California State University, Northridge

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CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, NORTHRIDGE

The Relationship Between Telecommuting and Occupational Stressors

of Nonprofit Professionals

A graduate project submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements

For the degree of Master of Public Administration in Non-Profit Sector Management

Stephanie Mendoza

August 2020

The graduate project of Stephanie Mendoza is approved:

______Dr. Elizabeth A. Trebow Date

______Dr. Sarmistha R. Majumdar Date

______Dr. Judith A. DeBonis, Chair Date

California State University, Northridge

iii Acknowledgements

I would like to express gratitude to my Graduate Project committee: Dr. Judith A

DeBonis, Committee Chair, Dr. Elizabeth A. Trebow, and Dr. Sarmistha R. Majumdar.

To Dr. DeBonis, thank you for your patience, guidance, and constant motivation. I am grateful for your dedication to my success and the advocacy you demonstrated for our cohort.

To Dr. Ann Marie Yamada, thank you for the timely advice, insight, and reassurance.

To my family and friends, thank you for supporting my education over the years. Your words of encouragement will resonate with me, always.

Table of Contents

Signature Page iii

Acknowledgements iv

Abstract vii

Introduction 1

Purpose of the Present Study 1

Aims and Objectives 1

Background 3

Terms and Concepts 3

Historical Context 3

Prevalence 4

Literature Review 5

Occupational Stress 5

Flexible Work Arrangements 7

Method 10

Setting 10

Participants 10

Measures 11

Procedure 12

Ethical Considerations and Standards 12

Data Analysis Plan 13

Results 14

v Discussion 15

Implications 15

Limitations 16

Conclusion 17

References 18

Appendix: NIOSH Generic Job Stress Questionnaire 22

vi Abstract

The Relationship Between Telecommuting and Occupational Stressors

of Nonprofit Professionals

Stephanie Mendoza

Master of Public Administration in Non-Profit Sector Management

Purpose: This study aims to explore the effects of nonprofit employees’ occupational stress when able to utilize flexible work options such as telecommuting. Research Question: This work will help examine whether the perceived benefits and barriers associated with telecommuting allow for appropriate human resource management, such as workplace assessments and intervention, to lower occupational stress. Method: Nonprofit employees from agencies throughout Orange

County, California, will be recruited to participate in the study to determine the effects of telecommuting on occupational stressors. Occupational stress will be assessed using the Generic

Job Stress Questionnaire (GJSQ).

Keywords: telecommuting, human resources policies, occupational stress, nonprofit professionals, flexible work arrangement

vii Introduction

This graduate project will use data collected from professionals in nonprofit agencies in

Orange County, California, to examine how one significant human resource practice, the provision and utilization of telecommuting, may support professionals with high occupational stress. Previous studies have focused on correlations between flexible work arrangement and variables such as job satisfaction and time management (Golden & Veiga, 2005; McNall et al.,

2009; Wheatley, 2016). The study develops a framework that focuses on flexible working arrangements, specifically telecommuting, and occupational stress.

Telecommuting research focuses mainly on work-life balance, performance, and job satisfaction, including differences between men and women (Chung, 2019; Wheatley, 2016). To date, there has been very little on the experience of professionals related to occupational stress.

The study will also focus on the needs of nonprofit professionals and their specific workplace needs. Telecommuting affords employees the freedom and flexibility that may aid an individual’s ability to improve task control (Golden & Veiga, 2005), which may alleviate occupational stress caused by workload and time demands. The results of this study should be useful to nonprofit leaders as they review human resource policies, assess the needs of their employees, and implement programs that expand workplace flexibility.

Purpose of the Present Study

The present study will examine occupational stress and the effects of telecommuting on nonprofit professionals in Orange County, California. Orange County, California, was selected because it is home to over two thousand registered nonprofit organizations and a rising population of over three million.

