HIGH-TECH ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN OF LOW-ENERGY PLACES INAUGURAL LECTURE SERIES 64

Delivered at The Federal University of Technology, Akure On Tuesday, July 10, 2012 By Olu Ola OGUNSOTE, mnia Professor of Architecture

Olu Ola Ogunsote, MSc, PhD, MBA, mnia Professor of Architecture

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Protocol...... 1 Introduction ...... 1 Architecture today ...... 2 Architectural design ...... 3 The concept of place in architecture ...... 3 Low-energy places in architecture ...... 4 The need for design with climate ...... 7 The need for a systems approach ...... 7 Sustainable architecture ...... 7 Green housing in tropical climates...... 8 Advantages and benefits of green housing ...... 9 Passive cooling of residential buildings ...... 11 Passive cooling through reduction of cooling loads in residential buildings 11 Passive cooling through removal of excess heat from residential buildings . 12 The almond tree effect...... 13 The cultural context of climate-sensitive buildings...... 14 Climatic zones for architectural design in Nigeria ...... 15 Definitions of climatic zones ...... 15 Existing definitions of climatic design zones ...... 15 The proposed climatic design zones ...... 16 High technology in architecture ...... 19 Computer Aided Architectural Presentation (CAAP) software...... 20 CAD software...... 20 Graphics software ...... 20 Multimedia software ...... 20 Proliferation and complexity of CAAP software ...... 22 The pros and cons of convergence ...... 22 Advantages of convergence...... 23 Disadvantages of convergence ...... 23 Three Dimensional Modelling in Architecture ...... 23 Building Information Modelling (BIM) ...... 24 Synergy between environmental science software and modelling software in architecture ...... 24 Examples of three-dimensional models ...... 25 Production of photorealistic views and renderings in architecture (visualisation) ...... 25 Software for architectural visualization ...... 25 3DS Max and 3DS Max Design ...... 25 Free–form modelling with Rhino...... 25

v Special add-ins and enhancements ...... 26 Examples of architectural visualizations...... 26 Computer animation in architecture ...... 40 Three-Dimensional models for computer animation ...... 40 Using computer animation software in architecture ...... 40 Simulating 3D objects using 2D images in architectural animations . . . . . 41 Examples of computer animation in architecture ...... 42 Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) in architecture ...... 43 Scientific environmental modelling in architecture ...... 43 Design studio e-portfolios in architectural education ...... 44 The new learning environment in architectural education in Nigeria . . . . 45 Portfolios, e-portfolios, drawing e-portfolios and architectural design e-portfolios ...... 45 E-portfolio ...... 46 Drawing e-portfolio ...... 46 Architectural design e-portfolio...... 47 The advantages and disadvantages of architectural design e-portfolios . . . 47 Developing workable and flexible standards for design studio e-portfolios in Nigeria ...... 50 Relevant file formats ...... 53 New techniques of managing architectural design e-portfolios using the DWF format...... 54 Prospects of architectural design e-portfolios in architectural education in Nigeria...... 55 Climate sensitive buildings ...... 55 Characteristics of climate-sensitive buildings ...... 55 Examples of climate-sensitive buildings designed by the author ...... 56 Most significant contributions to knowledge in architecture ...... 81 Books and monographs ...... 81 Journal publications and conference proceedings ...... 81 Locally developed software for architectural design with climate in Nigeria 82 Major educational software developed for architecture and building students' instruction ...... 83 Web sites and portals developed for professional bodies and e-learning . . 83 Conclusions ...... 84 Recommendations ...... 85 Acknowledgments ...... 86 Bibliography ...... 89 Copyrighted Commercial Software for Architects and Builders...... 105 Major Educational Software Developed for Architecture and Building Students' Instruction ...... 106

vi HIGH-TECH ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN OF LOW-ENERGY PLACES

PROTOCOL The Vice Chancellor Principal Officers of the University Deans, Directors and Heads of Department My Lords Spiritual and Temporal Members of the Academia Friends of the University Gentlemen of the Press Distinguished Ladies and Gentlemen Great Futarians!

INTRODUCTION It is with great humility and profound thanksgiving to God that I stand before you today to present this inaugural lecture titled “High-tech Architectural Design of Low-energy Places”. Although the choice of the title was made about a decade ago, I strongly believe that the subject remains topical, and that it continues to encapsulate my academic and professional aspirations and endeavours over the last three decades. Architects always dreamt of buildings that would not only be heavenly in beauty and stylistically significant throughout history, but that would last forever, would be comfortable and require little or no energy during construction and occupation. Moore's law (Moore, 1965) gave even pessimists hope that at least part of this utopia could be achieved during our lifetimes through technology. Today, arguable illiterates manipulate in their palms ten times more powerful technology than teams of scientists sweated in multi-storey buildings to operate just a few decades ago. Yet, advances in architectural technology have been more evolutionary than revolutionary. Many developing countries still struggle with architectural technology problems to which solutions were found centuries ago. Even advanced countries have been forced to re- evaluate the sustainability of their highest architectural achievements, faced as they are by new threats of economic depression, climate change, natural disasters and terrorism. This lecture is a general discussion about architectural design. It emphasizes the architectural design of meaningful places, as opposed to buildings and complexes. The focus is on places that use little or no energy in construction and exploitation.

1 The role that Information and Communication Technology can play in the design of such low-energy places is the essence of this discourse.

Architecture Today What is architecture? Despite pretentious custody claims by our colleagues in Information and Communication Technology, the paternity of architecture remains unquestionable. Architecture is the art and science of designing and constructing buildings and other physical structures. These other physical structures include open areas, communities and other artificial constructions and environments. Architecture covers all aspects of the built environment, from the macro level (urban design, landscape architecture) to the micro level (interior design, furniture design, construction detailing), and including housing, institutional buildings, sporting and recreational facilities, industrial design, rural architecture, site supervision, remodelling, conservation and restoration. Architecture is an art, but it differs from most other art forms by possessing utility. At the other end of the spectrum, engineering becomes architecture the moment aesthetics becomes a significant factor. When is architecture? One of the earliest treatises on the subject, De Architectura (On Architecture, aka The Ten Books on Architecture), by the 1st century (BC) Roman architect Marcus Vitrivius Pollio, established three requirements – firmness, utility and beauty (Vitruvius, 1914). Today, structural stability, functionality and aesthetics remain cardinal to architecture, and the various styles and movements are only reflections of the priority ordering of these qualities, and the emphasis placed on each. Why is architecture? The origin of architecture can be traced to when man first created a physical structure and, like his own creator, also “saw that it was good” (Genesis, Chapter 1, verse 10). This goodness has been used over the ages to perpetuate cultural superiority, symbolize power, demonstrate technological excellence, and in some cases to provide a link to heaven (the afterlife), as in the Egyptian pyramids. Most of the time however, architecture has provided man with a place to work, play, pray and rest. Who is an architect? All conscious beings are architects, or at least have the potential of becoming architects. All laws and norms restricting the use of the title architect to only a few merely aim to certify the knowledge, expertise and experience acquired in the practice of architecture.

2 Architectural Design A design is generally understood to be a plan or convention for the construction or production of an object or system. It is a conscious and intuitive effort to impose meaningful order (Papanek, 1971). Alexander (1964) defines design as the process of inventing physical things which display new physical order, organization and form in response to function. More technically, a design is a specification of an object, manifested by an agent, intended to accomplish goals, in a particular environment, using a set of primitive components, satisfying a set of requirements, subject to constraints (Ralph and Wand, 2009). Design involves a process which has been variously described using either the rational model (Brooks, 2010; Newell and Simon, 1972) or the action-centric model (Ralph, 2010). Just as it is difficult to draw a line between rationality and intuition in design, the boundaries between design and art is blurred. Likewise, there are opposing approaches, methods and philosophies of design. So, what then is architectural design? Simply put, it is a plan for the construction of buildings and other physical structures.

