Amots Dafni and Barbara Boeck Biology ︱ “Prepare a poultice of figs and apply it to the flora in the region and were never the boil, and he will recover.” Isaiah 38:21. grown or traded in the ancient Middle East. W. Jacob in “The Healing Past: Pharmaceuticals in the Biblical and Revisiting the medicinal plants Rabbinic World” (1993, cited in Dafni & Boeck) suggested 55 plants (most on a species level but some as genus).

of the Bible and the Holy Land Linguistics and philology help in the study of biblical plant names. Modern developments, especially with Hebrew Many previously described he Holy Land, an area between (including texts only on plants) remain to and Akkadian materials, have exposed medicinal plants of the Bible the Jordan River and the be translated. mistranslations and mistakes in botanical do not match the flora of the T Mediterranean Sea that also identification of some assumed biblical Holy Land. Using modern includes the Eastern Bank of the Jordan, In the original Hebrew version of the plants. Recent palynological (study of interpretations of ancient is synonymous with the biblical land of Bible (8th-3rd centuries BC), plant ancient pollen grains dust or particles) Hebrew, Egyptian and Israel and Palestine. This was an ancient names are often unclear. Modern books as well as archaeological data have Mesopotamian sources, the botanical crossroad, enjoying an active showcasing assumed biblical plants corroborated the possible biblical authors have reduced these trade in spices, incense and medicines draw conclusions that are frequently medicinal uses of some plants. For potential medicinal plants to from Egypt to Mesopotamia and beyond. questionable. For example, in these example, there is archaeological evidence 45 species of which 20 were Its flora includes about 2,700 species, books, the biblical lily is variously Most of the plants in the Bible are only for the use of medicinal Cinnamon, Myrrh not previously included. Amots some of medical value. taken to be seven different plants, Gum (Commiphora sp.) and Myrtle in the Dafni (Institute of Evolution, including cyclamen. Such confusion is mentioned in passing, with reference to Holy Land in biblical times and earlier. Department of Evolutionary Among the early written records of understandable, partly because the same medicinal use occurring even less. and Environmental Biology, plants in this region are Egyptian plant may have several names even in Meanwhile, although some have University of Haifa, Israel) has medical papyri. Ebers’ papyrus (1550 one country: Cyclamen persicum has at and Leah to have a fifth son (Genesis). and the Babylonian Talmud include suggested that Papaver somniferum L. extensive knowledge of the BC) contains 700 magical formulas and least 30 Arabic names. Mandrake had around 88 different about 400 plant names, 43 of which are (Opium Poppy) was used medicinally ethnobotany of sacred, ritual prescriptions, including the medical uses medicinal uses in the ancient world; some mentioned in relation to medicine. The in Egypt, it is debatable whether the and medicinal plants of the of plants. In the ruins of Assyrian Nineveh The tree most mentioned in the Old of which continue to this day. pharmacopoeias of ancient Mesopotamia plant was known at all in the Holy Land Holy Land. Barbara Boeck (Mesopotamia), thousands of cuneiform Testament is the Date Palm – it occurs and Egypt, found in cuneiform and in biblical times. Other medicinal plant (Institute for Mediterranean and documents (cuneiform is a writing system 34 times, mainly as a place name or a Researchers need to be aware that plant hieroglyphic texts, include more than 200 species are known only from ancient Near Eastern Languages and invented in ancient Mesopotamia that is person’s given name, and only six times names can change over time with some plants, the identification of which requires Egypt and, at the moment, there Cultures, Madrid) studies ancient recognisable by its wedge-shaped marks meaning the plant itself. Date Palm has being discarded or forgotten. Plants used further etymological research. is insufficient evidence to consider Mesopotamian healing therapies and medicinal plants. on clay tablets) from earlier than 500 BC been proposed as the Tree of Life but in medicine and witchcraft often have them biblical medicinal plants: these were found that mention over a thousand since neither the Tree of Life nor the Tree many local names (such as Mandrake). However, many modern compilations include Ocimum basilicum (Basil) and plant species. Many of the medical of Knowledge is given a specific name in Also, the same plant may have several carry inaccuracies. J. A. Duke in Cannabis sativa L. (Marijuana). Providing cuneiform texts the Bible, their true identities continue to names and the same name can refer to “Medicinal Plants of the Bible” (1983, ethnobotanical evidence, Samaritans (a www.bible-history.com/maps/3-old-testament-world.html be the subject of speculation. more than one species (such as Artemisia) cited in Dafni & Boeck) lists 176 plant group originating from the Israelites) still or genera (such as Cupressus/Juniperus). species as biblical medicinal plants, use Origanum syriacum (Syrian Oregano) Translators of the Bible, such as the King but many of them are not related to in the same way as in biblical times. James Version (1611), were unfamiliar UNTANGLING THE with the original Hebrew and knew BOTANICAL IDENTITIES OF little of the flora of the Holy Land. PLANTS OF THE BIBLE To get around this they sometimes One way of assessing the possible validity chose names from their local floras to of potential biblical medicinal plants is make the plants seem familiar to their if they are also recorded as medicinal Viktor Loki/Shutterstock.com readers. There are similar problems plants in other sources. Plants and their of identity for plants mentioned in products (such as spices and incense) medical contexts in the Talmud (text of that had medicinal uses in Egypt and Rabbinic Judaism, with versions dating Mesopotamia were probably also known from the 3rd to 8th centuries BC). in the Holy Land in biblical times, even if they are not mentioned in the Bible. Most of the plants in the Bible are only Likewise, plants mentioned in the Talmud mentioned in passing, with reference as medicinal that are also documented to medicinal use occurring even in Egypt and Mesopotamia and for less. Examples of biblical medical which archaeological evidence exists are application are the use of ‘balm’ to reasonable candidates. treat sores (Jeremiah), Fig as a cure “When Jacob came out from the field in the evening, Leah went out to meet him and said, ‘You must come in to me, for I have hired you with my son’s mandrakes.’ So he lay with her that night. for a boil (Isaiah), and Mandrake as The post-biblical Mishna (written And God listened to Leah, and she conceived and bore Jacob a fifth son.” Genesis 30:16-17. a fertility remedy enabling Jacob collection of the Jewish oral traditions)