1 Aims and Objectives

The purpose of this study is to explore if telecommuting contributes to work-related stress among nonprofit professionals. The objectives are to (1) describe occupational stress among nonprofit professionals and (2) to determine if policies in telecommuting add or reduce work-related stress. Findings may encourage nonprofit agencies to approach human resources and create policies that may benefit nonprofit professionals.

2 Background

Terms and Concepts

The Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety (CCOHS, 2018) defines occupational stress as psychological discomfort or tension that results from high job demands and a lack of control in the workplace. Stressors may include an employee’s responsibilities, workplace conditions, organizational structure, and management styles (National Institute for

Occupational Safety and Health [NIOSH], 2014).

The term “telecommuting” is credited to Jack Nilles, an engineer who worked remotely on a NASA communication system in 1972. In a publication investigating the impact of technology on urban transportation, telecommuting is described as an effective solution to traffic, energy consumption, and commuting expenses by allowing workers to perform from an alternative or remote location, such as home, using information technology (Nilles et al., 1976).

Historical Context

Flexible work arrangements have evolved over the last several decades. Types of flexible work arrangements include flexible working hours, compressed workweeks, and job sharing

(CCOHS, 2016). The present study will focus on telecommuting, also known as remote work, telework, and flexible workplace (Hering, 2020). The concept arose to help manage work-life balance for individuals and seen as a benefit to responsibilities affecting professionals with families.

Historically, the policy is assumed to benefit working women who face multiple responsibilities and impacted schedules (Giannikis & Mihail, 2011; Wheatley, 2016). However,

Chung (2019) found that flexible working arrangements tend to favor full-time, salaried

3 positions, and male-dominated workplaces. Chung discusses this may be in part to lower pay, less equity, and less access to schedule control for female employees.

In addition to employee-employer benefits, telecommuting is considered suitable for the environment by reducing traffic and improving air quality (Giovanis, 2018). The federal government also views telecommuting as a cost-effective management tool. Telecommuting reduces overhead costs, attracts skilled prospects, and reduced turnover costs (Goluboff, 2001).

Therefore, in 1990, President Clinton and the Council on Management Improvement introduced the Federal Flexible Workplace Pilot Project. The program allowed federal employees to telecommute, and the Office of Personnel Management further spearheaded family-friendly workplace initiatives (Endy et al., 1997). In the last twenty-five years, several states have adopted telecommuting programs for public and private sector employees.

Prevalence

According to an analytical report conducted by FlexJobs and Global Workplace

Analytics (2020), remote work is becoming more popular in the United States. Since 2005, there has been a 159% increase in remote work. In 2015, nearly four million American people were working remotely. The FlexJobs and Global Workplace Analytics report utilized data collected from the American Community Survey, a survey conducted by the United States Census Bureau

(2020), which presents the most current data on America’s evolving population, housing, and workforce.

In 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, nearly half of American employees were forced to work from home, doubling rates reported in 2017 and 2018 (United States Bureau of

Labor Statistics, 2019). Federal considerations for telecommuting were also issued following the

September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks and after Hurricane Katrina in 2005 (Schwemle, 2017).

4 Literature Review

As personal commitments and workplace demands increase, improving work-life balance has become more critical in retaining employees and improving performance (Mitchell &

Gamlem, 2017). The present research aims to identify the effects of telecommuting on occupational stressors in nonprofit organizations to suggest human resource policies for occupational stress reduction. The literature and language around telecommuting are imprecise.

The terminology found in the literature varies from study to study. In this review, the term

"telecommuting" will be used predominantly unless a different term is presented in the study context.

Occupational Stress

The relationship between autonomy and job demands, task control, and stress levels are limited in the literature. There is even a further lack of research on occupational stress in human service nonprofit organizations.

Stressors may include an employee’s responsibilities, workplace conditions, organizational structure, and management styles (National Institute for Occupational Safety and

Health [NIOSH], 2014). Occupational stress affects an employee's health at the individual level, leading to illness, absenteeism, low motivation, lower efficacy and productivity, and fatigue

(Burns et al., 2016; Colligan & Higgans, 2006; Meier & Spector, 2013; Quick & Henderson,

2016).