The Concept of Place in Architecture The notion of a place having a special meaning is an old and widely recognised one. Such places are identified by their peculiarities, not commonly found in others (Plate 1). For instance, they could be marked, as in some Yoruba settlements, by the growth of a particularly mighty Iroko tree, a tree that is traditionally believed to harbour demons and spirits (Ogunsote, 1986b). Sacrifices and offerings to the gods are usually left at crossroads, and shrines are commonly situated in carefully selected places, often under divine guidance. The Druids built their temples in sacred places, which often controlled grand perspectives. Christians destroyed these temples and built churches, which were in turn destroyed by Muslims or other faiths, who constructed mosques or temples on the same spot. Palaces are often reconstructed in similar architectural styles and on the same sites after being destroyed by fire or warfare, despite availability of better sites and advances in architectural aesthetics. This cycle is sometimes repeated, as in the Turkish Hagia Sofia, and the Japanese Imperial Palaces (Mark and Cakmak, 1992; Ogunsote and Prucnal-Ogunsote, 2012). Probably the most famous example of the significance of place is the Temple Mount in the Old City of Jerusalem, which has witnessed the construction and destruction of numerous temples by numerous faiths and emperors, with countless lives lost in this continuing process (Eliav, 2005). Modern science

3 Plate 1: The 17th Century Rokusoan Traditional Tea House at the Tokyo National Museum, Tokyo, Japan. Note the timelessness achieved at the heart of the world's most populous metropolitan area. Source: Field work, 2011. believes that the special qualities of such places are partially a result of the interaction of underground currents, which produce positive and negative ionization. Modern architecture attempts to create environments for meaningful experiences by masterful interplay of memories, landmarks and paths, and by emphasizing the ability of humans to interact (Plate 2). The skill of the architect in balancing these forces can turn ordinary locations into iconic places (Plates 3, 4 and 5).

LOW-ENERGY PLACES IN ARCHITECTURE Climate matters. This simple fact is the very essence of architecture and if the idea of climate did not exist, the need for architecture might never have arisen. The primitive man who sought the shelter of a cave during a thunderstorm might have, however, discovered this particular haven while fleeing from a monster. Be that as it may, architecture today is more of a roof than a barricaded door. Climate is one of the factors affecting building form and design, and knowledge of the relationship between the climate and buildings is a fundamental requirement in architecture (Ogunsote, 1991a).

4 Plate 2: Keyakibashi Bridge, Kyoto Imperial Palace, Kyoto, Japan. A beautiful example of the use of viewpoints in a Japanese strolling garden. Source: Photograph by the Author, 2011.

Plate 3: Carpenter Centre, Harvard University, Boston, USA designed by Le Corbusier. Source: Photograph by the author, 2005.

5 Plate 4: Stata Centre, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, USA designed by Frank Gehry. Source: Photograph by the author, 2005.

Plate 5: Robie House, Chicago, USA by Frank Lloyd Wright. Source: Photograph by the author, 2005.

6 The Need for Design with Climate The need to design with climate has always been a major consideration in architecture. Vitruvius (1914), in his Ten Books on Architecture drew attention to the importance of climate in architecture and town planning. Fitch (1971) pointed out the extravagant reliance by architects on recent environmental technologies and advocates, in consonance with the Building and Road Research Institute, Kumasi, “methods of building which will enable the building structure itself effect the desired environmental control” (Essien, 1968). The search for such methods has been undertaken by several countries, as documented by Essien (1968), Fitch (1971), Lacy (1972; 1977) and Hooper (1975). Contributions have also been made by the United Nations Department for Economic and Social Affairs (1971) and the United Nations Centre for Human Settlements – HABITAT (1984). The importance of finding such methods for Nigeria was stressed by Madedor (1980) when he expressed the need to provide “guidelines for design for the various climatic zones in the country”.

The Need for a Systems Approach Christopher Alexander, in his Notes on the Synthesis of Form, pointed out that the many variables involved in contemporary architectural decision-making simply outrun the capacities of even the finest minds (Alexander, 1964). Under such circumstances, according to Fitch (1971), “the electronic computer has inevitably become an important tool”. This argument is buttressed by the fact that the very nature of the analyses involved in energy-conscious design encourages the use of computers (Ogunsote, 1991b). A systems approach may therefore help solve the problems faced by architects in developing countries who have tended to ignore methods of design with climate for various reasons, not least of which are: Ÿ the dynamic nature of the design process; Ÿ the considerable time and effort required, for which the architects receive no obvious extra remuneration; Ÿ the lack of flexibility, the degree of complexity and the arguable ambiguity of some of the existing methods (Reynolds, 1980); and Ÿ ignorance and lack of training and equipment.

Sustainable Architecture The concept of sustainable development can be traced to the energy crisis and the environmental pollution concern in the 1970s (Mao, Lu and Li, 2009). The green building movement in the United States of America originated from the

7 need for more energy efficient and environmentally friendly construction practices. There are a number of motives to building green, including environmental, economic, and social benefits. However, modern sustainability initiatives call for an integrated and synergistic design to both new construction and in the retrofitting of existing structures. Also known as sustainable design, this approach integrates the building life-cycle with each green practice employed with a design-purpose to create a synergy amongst the practices used. This energy design or energy conscious design can be achieved through intelligent design and use of materials and technology (Adedeji and Folorunso, 2008).

Green Housing in Tropical Climates Green building (also known as green construction or sustainable building) is the practice of creating structures and using processes that are environmentally responsible and resource-efficient throughout a building's life-cycle (Bauer, Mosle and Schwarz, 2009). Starting from siting to design, construction, operation, maintenance, renovation, and deconstruction, this practice expands and complements the classical building design concerns of economy, utility, durability, and comfort (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2009b). Green building brings together a vast array of practices and techniques to reduce and ultimately eliminate the impacts of new buildings on the environment and human health. It often emphasises taking advantage of renewable resources e.g., using sunlight through passive solar, active solar and voltaic techniques and using plants and trees for reduction of rainwater run-off. Many other techniques, such as using packed gravel or permeable concrete instead of conventional concrete or asphalt to enhance replenishment of ground water, are used as well. While the practices, or technologies, employed in green building are constantly evolving and may differ from region to region, there are fundamental principles that persist from which the method is derived: siting and structural design efficiency, energy efficiency, water efficiency, materials efficiency, indoor environmental quality enhancement, operations and maintenance optimisation and toxic waste reduction (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2009a). The essence of green building is an optimisation of one or more of these principles. Also, with the proper synergistic design, individual green building technologies may work together to produce a greater cumulative effect. Although new technologies are constantly being developed to complement current practices in creating greener structures, the common objective is that green buildings are designed to reduce the overall impact of the built

8 environment on human health and the natural environment by: 1. Efficiently using energy, water and other resources; 2. Protecting occupants' health and improving employees' productivity and 3. Reducing waste, pollution and other environmental degradation. Green housing is fundamentally the basis of green living and green building. This means that the lifestyle of the homeowner, design and functionality of the house influence the degree of green housing anticipated. There are a wide variety of options to be chosen from in order to “green” a building. These include reducing energy use and converting to alternative energy solutions, reducing water use, choosing an environmentally friendly location for houses, designing homes with green building materials and increasing recycling (Plates 6 to 8).

Advantages and Benefits of Green Housing Green building practices aim to reduce the environmental impact of new buildings. Buildings account for a large amount of land use, energy and water

Plate 6: Hotel Mayaland, Chichen Itza, Mexico. The use of trellises to control the microclimate of a courtyard. Source: Photograph by the author, 2010.

9 Plate 7: Rockhurst University, Kansas City, USA. The use of climbers and trees to reduce penetration of solar heat. Source: Photograph by the author, 2005.

