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California State University, Northridge CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, NORTHRIDGE The Relationship Between Telecommuting and Occupational Stressors of Nonprofit Professionals A graduate project submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements For the degree of Master of Public Administration in Non-Profit Sector Management By Stephanie Mendoza August 2020 Copyright by Stephanie Mendoza 2020 ii The graduate project of Stephanie Mendoza is approved: _______________________________________ __________ Dr. Elizabeth A. Trebow Date _______________________________________ ___________ Dr. Sarmistha R. Majumdar Date _______________________________________ ___________ Dr. Judith A. DeBonis, Chair Date California State University, Northridge iii Acknowledgements I would like to express gratitude to my Graduate Project committee: Dr. Judith A DeBonis, Committee Chair, Dr. Elizabeth A. Trebow, and Dr. Sarmistha R. Majumdar. To Dr. DeBonis, thank you for your patience, guidance, and constant motivation. I am grateful for your dedication to my success and the advocacy you demonstrated for our cohort. To Dr. Ann Marie Yamada, thank you for the timely advice, insight, and reassurance. To my family and friends, thank you for supporting my education over the years. Your words of encouragement will resonate with me, always. iv Table of Contents Copyright Page ii Signature Page iii Acknowledgements iv Abstract vii Introduction 1 Purpose of the Present Study 1 Aims and Objectives 1 Background 3 Terms and Concepts 3 Historical Context 3 Prevalence 4 Literature Review 5 Occupational Stress 5 Flexible Work Arrangements 7 Method 10 Setting 10 Participants 10 Measures 11 Procedure 12 Ethical Considerations and Standards 12 Data Analysis Plan 13 Results 14 v Discussion 15 Implications 15 Limitations 16 Conclusion 17 References 18 Appendix: NIOSH Generic Job Stress Questionnaire 22 vi Abstract The Relationship Between Telecommuting and Occupational Stressors of Nonprofit Professionals By Stephanie Mendoza Master of Public Administration in Non-Profit Sector Management Purpose: This study aims to explore the effects of nonprofit employees’ occupational stress when able to utilize flexible work options such as telecommuting. Research Question: This work will help examine whether the perceived benefits and barriers associated with telecommuting allow for appropriate human resource management, such as workplace assessments and intervention, to lower occupational stress. Method: Nonprofit employees from agencies throughout Orange County, California, will be recruited to participate in the study to determine the effects of telecommuting on occupational stressors. Occupational stress will be assessed using the Generic Job Stress Questionnaire (GJSQ). Keywords: telecommuting, human resources policies, occupational stress, nonprofit professionals, flexible work arrangement vii Introduction This graduate project will use data collected from professionals in nonprofit agencies in Orange County, California, to examine how one significant human resource practice, the provision and utilization of telecommuting, may support professionals with high occupational stress. Previous studies have focused on correlations between flexible work arrangement and variables such as job satisfaction and time management (Golden & Veiga, 2005; McNall et al., 2009; Wheatley, 2016). The study develops a framework that focuses on flexible working arrangements, specifically telecommuting, and occupational stress. Telecommuting research focuses mainly on work-life balance, performance, and job satisfaction, including differences between men and women (Chung, 2019; Wheatley, 2016). To date, there has been very little on the experience of professionals related to occupational stress. The study will also focus on the needs of nonprofit professionals and their specific workplace needs. Telecommuting affords employees the freedom and flexibility that may aid an individual’s ability to improve task control (Golden & Veiga, 2005), which may alleviate occupational stress caused by workload and time demands. The results of this study should be useful to nonprofit leaders as they review human resource policies, assess the needs of their employees, and implement programs that expand workplace flexibility. Purpose of the Present Study The present study will examine occupational stress and the effects of telecommuting on nonprofit professionals in Orange County, California. Orange County, California, was selected because it is home to over two thousand registered nonprofit organizations and a rising population of over three million. 1 Aims and Objectives The purpose of this study is to explore if telecommuting contributes to work-related stress among nonprofit professionals. The objectives are to (1) describe occupational stress among nonprofit professionals and (2) to determine if policies in telecommuting add or reduce work-related stress. Findings may encourage nonprofit agencies to approach human resources and create policies that may benefit nonprofit professionals. 2 Background Terms and Concepts The Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety (CCOHS, 2018) defines occupational stress as psychological discomfort or tension that results from high job demands and a lack of control in the workplace. Stressors may include an employee’s responsibilities, workplace conditions, organizational structure, and management styles (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health [NIOSH], 2014). The term “telecommuting” is credited to Jack Nilles, an engineer who worked remotely on a NASA communication system in 1972. In a publication investigating the impact of technology on urban transportation, telecommuting is described as an effective solution to traffic, energy consumption, and commuting expenses by allowing workers to perform from an alternative or remote location, such as home, using information technology (Nilles et al., 1976). Historical Context Flexible work arrangements have evolved over the last several decades. Types of flexible work arrangements include flexible working hours, compressed workweeks, and job sharing (CCOHS, 2016). The present study will focus on telecommuting, also known as remote work, telework, and flexible workplace (Hering, 2020). The concept arose to help manage work-life balance for individuals and seen as a benefit to responsibilities affecting professionals with families. Historically, the policy is assumed to benefit working women who face multiple responsibilities and impacted schedules (Giannikis & Mihail, 2011; Wheatley, 2016). However, Chung (2019) found that flexible working arrangements tend to favor full-time, salaried 3 positions, and male-dominated workplaces. Chung discusses this may be in part to lower pay, less equity, and less access to schedule control for female employees. In addition to employee-employer benefits, telecommuting is considered suitable for the environment by reducing traffic and improving air quality (Giovanis, 2018). The federal government also views telecommuting as a cost-effective management tool. Telecommuting reduces overhead costs, attracts skilled prospects, and reduced turnover costs (Goluboff, 2001). Therefore, in 1990, President Clinton and the Council on Management Improvement introduced the Federal Flexible Workplace Pilot Project. The program allowed federal employees to telecommute, and the Office of Personnel Management further spearheaded family-friendly workplace initiatives (Endy et al., 1997). In the last twenty-five years, several states have adopted telecommuting programs for public and private sector employees. Prevalence According to an analytical report conducted by FlexJobs and Global Workplace Analytics (2020), remote work is becoming more popular in the United States. Since 2005, there has been a 159% increase in remote work. In 2015, nearly four million American people were working remotely. The FlexJobs and Global Workplace Analytics report utilized data collected from the American Community Survey, a survey conducted by the United States Census Bureau (2020), which presents the most current data on America’s evolving population, housing, and workforce. In 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, nearly half of American employees were forced to work from home, doubling rates reported in 2017 and 2018 (United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2019). Federal considerations for telecommuting were also issued following the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks and after Hurricane Katrina in 2005 (Schwemle, 2017). 4 Literature Review As personal commitments and workplace demands increase, improving work-life balance has become more critical in retaining employees and improving performance (Mitchell & Gamlem, 2017). The present research aims to identify the effects of telecommuting on occupational stressors in nonprofit organizations to suggest human resource policies for occupational stress reduction. The literature and language around telecommuting are imprecise. The terminology found in the literature varies from study to study. In this review, the term "telecommuting" will be used predominantly unless a different term is presented in the study context. Occupational Stress The relationship between autonomy and job demands, task control, and stress levels are limited in the literature. There is even a further lack of research on occupational stress in human service nonprofit organizations. Stressors may include an employee’s responsibilities, workplace conditions, organizational structure, and management styles (National Institute for Occupational
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