Job demands and stress impact performance and create counterproductive behaviors, while an employee's workload influences stress levels (Hamann &

Foster, 2014). In the same study by Hamann and Foster (2014), employee perceptions and attitudes were examined using the Job Strain Demand Control Model. The study found that

5 nonprofit employees reported higher workloads and stress levels than their for-profit colleagues.

The study was based on employees in public nursing homes, and recommendations included limiting work hours or easing job demands through stricter personnel rules. The recommendation decreases the overall workload of public employees and may be considered an FWA plan.

Nonprofit professionals who work with vulnerable populations such as at-risk youth may encounter additional occupational stress (Gorbatenko & Ramoniene, 2013). Secondary trauma can be sustained when an individual is exposed to people who have been traumatized themselves. Secondary trauma is defined as indirect exposure to trauma through a firsthand account or narrative of a traumatic event (Pryce, Shackelford, & Pryce, 2007). Many types of professionals, including those who work in human services, are vulnerable to developing such trauma, though only a few may experience it.

According to the Administration for Children and Families (n.d.), a division of the

Department of Health and Human Services, symptoms of compassion fatigue may include anxiety, dissociation, isolation, illness, and sleep disorders. Additionally, compassion fatigue is linked with a sense of confusion, helplessness, and a greater sense of isolation from supporters than is seen with burnout (Figley, 2002). Although occupational stress is preventable and treatable, the symptoms can cause mental and physical health issues, strained personal relationships, and poor job performance (Pryce, Shackelford, & Pryce, 2007).

If gone unchecked, job stress can lead to burnout. Maslach et al. (2001) described burnout as feelings of exhaustion, cynicism, detachment, ineffectiveness, and lack of personal accomplishment. The longitudinal study was able to identify the situational factors, characteristics, and individuals most impacted by burnout. Job characteristics included quantitative demands, such as work overload, time pressures, and the number of clients an

6 employee serves. Additionally, the demands caused by the severity of a client's challenges also show a positive correlation. The primary sectors studied included human services and education, occupations with intensive, direct service roles (similar to the population being observed in this study).

The need to recognize occupational stressors, such as workload and task control (NIOSH,

2014), in addition to workplace demands and secondary trauma, is critical in ensuring employee well-being (Figley, 2002; Gorbatenko & Ramoniene, 2013; Pryce, Shackelford, & Pryce, 2007).

Many nonprofit and public services agencies serve vulnerable populations such as at-risk youth, veterans, and the homeless. To further create workplace transparency and improve the employees’ work-life balance, nonprofit managers should consider alternatives to workplace demands and relieve stressors on their staff's personal and professional lives.

Flexible Work Arrangements

Human resources policies that allow workplace flexibility create a structure that enables flexibility to achieve the goals of employers and employees alike. Practices that can improve individual or organizational performance through alternative forms of work schedules are known as flexible work arrangements (Mitchell & Gamlem, 2017). As we enter the twenty-first century, balancing the demands of one’s work and personal life is more commonly recognized in organizations worldwide, but may still lack concrete policies that encourage positive behavior.

Organizations provide flexible work arrangements (FWA) to solve work-life conflict

(Wheatley, 2016). Based on observed benefits, it is necessary to inform business leaders of the value of FWAs. An FWA policy, such as telecommuting or flexible workplaces, is a work arrangement in which employees do not commute to their central place of work, but rather remotely with employer approval (Mitchell & Gamlem, 2017, p. 122). Human resource

7 professionals also need to consider the proper implementation and policies surrounding telecommuting, such as technology, cybersecurity, and risk management (Mitchell & Gamlem,

2017, pp. 123-124).