Plate 8. Apartment Building on George Street, Sydney, Australia. The use of plants to control the microclimate of a flat in the city centre. Source: Photograph by the author, 2010.

10 consumption, and alteration of the environment. Considering the statistics, reducing the amount of natural resources buildings consume and the amount of pollution given off is seen as crucial for future sustainability (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2009b). Benefits derivable from green housing can be categorized into two. These are environmental benefits and economic benefits. The environmental benefits include improving air and water quality; protecting the biodiversity and the ecosystem of our planet and conserving natural resources such as natural gas and fossil fuels (Greg, Alevantis, Berman, Mills and Perlman, 2003). Economic benefits include lower energy consumption with energy saving electrical appliances, lightning bulbs, home designs and locations; and through green energy solutions such as solar panels and wind turbines which generate electricity independently from utility companies. Additionally, green housing increases the value of a home.

Passive Cooling of Residential Buildings Passive cooling refers to technologies or design features used to cool buildings without power consumption (Wikipedia, 2010a). It is called passive (and not active) because it does not involve the use of mechanical and electrical devices. The key to designing a passive solar building is to take advantage of the local climate. Elements to be considered include window placement and glazing type, thermal insulation, thermal mass, and shading. Passive solar design techniques can be applied most easily to new buildings, but existing buildings can be adapted or retrofitted (Wikipedia, 2010b). Passive cooling is achieved by using two sometimes complementary approaches (Wikipedia, 2010a). 1. Slowing down the transfer of heat into the building. This reduces the amount of heat that enters the building, thus reducing the amount of heat that must be removed for cooling (cooling loads). Cooling loads can usually be avoided through good design involving the judicious use of shading devices, vegetation, colours and insulation. 2. Removing unwanted heat from a building by ventilation or some type of solar air conditioning.

Passive Cooling Through Reduction of Cooling Loads in Residential Buildings Passive cooling systems are used for cooling and ventilation of buildings. The first concern in passive cooling is however how to avoid cooling loads and not how to cool down the building. If excessive heating can be minimized, then the problem of providing sufficient cooling will be half-solved. Externally generated

11 cooling loads are due to sunshine through windows or on the outside of walls or roofs, hot air entering the building or heat conducted from hot outside air to the inside (Ogunsote, 1991a). The need for passive cooling in buildings is becoming more relevant now than ever as a result of the increased amount of energy required to cool the interiors of buildings mechanically, especially in the tropics. Solar radiation received in the tropics is very high and the proportion of diffuse radiation is also very high due to high humidity and cloud cover in the region. This affects the thermal conditions of buildings (Nyuk and Yu, 2009, p. 5). The excessive utilization of mechanical devices to cool buildings takes its toll on the environment because of the high rate of urbanization in the tropics, in which almost half of the world population lives (Nyuk and Yu, 2009, p. 17). Passive cooling strategies must necessarily be based on the interaction of the building and the local climate. Some of the strategies used to achieve passive cooling in residential buildings include the following: 1. Proper building orientation; 2. Proper landscaping; 3. Shading using trees and shrubs, trellises, overhangs and shading devices; 4. Use of high thermal mass to reduce heat absorption; 5. Use of high thermal mass with night cooling; 6. Roof, ceiling and attic insulation; and 7. Use of reflective roofs and light wall colours.

Passive Cooling Through Removal of Excess Heat from Residential Buildings There are two types of solar cooling systems - the passive cooling systems known as natural cooling systems and active cooling systems. Natural cooling systems are passive solar cooling systems that depend solely on natural means for the cooling of buildings. Radiant night cooling directly cools the roof mass from long wave net heat loss to the night sky. The benefits of this type of cooling increases if the roof is covered with insulating materials during the day to prevent heat gain. Radiant cooling with specialized radiators makes use of metallic plate radiators for long wave radiation. The heat storage mass consisting of the walls and the roof may be cooled at night by convective cooling using the cool outdoor air. In the day time the structural mass can then be used as a heat sink with interior ventilation deliberately kept low to avoid heat gain. Evaporative cooling of buildings may be either direct or indirect. It employs the latent heat of evaporation of water for cooling. The wind force is used to

12 produce natural air flow through moist elements installed in windows and openings. The air is humidified while the dry bulb temperature falls thus causing evaporative cooling. Roof ponds also lower the temperature of the building structure through evaporation. Earth cooling uses the earth as a heat sink to lower the temperature of buildings while encouraging heat loss from the earth's surface. Heat loss is achieved by covering the ground with a layer of gravel and irrigating it. Comfort ventilation uses ambient air for cooling (Ogunsote, 1991a; Oikos, 1994).

The Almond Tree Effect This refers to the modification of the microclimate produced by trees, which can be demonstrated using an almond tree as an example. The almond tree has big broad leaves and horizontal branches. The almond tree effect causes microclimate modification in several ways including reduction of the radiant temperature, lowering of air temperature, increase in air movement and modification of the vapour pressure (relative humidity). The radiant temperature is reduced by the shade produced by the tree and differences in radiant temperatures of more than 20°C have been recorded. The reduction in air temperature is also a result of the shade provided, although this reduction is much less than the reduction in radiant temperatures. Tree leaves are arranged to catch as much of the sun as possible. In the process, they provide the best possible shade. This shading is however far superior to that provided by a roof or a wall. While a roof may provide full shading, the roof heats up in the process and hot air is trapped under the roof, causing discomfort. The roof also radiates heat, causing further discomfort. A tree on the other hand filters the radiation, with the upper leaves receiving most radiation, and therefore being the hottest. The leaves at the bottom receive less radiation and are much cooler. They therefore radiate less heat. The tree also allows air to rise through the leaves to the top of the tree; hot air is therefore never trapped under the tree. The same applies when a tree is used to shade a surface, instead of a wall. A wall does not allow air to flow through it, and therefore air movement is inhibited when using a wall for shading. A tree on the other hand will allow a significant percentage of a horizontal air stream to flow through it, thereby improving air movement while providing full shading.

13 Figure 1: The evolution of Nigerian architecture. Source: Prucnal-Ogunsote (1994; 2001)

The Cultural Context of Climate-Sensitive Buildings Prucnal-Ogunsote (1994; 2001) carried out an extensive study of modern Nigerian architecture and produced a classification of this architecture (Figure 1). The study identified the regional style as being very significant for satisfying the need for identity. This architecture is defined by the use of human scale,

14 traditional motifs and decorations, courtyard concepts and the use of natural materials such as timber, stone and adobe. Most important in this style however is the functional layout of residences, which is most capable of reflecting the Nigerian way of life, and the emphasis on closeness to nature through the provision of outdoor living space, and the segregation of private and public living spaces.

CLIMATIC ZONES FOR ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN IN NIGERIA Ogunsote (1990a) carried out extensive research on architectural design with climate in Nigeria using a systems approach. One of the significant aspects of the research was the definition of climatic zones for architectural design in Nigeria.

Definitions of Climatic Zones Climatic zones are defined for a better understanding of the workings of the global climatic system (Markus and Morris, 1980). It is necessary in this respect to differentiate between climatic zones for agricultural purposes and climatic zones for architectural design. The former are usually closely related to vegetation and are not directly linked to human comfort needs. The definition of the latter stems from the fact that climatic conditions and hence the requirements for thermal comfort are the basis for the selection of building form and building elements such as size of windows, insulation value of roofs and walls; and orientation. It is therefore possible, in the words of Evans (1980), “to determine the approximate boundaries where a change in the climate and thermal comfort requirements should be reflected in changed building form or changed building elements”. These boundaries will effectively define the climatic zones for architectural design.

