“The Wheels that Transformed the City: The Historical Development of Public Transportation Systems in Shanghai, 1843-1937” A Ph.D Dissertation Presented to The Academic Faculty by Fang Zhou In Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the School of History, Techology, and Society Georgia Institute of Technology December 2010 “The Wheels that Transformed the City: The Historical Development of Public Transportation Systems in Shanghai, 1843-1937” Approved by Prof. Hanchao Lu, Advisor Prof. John Krige School of History, Technology, and Society School of History, Technology, and Society Georgia Institute of Technology Georgia Institute of Technology Prof. Steven Usselman Prof. Ronald Bayor School of History, Technology, and Society School of History, Technology, and Society Georgia Institute of Technology Georgia Institute of Technology Prof. Parks Coble Date Approved: May 11, 2010 Department of History University of Nebraska ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS There are many individuals whom I would like to thank during the research and completion of my dissertation. First, my greatest thanks and appreciation goes to my advisor, Prof. Hanchao Lu. Prof. Lu had guided and encouraged me from the beginning of my journey at Georgia Tech. Besides being one of the leading scholars of Chinese history, Prof. Lu has been the best mentor I could have had. I am forever indebted to Prof. Lu for his kindness, generosity, and support during the past five years. Prof. Lu‟s continued confidence in me even as I made numerous mistakes and shortcomings in my academic development had been extremely inspiring. Words cannot express how much gratitude I feel for having the opportunity to be mentored and advised by Prof. Lu. Next, I would like to thank my dissertation committee. I am extremely grateful to Prof. John Krige and Prof. Steve Usselman. Through taking courses from Prof. Krige and Prof. Usselman, I was introduced to the field of history of technology. It is in this field that I combined with my primary field in Chinese history that this dissertation is based upon. Prof. Krige and Prof. Usselman‟s knowledge and expertise and their excellent courses helped me develop new ideas in constructing my dissertation. I am sincerely thankful and honored to have taken Prof. Krige and Prof. Usselman‟s courses and to have them as my mentors. I would like to thank Prof. Ron Bayor for having the opportunity to take a directed reading on urban history. Prof. Bayor is the leading expert on American urban history, and his expertise and suggestions had been extremely helpful in bringing aspects of urban history in my dissertation. I would like to thank Prof. Parks Coble from the University of Nebraska for serving as my outside reader on my committee. I had the opportunity to meet Prof. Coble at an academic conference and was deeply honored to have Prof. Coble give me his critiques and feedback on my work. iii During my time at Georgia Tech‟s School of History, Technology, and Society; I had the wonderful opportunity to take a wide range of courses from many excellent professors. I want to thank them for their instruction and advice. I would like to thank Ms. La Donna Bowen for all the help she had provided to me during my time at HTS. La Donna had been such a big help for me over the years as I navigated and progressed through graduate school. I am extremely grateful for her assistance and support whenever I had questions or doubts. I would like to thank Dean Sue Rosser for receiving the Ivan Allen College Dean‟s Fellowship. The four year fellowship was a tremendous financial relief as I was able to concentrate on my studies without worrying about finances. This fellowship was the biggest academic honor I had ever received, and I am so touched that the Dean had selected me to receive such a highly distinguished award. When I was an undergraduate at the University of California, Berkeley; I was extremely fortunate to have had wonderful professors who believed in my potential and encouraged me to go to graduate school. I would like to thank the late Prof. Frederic Wakeman, Prof. Xin Liu, and Prof. Thomas Brady for helping me realize my potential. They wrote numerous recommendation letters for me and encouraged me to pursue my academic dreams of completing a Ph.D. Without their support, I would have never made it to this stage. I would like to thank them for their confidence in me. In the fall of 2010, I began my academic career