Prior research has generally found positive relationships between flexible work arrangements and employee attitudes (Giannikis & Mihail, 2011). A study by Azar, Khan, and

Eerde (2018) focused on correlations between flexible work arrangements, work-life conflict, job satisfaction, and the role of time management. The study surveyed 289 managers in Pakistan who applied a form of flexible work arrangements. Of the 289 participants, 108 were employed by public organizations, while the others worked for private companies. Information was self- reported, and data showed that along with time management and the option to have an FWA, the effect on work-life conflict is stronger. The study denotes the benefits to social exchange theory, which studies the social behavior in the interaction of two parties that implement a cost-benefit analysis to determine risks and benefits (Azar et al., 2018). For example, the reciprocity or the practice of exchanging things with others for the mutual interest may be viewed as benefits of employee perception and commitment to their employer and vice versa. This study may indicate the need to view FWA practices as mutually beneficial for both employees and employers in countries with similar workplace cultures.

According to the latest telecommuting trend data provided by Global Workplace

Analytics (2020), employers benefit from providing remote work opportunities. For example, the return on investment for organizations that adopt telework is up to $11,000 per person per year.

Savings result from increased productivity, lower overhead costs, reduced absenteeism, and decreased employee turnover (Global Workplace Analytics, 2020).

8 This study will gather information on the effects of flexible working arrangements on workplace stressors of nonprofit professionals to promote needs assessments and aid in implementing human resource policies in the nonprofit community.

9 Method

Setting

Orange County (California) has over two thousand registered nonprofit organizations and a rising population of over three million. Many nonprofit and public services agencies serve vulnerable populations such as at-risk youth, veterans, and homeless populations. Nonprofit professionals in the field of human services may experience secondary trauma incurred when an individual is exposed to people who have been traumatized themselves (Pryce, Shackelford, &

Pryce, 2007). Nonprofit professionals may be especially vulnerable to high demands and expectations, varying work schedules and workloads, and role strain.

The need to recognize occupational stressors, workplace demands, and secondary trauma is critical to ensuring an employee's well-being. To further create workplace transparency and improve work-life balance, nonprofit managers should consider alternatives to workplace demands that may relieve stressors on the professional lives of their staff. Outcomes may be beneficial to all parties.

Participants

The population in this study is composed of active nonprofit professionals in Orange

County, California. Nonprofit agencies will be informed of the study in partnership with OneOC,

Orange County's nonprofit resource center. The resource center has access to an extensive database and can contact nonprofit managers regarding the opportunity. Nonprofits will be selected based on their use of flexible working arrangements and a published telecommuting policy. Individuals will be recruited and randomly selected form nonprofit agencies who consented to have their employees participate in the study.

10 Of the 4,000 eligible individuals, 1,000 will be randomly selected to participate in the study. The average survey response rate for email and online surveys is 29-30% (Lindemann,

2019). Therefore, I approximate having 290-300 individuals participate in the questionnaire, representing about 7.5% of the population.

Measures

Demographic

Information will be gathered to measure individual factors. Questions will include participants’ age, gender, and occupation. Questions regarding an individual’s typical work shift

(hours per week and schedule) and type of employment (full-time, part-time, seasonal) will also be included.

Occupational Stress

Occupational stress was measured using the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Generic Job Stress Questionnaire (GJSQ). The GJSQ was selected based upon document reliability and validity. The questionnaire refers to job stressors as working conditions that may lead to acute reactions, or strains in the worker (Hurrell & McLaney, 1988).

For example, the questionnaire measures several workplace psychosocial areas such as mental demands, workload, task control, social support, and conflict. These short-term strains are presumed to have an impact on longer-term indicators of mental and physical health.

All items are based on a five-point Likert scale and are both positively and negatively orientated. For example, highly scored items such as social support will indicate lower stress.

The selected questionnaire modules and items (general job information, mental demands, workload and responsibility, social support, and workplace conflict) may be viewed in the

Appendix.

11 Telecommuting

The survey will include a question to confirm whether an individual utilizes the published telecommuting policy provided by their employer. Telecommuting will be the independent variable used to examine the dependent variable, occupational stress.

Procedure

Nonprofit agencies will be recruited in partnership with a nonprofit resource center located in Orange County. A self-administered, electronic questionnaire will be emailed to randomized nonprofit professionals based on participating nonprofits. All participants must provide informed consent prior to completing the questionnaire. The questionnaire should take approximately 15-30 minutes to complete. Return rates will be monitored. Participants without a documented submission will be reminded once a week for three weeks after the initial email to increase the chances of a response.