Existing Definitions of Climatic Zones Ogunsote and Prucnal-Ogunsote reviewed the existing definitions of climatic zones in Nigeria as well as some methods of definition of climatic zones for architectural design applicable to Nigeria and analysed the applicability of the various methods to the systematic definition of climatic zones for architectural design in Nigeria (Ogunsote, 1990a; Ogunsote and Prucnal-Ogunsote, 2002e). The definitions and methods were: Ÿ Zones based on natural vegetation; Ÿ The Koppen System; Ÿ The National Universities Commission method; Ÿ The Martin Evans method;

15 Ÿ The Mahoney tables method; Ÿ The Nick Hollo classification; and Ÿ The Hosni method The analysis formed the basis for proposing a system developed along lines similar to those followed by Hosni (1978) and it uses the Sommerhof (1968) definition of adaptation to establish the relation from the set of climates to the set of possible alternative architectural responses such that given any element in the first set, one and only one element in the second set results (Figure 2).

The Proposed Climatic Design Zones The computer program, CLIZONE, was written in FORTRAN by the author for the determination of the response adapted to given environmental circumstances. The program was implemented on the CDC Cyber 72 under the NOS Operating System at the Iya Abubakar Computer Centre, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria. The climatic data used were long-term averages (of usually over 20 years) presented by Prucnal-Ogunsote and Ogunsote (1985b). The relation from the set of climates to the set of possible alternative architectural responses is presented in Table 1 while the summary of the alternative architectural responses obtained is presented in Table 2. The nine responses obtained were used to propose six zones (Figure 3): 1. The Coastal Zone; 2. The Forest Zone; 3. The Transitional Zone; 4. The Savannah Zone; 5. The Highland Zone; and 6. The Semi-Desert Zone

Figure 2: The essentials of directive correlation after Ashby (1967). Source: Ogunsote (1990a); Ogunsote and Prucnal-Ogunsote (2002e).

16

Table 1: The relation from the set of climates to the set of possible alternativ e architectural responses.

Reference Set of possible alternative architectural responses stations r(1) r(2) r(3) r(4) r(5) r(6) r(7) r(8) r(9) Abuja ·

Bauchi ·

Benin –City · Bida · Calabar · Enugu · Gusau · Ibadan ·

Ibi ·

Ikeja · Ilorin · Jos · Kaduna · Kano · Katsina ·

Lagos · Lokoja · Maiduguri · Makurdi · Minna · Nguru ·

Ondo ·

Oshogbo · Port Harcourt · Potiskum · Sokoto · Warri · Yelwa ·

Yola ·

Zaria ·

Source: Ogunsote (1990a); Ogunsote and Prucnal-Ogunsote (2002e).

17 Table 2: Possible alternative architectural responses.

Alternative Responses

r(1) r(2) r(3) r(4) r(5) r(6) r(7) r(8) r(9)

Layout A1 Building Oriented on East – West axis · · · · · · ·

A2 Compact courtyard planning · ·

Spacing B1 Open spacing for breeze penetration ·

B2 Open spacing protect from hot and cold · · · · · winds

B3 Compact planning · · ·

Air movement C1 Rooms single banked, permanent provision · · · · · · for air movement

C2 Double -banked rooms with temporary · · · provision for air movement.

C3 No air movement required.

Size of D1 Large, 40 – 80% of North and South walls ·

Openings D2 Medium , 25 – 40% of wall area · · ·

D3 Composite, 25 – 35% of wall area · · · ·

D4 Small, 15 – 25% of wall area ·

Positions of E1 Openings in the North and South walls at · · · · · · openings body height on windward side

E2 Openings in the north and south walls at body height on windward side and on · · · internal walls

E3 Has no climate- related value

Protection of F1 No special protection necessary openings F2 Exclude direct sunlight · · · ·

F3 Protection from rain and direct sunlight · · · · · F4 Provide protection from rain Walls and G1 Light: low heat capacity · · floors G2 Heavy: over 8 hours time lag · · · · · · ·

Roofs H1 Light reflective surface and cavity · · H2 Light and well insulated · · H3 Heavy: over 8 hours time lag · · · · Outdoor I1 No space for outdoor sleeping required · · · · · · sleeping I2 Space for outdoor sleeping required · · ·

Rain protection J1 Adequate drainage for rain water · · · J2 Protection from rain needed · · · · J3 No protection from heavy r ain needed · ·

Source: Ogunsote (1990a); Ogunsote and Prucnal-Ogunsote (2002e).

18 Figure 3: Climatic zones for architectural design in Nigeria. Source: Ogunsote (1990a); Ogunsote and Prucnal-Ogunsote (2002e).

HIGH TECHNOLOGY IN ARCHITECTURE The use of modern technology in architecture ranges from the conceptualization, to the design, construction, occupation, maintenance and even demolition of buildings and other physical structures. This modern technology may be in form of processes, equipment, materials, services, installations or furnishing. This lecture discusses the use of computer technology for architectural design. It focuses on the following aspects: Ÿ Computer Aided Architectural Presentation (CAAP) software Ÿ Three dimensional modelling in architecture Ÿ Production of photorealistic views and renderings in architecture (visualization)

19 Ÿ Computer animation in Architecture Ÿ Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) in architecture Ÿ Scientific environmental modelling in architecture Ÿ Design Studio E-Portfolios in Architectural Education

COMPUTER AIDED ARCHITECTURAL PRESENTATION (CAAP) SOFTWARE Ogunsote and Prucnal-Ogunsote (2007d; 2007e) identified two categories of Computer Aided Architectural Presentation (CAAP) software: CAD software, graphics software and multimedia software (Table 3).

Table 3: Computer Aided Architectural Presentation software categories. Category Software CAD software 2D and 3D modelling software, rendering software, animation software Graphics software Bitmap (photo) editing software, vector graphics software, presentation software, desktop publishing software, device drivers, software tools Multimedia software Video editing software, audio editing software, text to speech software, multimedia players Source: Ogunsote and Prucnal-Ogunsote (2007e).

CAD software CAD software comprises of 2D and 3D modelling software, rendering software and animation software. Examples of popular CAD software are shown in Table 4.

Graphics Software Graphics software includes bitmap (photo) editing software, vector graphics software, presentation software, desktop publishing software, device drivers and software tools. Examples of popular graphics software are shown in Table 5.

Multimedia Software Multimedia software includes video editing software, audio editing software, text-to-speech software and media players. Examples of popular multimedia software are given in Table 6.

20 Table 4: Examples of popular CAD software.

Category Examples of software 2D and 3D 3D Home Architect, *3DS Max, *3DS Max Design, *AutoCAD, architectural AutoCAD Architecture, Autodesk Revit Architecture, *ArchiCAD, modelling software Form-Z, TurboCAD. Rendering software 3D Studio Viz, *3DS Max, *3DS Max Design, Accurender nXt, Autodesk VIZ, AutoCAD Architecture, ArchiCAD, AutoCAD, Form-Z, TurboCAD . Animation Amorphium, *3DS Max, *3DS Max Design, AutoCAD Architecture, software Blender, Bryce, Corel Phot o Paint, Flash, Poser, Ray Dream Studio, SoftImage XS1,True Space.

Source: Adapted from Ogunsote and Prucnal-Ogunsote (2007e) with revisions from field studies in June 2012. The * represents the most popular software. Most animation software can also model and render .

Table 5: Examples of popular graphics software.

Category Examples of softw are Bitmap (photo) editing Adobe PhotoShop, Microsoft Paint, Corel Photo software Paint, Micrografx Picture Publisher, IrfanView.

Vector graphics Adobe Illustrator, CorelDraw, Micrografx Designer. software Presentation software Microsoft PowerPoint, Apple Keynote, Harvard Graphics.

Desktop publishing Adobe PageMaker, Microsoft Publisher. software

Device drivers HP PhotoReal, Adobe Postscript, scanner and digital camera drivers. Softw are tools Adobe Acrobat, Adobe Reader, Imaging for Windows.

