). 1967. Mysore State Gazetter: Chitradurga District, Government Press, Mysore 69‐80. Shipton Ceri, Michael Petraglia, Jinu Koshy, Janardhana Bora, Adam Brumm, Nicole Boivin, Ravi Korisettar, Roberto Risch, Dorin Fuller.2012. Lithic technology and social transformation in the South Indian Neolithic: The evidence from Sanganakallu‐Kupgal, Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, 31: 156‐173. Sundara, A. 1975. Early Chmaber Tombs of . Delhi: Agamkala Prakashan. Wheeler, R.E.M. 1947.Brahmagiri and Chandravalli1947: Megalithic and Other Cultures in the Chitaldurg District, Mysore State, Ancient India, 4 188‐194.

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