Ethical Considerations and Standards

The study will maintain the following ethical considerations and standards.

Respondents will be informed of their voluntary participation and notified of their rights to withdraw from the study at any time. Participants will not subject to any distress or harm, and the respect for each participant will be prioritized.

Consent will be obtained from each participant prior to the study and provided sufficient information and assurance to reach full informed consent without pressure or coercion.

All participants, respective nonprofit agencies, and responses will remain confidential to the purpose of the present research. All data is stored in a secure database, and only the author will have access to the collected data. Participating nonprofits will not have access to the raw data or be made aware of which employees completed the questionnaire.

12 Data Analysis Plan

The data will undergo a bivariate analysis to determine the relationship between telecommuting and occupational stressors.

Data will be entered into an Excel file and uploaded into the statistical software SPSS.

Distributions of demographic and working characteristics will be tested by t-test or one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). A linear regression analysis will determine whether the implementation of a telecommuting policy influences occupational stressors. A multiple linear regression analysis will also be complete for each GJSC subscale and the responses for telecommuting utilization.

13 Results

The results of this study should be useful to nonprofit leaders as they review human resource policies, assess the needs of their employees, and implement programs that expand workplace flexibility.

The outcomes of this study may benefit nonprofit organizations by bringing awareness to occupational stress. Awareness and proper needs assessments may allow nonprofit leaders to adjust their current workplace practices and promote telework if the findings are significant. The findings will also serve as a measure to inform nonprofit executives and human resource professionals the needs of their employees and how to adjust for stressors such as workload, mental demands, and conflict. Such accommodations may help in retaining skilled and valued employees (Mitchell & Gamlem, 2017).

A minimum of 285 surveys need to be collected to ensure a statistically relevant result, with a 95% confidence level and a margin error of 5%,

14 Discussion

The study uses a quantitative questionnaire to measure the self-reported job characteristics and stressors of nonprofit professionals.

Given the literature findings, there are clear and proven benefits of flexible work arrangements such as improved work-life balance, increased productivity, increased morale, decreased absenteeism, and reduced turnover. If additional findings can demonstrate the positive effects on occupational stressors such as mental demands, perceived control, and workplace conflict, it may further address demands in human resources management and design policies that benefit both employees and employers.

The results from this study could provide nonprofit agencies and respective human resource departments recent perceptions of occupational stressors and the benefits of telecommuting policies. This study may contribute to future research regarding human resource management and the nonprofit sector.

Implications

Improving policies and legislation that focus on the specific needs of nonprofit professionals who interact and support a nation’s most vulnerable populations can ensure employee sustainability and continued success for nonprofits.

15 Limitations

The present study is limited to nonprofits located in Orange County, California.

Expanding representation and surveying nonprofit professionals in other regions may have different results.

I recognize a study on stress may be hindered by personal, workplace, and external factors. I also acknowledge that individuals participating in the present study may be affected by the COVID-19 global pandemic, social issues such as police brutality and social justice, the state of the economy, and job security.

16 Conclusion

The study is important to view from the perspective of both employees and employers.

Should the hypothesis be proven that telecommuting policies reduce occupational stressors, new policies and requirements can be provided for nonprofit professionals. Improving the health and well-being of nonprofit professionals will benefit interpersonal relationships within the agency, community, and clients. Flexible working arrangements and proper human resources management are imperative to organizations' success and the need to stay competitive in the modern workforce. Improving policies and legislation that focus on the specific needs of nonprofit professionals who interact and support a nation’s most vulnerable populations can ensure employee sustainability and continued success for nonprofits.

As a rising nonprofit professional, I hope to practice and utilize knowledge in organizational management and human resources to maximize employees' potential to achieve common missions and organizational goals.

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21 Appendix

NIOSH Generic Job Stress Questionnaire