Source: Adapted from Ogunsote and Prucnal-Ogunsote (2007e) with revisions from field studies in June 2012. 21 Table 6: Examples of popular multimedia software .

Category Examples of software Video editing software Adobe Premiere, Final Cut Pro, iMovie, Lightworks, Nero Premium, Pinnacle Studio, PowerDirector, Sony Vegas, Windows Movie Maker

Audio editing software Adobe Audition, Apple Soundtrack Pro, Dexster Audio Editor, WaveLab Text-to-speech Microsoft Speech, Natural Reader, TextAloud, software Verbose

Media players iTunes, MPlayer, QuickTime, RealPlayer, Winamp, Windows Media Player Source: Adapted from Ogunsote and Prucnal-Ogunsote (2007e) with revisions from field studies in June 2012. Proliferation and Complexity of CAAP software From the above it is obvious that there are numerous software packages available for CAAP. In fact, there are thousands of software packages (counting the various versions) that have been developed over the years that can be used for CAAP, and the packages mentioned above are just examples of popular software. Each of these packages is used only for some aspects of CAAP, with the resultant effect that several packages must be combined to achieve the best presentation of conceptualization, drafting, 2D and 3D modelling, analysis, documentation, rendering, animation, demonstration and marketing. CAAP software is usually very expensive, and most students of architecture and many practising architects in Nigeria cannot afford to purchase legal copies of even a few of these software packages. This encourages software piracy while significantly reducing access to quality software. Many of the software packages are also large and complex. Their user interfaces and functionalities vary widely and they are regularly upgraded and redesigned. This has led to a very high learning curve, and it is practically impossible to keep abreast of, and effectively use all the enhancements introduced in even a few of the packages. Even experts are proficient in the use of only very few packages, which are usually selected to suit the expert's job profile.

The Pros and Cons of Convergence There are several advantages and disadvantages of convergence of CAAP software.

22 Advantages of convergence The advantages of convergence of the various software packages may include: Lowered learning curve: Combination of several packages into a single package will lead to uniformity of the user interface. The disparities between user interfaces contribute significantly to high learning curves, thus a uniform interface will make learning easier. Lower cost of software: Users will need to buy fewer packages, while marketing and support costs will be reduced when there are fewer packages. Higher efficiency: Users will be able to accomplish more tasks using fewer packages and file formats, and without the need to switch between packages or to export and import various files. This will reduce production time and enhance collaboration while requiring fewer resources.

Disadvantages of convergence The disadvantages of convergence may include: Increased software complexity, leading to lower reliability: A software package capable of handling all aspects of CAAP will necessarily be large and complex. Since complexity is inversely related to reliability, it will take much greater effort to make such universal package as reliable as smaller and less complex standalone software packages. Software monopoly and the stifling of creativity and enterprise: The emergence of a universal CAAP package will lead to a monopoly such as is currently experienced with the Microsoft Windows operating system. Capitalist tendencies will likely encourage anti-competitive practices, making innovation and entrepreneurship more difficult. Jack of all trades master of none syndrome: Different aspects of CAAP require different user interfaces for efficiency and the underlying software code for the different functions is more reliably written using different programming languages and approaches. Combining all functions into a single package will necessarily lead to trade-offs in functionality and efficiency.

THREE DIMENSIONAL MODELLING IN ARCHITECTURE Computer-Aided Design (CAD) also sometimes called Computer-Aided Design and Drafting (CADD) is the use of computer systems to assist in the creation, modification, analysis, or optimisation of a design. 2D CAD involves the design

23 of curves and figures in two-dimensional (2D) space, while 3D CAD involves the design of curves, surfaces, and solids in three-dimensional (3D) space. Most architectural practices in Nigeria now use CAD for the production of impressive two-dimensional presentation and working drawings (Ogunsote, 2000). The production of three-dimensional drawings is however rare, and the techniques used to produce two-dimensional drawings are often inappropriate. This is despite the fact that most 2D CAD software packages have 3D capabilities. The most popular CAD software packages used by architects in Nigeria are AutoCAD, ArchiCAD, Autodesk Revit, AutoCAD Architecture and 3D Home Architect. Some 3D modelling is done using 3DS Max and 3DS Max Design.

Building Information Modelling (BIM) Building Information Modelling (BIM) is a process involving the generation and management of a digital representation of physical and functional characteristics of a facility. The resulting building information model becomes a shared knowledge resource to support decision-making about a facility from earliest conceptual stages, through design and construction, then through its operational life before its eventual demolition. There are attempts to integrate Building Information Models (BIM), Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and CAD to develop a framework of interoperability across the lifecycle of building and infrastructure investment involving design, construction, and operation (Zeiss, 2007). The Industry Foundation Classes (IFC) data model is an object oriented file format with a data model to facilitate interoperability in the building industry (Wikipedia 2007c), and it is a commonly used format for Building Information Modelling (BIM).

Synergy between Environmental Science Software and Modelling Software in Architecture There is increasing synergy between environmental science software and modelling software in architecture. It is now possible to port 3D models produced by CAD software into specialised software packages for analysis of lighting, acoustics, thermal comfort and heat transfer. Many 3D modelling software even have the capability of conducting environmental analyses. For example, 3DS Max Design can produce detailed and accurate analyses of both natural and artificial lighting, and can simulate the sun and numerous environments.

24 Examples of Three-dimensional Models All the projects described in this lecture are based on three-dimensional models. While a few are based on AutoCAD 3D models, most are based on AutoCAD Architecture, 3DS Max and 3DS Max Design.

PRODUCTION OF PHOTOREALISTIC VIEWS AND RENDERINGS IN ARCHITECTURE (VISUALISATION) Visualisations are becoming indispensable in selling architectural concepts to clients. They give an artistic impression of what a project will look like when completed. Most people find it difficult to understand or interpret two- dimensional technical drawings, but are able to appreciate perspective views. Before the advent of computers, architects made sketches and sometimes paintings to portray their concepts. This required a lot of skill, time and effort. Today, much better results can be produced in a fraction of the time by far less skilled architects using architectural visualization software.

Software for Architectural Visualization Most 3D modelling software packages have acquired the capability of producing visualisations. This is achieved by applying materials to the 3D model, and setting up views using virtual cameras in defined lighting conditions. The most popular CAD software packages for visualisations include AutoCAD, AutoCAD Architecture, ArchiCAD and Autodesk Revit Architecture. Much better results can however be achieved by fine tuning the models produced by these 3D CAD software in 3DS Max, 3DS Max Design, Accurender nXt and the now discontinued AutoCAD VIZ.

3DS Max and 3DS Max Design The most popular software for producing high quality architectural visualizations are 3DS Max and the architectural design oriented 3DS Max Design. This Autodesk software package has leading edge modelling and visualization tools, with extensive material libraries, detailed and complex lighting options and advanced rendering engines. The close integration with AutoCAD, AutoCAD Architecture and Autodesk Revit Architecture, which are all produced by Autodesk, makes migration, linking and importation of 3D models practically seamless.

Free–form modelling with Rhino Rhino(ceros) is an extremely precise software package for uninhibited free-form 3D modelling. Rhino can create, edit, analyse, document, render, animate, and

25 translate NURBS curves, surfaces, and solids with no limits on complexity, degree, or size. Rhino also supports polygon meshes and point clouds.

Special add-ins and enhancements There are special add-ins and enhancements that add extra realism to visualizations. Rich Photorealistic Content (RPC) by ArchVision are bitmaps of people, vehicles, plants and other objects that are added to models using a proprietary technology that make them also face the camera when rendering. Other popular add-ins include EASYnat and natFX by Bionatics for adding photorealistic plants to visualizations. Graphics editing software such as Photoshop and CorelDraw are used to further enhance visualizations.