www.researchoutreach.org www.researchoutreach.org Dafni and Boeck re-examined the list of possible medicinal plants in the Bible. Behind the Research

Professor Dr Barbara Amots Dafni Boeck

E: [email protected] E: [email protected] T: +34 (0)91-6022315 T: +972 (0)546-391-224 W: http://ilc.csic.es/es/research-group/letras-ciencias- antigua-mesopotamia-lycam

Pomegranate is mentioned in the Bible and Research Objectives known as medicinal in Egypt and Mesopotamia. On the basis of recent studies in Hebrew biblical language as well as archaeological findings, Dafni and Boeck review potential biblical medicinal plants and suggest a revised list of plants of the Holy Land.

ASSESSING THE BOTANICAL indigenous to the Holy Land or were Coriander (Coriandrum sativum), Detail RELIABILITY OF BIBLICAL never introduced. They compiled an Cumin (Cuminum cyminum), Date Palm PLANT NAMES inventory of plants for which there is (Phoenix dactylifera), Pomegranate Bio plants (past and present). Dafni is Mesopotamian healing therapies with In “Plants of the Bible” (2012, in literary evidence (including comparative (Punica granatum), Garlic (Allium sativa), Amots Dafni is Professor (Emeritus) at author of several books on pollination special focus on medicinal plants. Hebrew, cited in Dafni & Boeck), Z. data from ancient sources) and/or Black Cumin (Nigella sativa) and Cedar the Institute of Evolution, Department of ecology and ethnobotany, such as: Her books include the edition of Amar revisited the flora in the Old archaeological evidence of medicinal (Cedrus libani). Evolutionary and Environmental Biology, Pollination Ecology: the Practical ancient Mesopotamian physiognomic Testament to determine the reliability use. Some plants from the Talmud University of Haifa, Israel. In the field of Approach (1992), and Plants, Demons divination (2000), a treatise on Sumerian of previously suggested plant names. were eliminated on the basis of new Plants not cited in the Bible but ethnobotany his research is focused on and Wonders: Folklore of Plants of the and Akkadian healing incantations Using Jewish post-biblical sources, linguistic interpretations. mentioned as medicinal in post- sacred trees of the Holy Land (history, Bible Lands (2017). (2007), and a study on Babylonian typology, supernatural characters, medicine (2013). Amar grouped names according to biblical sources and/or Egypt and/ rituals, ceremonies and customs), ritual Dr Barbara Boeck is Senior Researcher botanical identification reliability. He Dafni and Boeck divided their likely or Mesopotamia include: Safflower plants and monotheism (especially of at the Institute for Mediterranean and arrived at around 75 plant names with plants into: plants mentioned explicitly (Carthamus tinctoria), Henna (Lawsonia Funding aromatic plants) as well as plant’s names Near Eastern Languages and Cultures, PGC2018-097821-B100 (MCIU/AEI/ certain to reasonable identification as medicinal in the Bible which had inermis), Aloe (Aloe sp.), Asafoetida in relation to ethnobotany and medicinal CSIC Madrid. She is interested in ancient FEDER, UE) validity. But (Ferula assafoetida) among previously and Water Cress proposed plants, Examples are ‘balm’ to treat sores, (Lepidium sativum). References he found 13 plant Other possible Dafni, A. & Boeck, B. (2019) Medicinal plants of the Bible—revisited. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 15: 57. https://doi. names to be inclusions are Fig as a cure for a boil and Mandrake org/10.1186/s13002-019-0338-8 unidentifiable or Lentisk (Pistacia unreliable, 20 non- as a fertility remedy. lentiscus; Dafni, A. & Khatib, S. A. (2017) Plants, Demons and Wonders: Folklore of Plants of the Bible Lands. Olam Hadash. Tel Aviv. 270. specific names like Egypt, Mishna, ‘thorn’ or ‘lily’, and 35 names that were high identification reliability (based archaeology), Fennel (Ferula sp.; Egypt- probably not related to plants at all. on Z. Amar’s work) (5 species); plants Mesopotamia), Fenugreek (Trigonella Personal Response mentioned in the Bible and known foenum-graecum; Egypt-Mesopotamia) Now, Dafni and Boeck have done as medicinal in ancient Egypt and and Carob (Ceratonia siliqua; Egypt). What is an interesting aspect of the direction that your joint work is now taking? a similar review of potential biblical Mesopotamia (27 species); and plants Especially interesting of our joint work is the exchange of information between such different areas of research such as medicinal plants on the basis of recent not cited in the Bible but mentioned as The proposed biblical medicinal plants Biology and ancient Philology. It is an enormous challenge to prepare the specialist information from each field in order to make studies in Hebrew biblical language, medicinal in post-biblical sources and/or (45 in total) are all known as such in it available to the other field and to engage then into a discussion of identification and use. We have just learned the “language” Egyptian and Mesopotamian medicinal Egypt and/or Mesopotamia (13 species). the ancient civilizations of the region. of communication and are now “conversing”. use of plants and ethnobotany, and All have been in continuous medicinal botanical archaeological remains of Only five species are mentioned use in the Middle East down the How might the stigma attached to magic and exorcism (God as a singular healer) have meant that plants as medicines medicinal plants found in Israel. As a explicitly as medicinal plants in generations and are used in the Holy are not more explicitly mentioned in the Bible? result, they propose a revised list of the Bible: Fig (Ficus carica), Nard Land today. Most have at least one We should not forget that the Bible is not a book on medicine but a collection of writings on the religious experience 45 medicinal plant species of which 20 (Nardostachys jatamansi), Hyssop additional use as food, in rituals, for of ancient Israel including historical accounts, parables, hymns and didactic writings. The reason that many plants are not have not previously been included. (Origanum syriacum), ‘Balm of Gilead’ perfume and cosmetics, and as incense. mentioned as medicines should not be sought in the belief that God has singular healing power but rather that the authors (Commiphora sp.), and Mandrake Some could now be studied further to of the different books of the Bible were not specialist healers or physicians and focused rather on the intellectual challenge of God’s word. Using Amar’s guidelines for (Mandragora officinarum). Plants determine their chemical composition identification reliability, Dafni and mentioned in the Bible and known as and medical activity with a view to Boeck discarded plant names based on medicinal in Egypt and Mesopotamia isolating compounds for possible mistranslations and plants that were not include: Myrtle (Myrtus commnis), drug development.

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