as an assistant professor of history at Georgia Gwinnett College. I am so happy to be able to join the ranks of academia, and I want to thank Georgia Gwinnett College for giving me this wonderful opportunity to join the faculty there. iv Lastly, I would like to express my sincerest thanks and appreciation to my family. My father Zhenmin Zhou and my mother Shangyu Di had taught me from a very early age the importance of education and the value of hard work. My parents had been perfect role models for me through their own selflessness and diligence. My parents had taught me the wisdom that education is the greatest gift one can have; and that through education one can uplift oneself and inspire others. I am deeply grateful for all the sacrifices they have made for me since my childhood; and their never-wavering faith in me even as I encountered academic difficulties over the years. I would like to thank Xiaoyan Zhao for beliving in me. My family had been so supportive and understanding during my years of education. I cannot express how much I appreciate their love and support. v TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii SUMMARY xiii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1 CHAPTER 2: THE HISTORY OF MODERN SHANGHAI: WHOSE CITY IS IT? 28 The International Settlement 29 Figure 2.1 36 The French Concession 47 Figure 2.2 51 The Chinese City 51 Table 2.1 52 th Into the 20 Century 54 Table 2.2 60 Table 2.3 65 Table 2.4 66 Figure 2.3 67 Table 2.5 69 Figure 2.4 73 Table 2.6 75 Table 2.7 76 Table 2.8 78 Table 2.9 80 vi CHAPTER 3: TRADITIONAL AND FOREIGN: MAN-POWERED VEHICLES 84 The Wheelbarrow 86 Figure 3.1 90 The Sedan Chair 93 Figure 3.2 94 The Horse Drawn Carriage 96 Figure 3.3 97 Table 3.1 98 The Rickshaw 103 Figure 3.4 105 Figure 3.5 110 The Bicycle 118 Table 3.2 119 Table 3.3 122 The Purposes and Impact of Man-Powered Vehicles 126 CHAPTER 4: THE AGE OF MODERNITY: THE ARRIVAL OF MACHINE-POWERED VEHICLES 131 The Automobile 132 Figure 4.1 134 Figure 4.2 135 Figure 4.3 142 Figure 4.4 144 Table 4.1 145 vii Table 4.2 146 The Tram and the Trolley 148 Figure 4.5 149 Table 4.3 150 Table 4.4 151 Table 4.5 151 Figure 4.6 153 Figure 4.7 155 The Bus 161 Table 4.6 162 Figure 4.8 163 Figure 4.9 165 Table 4.7 166 The Taxi 167 Figure 4.10 169 Statistics 170 Table 4.8 170 Table 4.9 171 Table 4.10 172 Table 4.11 174 Table 4.12 176 Table 4.13 176 Table 4.14 177 viii The Impact of Machine-Powered Vehicles on Society 178 Figure 4.11 179 CHAPTER 5: STATE-SOCIETY RELATIONS 181 International Settlement 183 Figure 5.1 184 Figure 5.2 185 Table 5.1 196 Table 5.2 196 Figure 5.3 198 Figure 5.4 199 Table 5.3 199 Table 5.4 202 Table 5.5 202 Table 5.6 203 Table 5.7 204 Table 5.8 205 Table 5.9 206 Table 5.10 207 Table 5.11 207 Table 5.12 208 Table 5.13 209 Table 5.14 210 ix Table 5.15 213 Table 5.16 214 Chinese City 216 Table 5.17 217 Table 5.18 218 Table 5.19 219 Table 5.20 221 Public Control and Private Responsibilities 222 Figure 5.5 224 Table 5.21 226 Table 5.22 226 Figure 5.6 230 Public Revenues 232 Table 5.23 232 CHAPTER 6: THE GREATER SHANGHAI PROJECT- PART I (1927-1932): HIGH HOPES AND OPTIMISM 236 The Rise of the Guomingdang 239 The Blueprint of the Greater Shanghai Project 244 Table 6.1 247 The Municipal Officials and Bureaus 249 The Implementation of the Greater Shanghai Project 257 Figure 6.1 263 Table 6.2 266 x Table 6.3 266 Municipal Finances 274 Table 6.4 275 Table 6.5 276 Table 6.6 277 Manifestation of State Control 280 Successes and Achievements Accomplished During the First Half of the 287 Greater Shanghai Project Table 6.7 289 Table 6.8 290 Facing Challenges and Uncertainties 293 CHAPTER 7: THE GREATER SHANGHAI PROJECT- PART II (1932-1937): UNFULFILLED EXPECTATIONS 295 1.28: The Japanese Attack 297 Wu Tiecheng‟s Municipal Government (1932-1937) 300 Keeping the Greater Shanghai Project Going 305 Figure 7.1 321 Figure 7.2 322 Figure 7.3 323 Achievements of the Greater Shanghai Project 323 Table 7.1 326 Table 7.2 328 Table 7.3 330 xi Table 7.4 332 Municipal Finances 332 The New Life Movement 335 What is the Legacy of the Greater Shanghai Project? 336 CHAPTER 8: CONCLUSION 340 Table 8.1 344 Table 8.2 346 Table 8.3 355 FOOTNOTES 357 BIBLIOGRAPHY 378 xii Summary The city of Shanghai was transformed from a treaty port of around half a million people when the British first arrived after the end of the Opium War to become the most populous, prosperous, and cosmopolitan metropolis in China by the early 20th century.