Examples of Architectural Visualizations The author has produced architectural visualizations for several projects. All the projects use 3D modelling as the basic design technique using AutoCAD Architecture, or in the case of earlier projects, AutoCAD. Various views of the projects were thus created in these native applications simply by setting cameras and lighting, since materials are an integral part of the models. To enhance the quality of the visualizations however, these models are linked into 3DS Max, where additional materials are applied, and new cameras and lighting set. Special effects are created by importing 2D and 3D photorealistic RPC models of people, plants, vehicles and other objects into the 3DS Max scenes. These scenes are then rendered to produce visualizations in JPG, TIFF or preferably GIF formats. These visualizations are further enhanced by adding backgrounds and 2D photographic images in Photoshop or CorelDraw. Typically, dozens of these visualizations are produced for each project. These visualizations aid the design of the model, since corrections and enhancements observed can be made to the linked AutoCAD models, and new visualizations generated. Typical camera views include pedestrian views (including close-ups), bird's eye views, interior views and entrance views. The projects for which visualizations were produced include: Ÿ Vice-Chancellor's Lodge, Federal University of Technology, Akure (2002); Ÿ Chancellor's and Pro-Chancellor's Lodges, Federal University of Technology, Akure (2002); Ÿ Computer Resource Centre, Federal University of Technology, Akure (2003); Ÿ School of Earth and Mineral Sciences, Federal University of Technology, Akure (2004);

26 Ÿ Proposed Electrical Electronics Laboratory, Federal University of Technology, Akure (2004); Ÿ Nigerian Federation of Catholic Students (NFCS) Secretariat, Federal University of Technology, Akure (2004); Ÿ Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences, Elizade University, Ilara Mokin (2008); and Ÿ Proposed Museum of National History, Abuja (2012). Vice-Chancellor's Lodge, Federal University of Technology, Akure The Vice Chancellor's lodge is a two storey building with easy vertical and horizontal communication. The courtyard has a porch with colonnades on two sides. The postmodern elements present there include the windows with semi- circular shape on top, the historical columns at the entrance porch and the columns of the VC's lodge running two floor's high and richly decorated balconies. The ambiguous interior spaces maintain the postmodern character by means of decorations and accessibility (Plate 9).

Plate 9: View of the main entrance of the Vice-Chancellor's Lodge, Federal University of Technology, Akure. Source: Visualization by the author (2002).

27 Plate 10: Composite Isometric View of the Vice-Chancellor's Lodge, Federal University of Technology, Akure. Source: Visualization by the author (2002).

28 The visualizations produced for the Vice-Chancellor's lodge include elevations and isometric views of both floors and the roof. A composite view of these floors makes it easy to describe the functional layout of the whole building. The most interesting views were those of the main entrance and the courtyard. Chancellor's and Pro-Chancellor's Lodges, Federal University of Technology, Akure The Chancellor's and Pro-Chancellor's lodges are identical buildings, and thus only one model was produced for the visualizations of the two buildings. The most interesting views of the buildings include the main entrance view. Computer Resource Centre, Federal University of Technology, Akure The architectural visualizations produced for this building include all standard elevations. The reflection of the sky from the reflective glass used for the windows produced interesting effects.

Plate 11: View of side entrance of the Vice-Chancellor's Lodge, Federal University of Technology, Akure. Source: Visualization by the author (2002).

29 Plate 12: Plan of the Chancellor's and Pro-Chancellor's Lodges, Federal University of Technology, Akure. Source: Drawing by the author (2002).

School of Earth and Mineral Sciences, Federal University of Technology, Akure This building is the first phase of a complex housing the Departments of Geology, Geophysics, Meteorology and Mining Engineering (Plate 15). The complex comprised of three buildings – two identical buildings to house the four departments with a third building housing the Deanery, central lecture theatres and laboratories. These 3 buildings are linked by a walkway. Car parks are located at the extreme ends of these buildings. The concept is based on a central axis running perpendicular to and bisecting the three blocks in the complex. Phase one is a block with six structurally independent buildings. The most significant experiential component of the design is the passage starting from the main entrance. Usually it is only half a level that will need to be climbed to reach the designated spaces. The passage is the main core of the entire complex, Nigerian Federation of Catholic Students (NFCS) Secretariat, Federal University of Technology, Akure Nigerian Federation of Catholic Students (NFCS) Lodge is located within the St. Albert's Catholic Church premises at the Federal University of Technology Obanla campus in Akure. It provides for both the NFCS secretariat and accommodation. A well celebrated entrance porch leads to the secretariat. The

30 Plate 13: Visualization of main entrance to the Computer Resource Centre, Federal University of Technology, Akure. Source: Visualization by the author (2003).

Plate 14: Visualization of rear entrance to the Computer Resource Centre, Federal University of Technology, Akure. Source: Visualization by the author (2003).

31 Plate 15: Site Plan of the School of Earth and Mineral Sciences, Federal University of Technology, Akure. Source: Drawing by the author (2004).

Plate 16: Visualization of the Entrance to the School of Earth and Mineral Sciences, Federal University of Technology, Akure. Source: Visualization by the author (2004).

32 Plate 16: Visualization of the Entrance to the School of Earth and Mineral Sciences, Federal University of Technology, Akure. Source: Visualization by the author (2004).

Plate 18: Visualization of a courtyard in the School of Earth and Mineral Sciences, Federal University of Technology, Akure. Source: Visualization by the author (2004).

33 Plate 19: Visualization of the Nigerian Federation of Catholic Students (NFCS) Secretariat, Federal University of Technology, Akure. Source: Visualization by the author (2004).

Bishop specifically requested for a cross plan and this was incorporated into the design. The building has four bedrooms that can house a total of sixteen students, a living room, a secretariat, a kitchen, laundry, bathrooms and toilets, all arranged around a central courtyard, using a double symmetry concept. Proposed Electrical Electronics Laboratory, Federal University of Technology, Akure The proposed Electrical Electronics Laboratory, Federal University of Technology, Akure, has three wings with a covered central exhibition hall. This exhibition hall is actually a covered courtyard, and is meant for the exhibition of prototypes developed in the laboratories. It's central and stepped nature, complete with natural lighting and cross ventilation, makes it the centrepiece of the design, since one must pass through the exhibition before reaching any of the laboratories in the three wings. An interesting aspect of this design is the use of smoothly curved steel trusses roofed with aluminium sheets, with the central area made from a low dome constructed from similar steel trusses and translucent roofing sheets.

34 Plate 20: Visualization of the proposed Electrical Electronics Laboratory, Federal University of Technology, Akure. Source: Visualization by the author.

Plate21: Visualization of the proposed Electrical Electronics Laboratory, Federal University of Technology, Akure. Source: Visualization by Victor Ugwummadu and the author.

35 Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences, Elizade University, Ilara Mokin The Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences, Elizade University, Ilara Mokin in Ondo State is a complex designed to house the three Departments of Physical and Chemical Sciences, Biological Sciences, and Computer and Mathematical Sciences. The hexagonal three-storey structure has six three-storey laboratories and lecture rooms projecting from each corner, with the Deanery and central facilities in the centre of the courtyard (Plate 22). A 250 capacity lecture hall is situated on the last floor of this central Deanery, which is linked with each department by covered walkways. The three departments are identical externally, but the laboratories and lecture rooms are custom designed internally for each department. The most interesting views of the faculty include the three main entrances (one to each department), the courtyard and the passages around the inside of the structure (Plates 23 to 25).

Plate 22: Site Plan of the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences, Elizade University, Ilara Mokin, Ondo State. Source: Drawing by the author (2008).

36 Plate 23: Main entrance to the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences, Elizade University, Ilara Mokin. Source: Visualization by the author (2008).

Plate 24: Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences, Elizade University, Ilara Mokin with laboratories in the foreground. Source: Visualization by the author (2008).

37 Plate 25: Typical ground floor corridor scene, Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences, Elizade University, Ilara Mokin. Source: Visualization by the author (2008).

Proposed Museum of National History, Abuja The Museum of National History, Abuja was designed to serve as a repository of Nigerian objects, materials and heritage. The museum is expected to be a lasting legacy for the documentation, conservation, preservation and interpretation of the evidences of Nigerian history and civilization and to create a better global understanding of the Nigerian people. The facilities in the museum were designed to be world class and to promote the tourism potentials of the country. The concept was based on confluence of Rivers Niger and Benue – signifying unity, while the multipurpose hall concept based on caps, hats and headgears popular in Nigeria. The functions are arranged around a main square with fountains, naturally lit underground parking, and with lighting incorporated into seating around trees. There is an entrance square with fountains, open air amphitheatre and sculpture garden. Local granite and limestone were used for the facades. The most interesting views are of the main square and open air amphitheatre.

38 Plate 26: Visualization of the main square of the proposed Museum of National History, Abuja. Source: Visualization by the author (2012).

Plate 27: Visualization of the proposed Museum of National History, Abuja. Source: Visualization by the author (2012).

39 COMPUTER ANIMATION IN ARCHITECTURE Computer animations in architecture are videos used to give the impression of moving through or around a building that is yet to be built. They are very useful in marketing concepts to potential clients. In addition, they can assist the architect in perfecting the geometry of proposed designs, as options and alternatives can be viewed and compared in this virtual reality. Geometrical imperfections in the 3-dimensional models can also be easily detected and corrected. The technology used to produce computer animations in architecture is very similar to the stop motion technique used to produce animation in films, be it traditional or digital animation. The illusion of movement is created by displaying progressive images at a rate of 24 or 30 frames per second, at which rate the human eye is unable to perceive individual frames or images, but sees a moving picture instead. Production of a computer animation in architecture usually requires a three- dimensional model and computer animation software, although several techniques abound for using two-dimensional images in such animations.

Three-Dimensional Models for Computer Animation The geometry of the building must be defined using CAD software such as AutoCAD, AutoCAD Architecture, AutoCAD Revit, ArchiCAD and a myriad of other 3D-capable architectural design software. It is common however to create some objects or improve the basic model in modelling and animation software such as Autodesk VIZ, 3DS Max or 3DS Max Design. Apart from the geometry of objects, there is also the need to define the materials from which these objects are made, and the type of lighting to which they are exposed. It is the combination of the geometry, materials (texture) and lighting that create the illusion of realism in computer models. While materials and lighting can be applied in the basic CAD software, many rendering and animation software such as 3DS Max offer more realistic materials and better lighting options.

Using Computer Animation Software in Architecture Views of the architectural model, complete with specific materials and lighting, are seen through a virtual camera. Animation is achieved by changing the properties of the model or camera over time, and recording progressive frames (images) as these changes take place. Such properties may include the position of the camera or model, or even the type of material or lighting. Animation software

40 packages use various complex techniques to simplify this rather computation- intensive process. For example, 3DS Max uses keying, animation controllers, animation constraints, view tracking, hierarchies and forward kinematics and inverse kinematics to provide professional control of animations using simple tools. Rendering the animation can be very resource intensive – a single frame can take several hours to render, and as such producing a single second of animation may take several days of rendering. To overcome this constraint, views are simplified and powerful workstations (not desktop or laptop computers) are used for rendering animations. Reducing the resolution of the rendering, the number of lights and the accuracy of rendering also significantly reduce rendering time. Other techniques used to reduce rendering time include rendering to texture, rendering elements separately, using placeholders, geometry caching, network rendering, batch rendering, and omitting effects and environments. The choice of rendering engine significantly affects the quality of the animation, and it also determines the speed of rendering. Common renderers include the scanline renderer, the Quicksilver hardware renderer, the VUE file renderer and the mental ray renderer. The mental ray renderer generates physically correct simulations of lighting effects, including ray-traced reflections and refractions, caustics, and global illumination. The images produced by these renderers can be further enhanced by applying filters (contrast, fade, lens, wipe, alpha, etc.)

Simulating 3D Objects Using 2D Images in Architectural Animations The computing-intensive nature of animations has encouraged the development of various techniques for simulating 3D objects using 2D images. Such techniques include the use of opacity maps instead of Boolean operations, use of bump and displacement maps in place of surface extrusion, simulation of light and its effect on the surrounding, simulation of trees and hedges, use of Rich Photorealistic Content (RPC) and photomontage (Ugwummadu, Ogunsote and Prucnal-Ogunsote, 2008b). Examples of animation effects produced using such techniques include spinning of map images instead of spinning mesh, simulation of flames and particles such as water fountains, animation of human figures in meshing and the use of video texture files in mapping. The use of ArchVision's Rich Photorealistic Content (RPC) can add significant realism to animations. This content can be 2D, 2.5D, 3D or 3.5D. While 2D content are best suited for still visualizations, they turn to always face the camera in animations. 2D+ and 3D+ content are actually animated versions of their 2D and 3D counterparts. 3D content is seen as 3D objects by the camera, but it is

41 actually made up of a series of flat, 2-dimensional images that rotate to give the illusion of a 3-dimensional image. This makes it possible to achieve higher resolution renderings at reduced computational cost. The natFX and EASYnat software by Bionatics also significantly reduce render time while improving the realism of animations. These software packages are part of a suite for 3D territory modelling and visualization, and they basically enable the inclusion of plants in scenes. Apart from being realistic, these plants can simulate growth and seasons, and there are an infinite number of variations of each plant programmable. The level of detail (LOD) can be controlled to optimise polygon count, with separate controls for leaves, flowers, fruits, branches and trunks. It is even possible to prune plants, sculpt trunks and roots, and integrate wind animation systems.

Examples of Computer Animation in Architecture Some of the projects for which animations were created by the author include the following: Ÿ Vice-Chancellor's Lodge, Federal University of Technology, Akure (2002); Ÿ Computer Resource Centre, Federal University of Technology, Akure (2003); Ÿ School of Earth and Mineral Sciences Phase One, Federal University of Technology, Akure (2004); Ÿ Nigerian Federation of Catholic Students (NFCS) Lodge, St. Albert's Catholic Church, Federal University of Technology, Akure (2004); and Ÿ Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences, Elizade University, Ilara Mokin (2008). The animations produced usually include zooming in and out from various cardinal points, fly-arounds from both pedestrian and bird's eye viewpoints, pans and pirouettes. Some of the more interesting animations follow the trajectory of a projectile falling into the courtyard (bombs). Vice-Chancellor's Lodge, Federal University of Technology, Akure The focus of these animations was detection of geometrical and stylistic imperfections. The more interesting animations pass through the main entrance and look around the courtyard. Since the original design envisaged hosting of receptions in the premises, the experiential satisfaction of visitors exploring the building and garden was carefully choreographed into the design.

42 Computer Resource Centre, Federal University of Technology, Akure These animations assisted in perfecting the geometry of the parapet wall and in colour-coding. A rather interesting animation follows the path of a pedestrian approaching the main entrance, pausing to look around, and looking around the courtyard once inside. School of Earth and Mineral Sciences Phase One, Federal University of Technology, Akure The animations produced for this building greatly assisted in perfecting the pedestrian's impressions on approaching the main entrance, and this helped in resolving issues connected with the split-level parking. They also assisted in balancing the various roofs, and in detailing of elements around the courtyard. Nigerian Federation of Catholic Students Lodge (NFCS), St. Albert's Catholic Church, Federal University of Technology, Akure Geometrical accuracy and perfection of details was very important in this project, given its religious symbolism and potential to influence the students using the building. The animations produced also assisted in the design of interiors and the courtyard. Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences, Elizade University, Ilara Mokin The spatial complexity of this building made visualization and animation very useful tools for perfecting geometry. They were critical in managing the design of the courtyard and the monumental entrances.

Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) in Architecture Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) in architecture is the use of computer software to control machine tools and related machinery in the production of physical models of designs. This technology has evolved from controlling machine tools to controlling 3D printers. These printers can take a computer file containing a virtual 3D model and produce the physical model using additive manufacturing processes, where objects are created by laying down successive layers of material.

Scientific Environmental Modelling in Architecture The microclimates of specific regions are not more lenient to man today than they were thousands of years ago. If anything, they have been further degraded

43 by the advent of urban and industrial pollution as well as overpopulation. Modern architecture continues the brave tradition of countering all these unfavourable conditions. In order to efficiently achieve this, the modern architect needs the help of specialists and guides. Many countries, especially the highly industrialized ones, are able to provide their architects with these guides. The Nigerian architect cannot truly boast of such "luxuries". This has an adverse effect on his ability to design climatically effective buildings. This situation resulted in the demand for more architectural guides. The very nature of the problem, however, makes research with the use of computers necessary. Since most architects in practice cannot afford to carry out research involving the costly use of computers and experts, it remains the duty of their counterparts in the lecture rooms to initiate appropriate research as Madedor (1980) has suggested. The danger of leaving such research in the hands of engineers alone cannot be over-stressed. The engineer will produce a very effective mathematical model but as experience has shown, such precise propositions never last long in the mental kaleidoscope of sketch designs, in the give and take between the beautiful and the practical, omniscience and unsuspected ignorance. For in architecture, it is the end product that matters. It is through this understanding of the role of intuition that architects over the ages have found solutions to problems they were not even conscious of. It is thus with a full understanding of the fact that a computer still cannot prevent a bad designer from producing a bad building that solutions to the problem of design with climate are sought.

DESIGN STUDIO E-PORTFOLIOS IN ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION Electronic learning or e-learning is computer-enhanced learning and it is commonly associated with Advanced Learning Technology (ALT), which deals with both the technologies and associated methodologies in learning using networked and/or multimedia technologies. E-learning makes it possible for the teacher to teach a class from a distance and also for students in various geographical locations as well as teachers to meet in a virtual classroom. Some of the technologies used in e-learning are screencasts, podcasts, web-based teaching materials, collaborative software, learning management software, virtual classrooms, computer aided assessment, educational animation, discussion

44 boards, blogs, wikis, hypermedia, multimedia, email and e-portfolios (Wikipedia, 2007a).

The new learning environment in architectural education in Nigeria E-learning in architectural education is specific in that knowledge and skills of not only theory but also drawings need to be transmitted using special means. Architectural education is unique because of its peculiar practical nature requiring supervision, interaction and mind rubbing. Thus the digital studio or e- studio is central to e-learning in architectural education. The interest generated by the possibilities of e-learning in architectural education is increasing with improved funding and better access to facilities and equipment (Ogunsote and Prucnal-Ogunsote, 1987a; 1987b; Ogunsote, 1991b). E-learning is now considered a viable alternative to traditional methods, but the adoption of this new technology is constrained by several factors. Apart from inadequate funding, unreliable infrastructure and insufficient technical expertise, adapting this imported technology to local realities has proven very challenging (Ogunsote, Prucnal-Ogunsote and Umaru, 2007).

Portfolios, e-portfolios, drawing e-portfolios and architectural design e- portfolios A portfolio is a collection of evidence that is gathered together to show a person's learning journey over time and to demonstrate his abilities. Portfolios can be specific to a particular discipline, or very broadly encompass a person's lifelong learning. Many different kinds of evidence can be used in a portfolio including samples of writing, photographs, videos, research projects, observations and evaluations of supervisors, mentors and peers and reflective thinking about all of these (Barrett, 2006). See Figure 4. The art and design community defines a portfolio as a focused collection of pieces of visual art and design, often accompanied by reflective and explanatory

Figure 4: A portfolio.

45 comments and usually constructed for a specific purpose (Blaikie, Schonau and Steers, 2004). The goal of the portfolio exercise is to foster students' ability to critically self-assess their own artistic work, and to help them to form their artistic identity. There are three types of portfolio (Zeichner and Wray, 2001). These are learning portfolios which document a student's learning over time, credential portfolios which are used for registration or certification purposes and showcase portfolios which students can use when applying for employment (Figure 5).

E-portfolio An electronic portfolio, also known as an e-portfolio, digital portfolio, efolio or webfolio, is a digital container for content assembled and managed by a user to support a variety of pedagogical and assessment purposes. The container may include text, images, sound, video, blog entries and hyperlinks. E-portfolios are both demonstrations of the user's abilities and platforms for self-expression, and, if they are online, they can be maintained dynamically over time. An e- portfolio can be seen as a type of learning record that provides actual evidence of achievement (Wikipedia, 2007b). An electronic portfolio is a selective and structured collection of information gathered for specific purposes, stored digitally and showing/evidencing one's accomplishments and growth (Challis, 2005).

Drawing e-portfolio A drawing e-portfolio is an electronic portfolio that contains drawings. It is essentially a digital version of the traditional drawing portfolio.

Figure 5: Types of electronic portfolios.

46 Architectural design e-portfolio An architectural design e-portfolio is essentially an electronic version of the traditional architectural design portfolio. It showcases designs of an architect, firm or group and is often prepared for a particular audience (Figure 6).

The advantages and disadvantages of architectural design e-portfolios The advantages of architectural drawing e-portfolios include drawing integrity, rich content, effortless search, agelessness, medium and scale independence, near-zero reproduction and storage costs, and ease of exchange, sharing or transmission (Butler, 2006). The disadvantages of architectural design e-portfolios based on field studies in leading schools of architecture in Nigeria include ethereality, media fragility, impersonal style, reduced confidentiality, plagiarism phobias, copy protection difficulties, sealing and authentication problems and difficulty of maintaining revision history. The advantages of architectural drawing e-portfolios are discussed below. Drawing integrity Due to the digital nature of architectural design e-portfolios, the drawings contained therein are very accurate and precise. This accuracy is several orders of magnitude greater than what is possible with traditional architectural drawings. This accuracy and precision covers lengths, areas and even colour and 3D objects. Rich content E-portfolios can contain virtually limitless amount of content, high quality digital images, audio and video clips and even animations. This makes the content of e-portfolios rich and diversified. However, audio, graphics and video files occupy large amounts of digital storage space and can slow down the access.

Figure 6: Portfolio, e-portfolio, drawing e-portfolio vis-à-vis architectural design e- portfolio.

47 Effortless searching It is possible to finding key phrases, topics of interest and titles through automated e-portfolio search. File formats with search capability include the PDF format. Agelessness An e-portfolio is not exposed to wear and tear, bad weather conditions, rot or physical damage simply because it is digital. It does not lose its quality over time, and can be used, re-used, transferred, copied and distributed as long as the digital portfolio exists. It is only the medium that can be affected by age. Medium and scale independence Architectural design e-portfolios can be viewed using various electronic devices ranging from cell phones to handheld digital tablets to computer screens and widescreen television displays. The same portfolio can also be projected onto screens using multimedia projectors or printed on paper and transparencies of various sizes, textures and physical properties. The portfolios can be viewed in different scales and levels of magnification. Thus people with visual difficulties can enlarge text and drawings in order to see well. Near-zero reproduction and storage costs An e-portfolio can be distributed by simply putting it on a website on the Internet, copying to a CD, sending to an email address or transferring through a network connection to other computers. Changes can equally be made to e- portfolios by their producer without significant extra cost. An electronic drawing portfolio eliminates the cost of hard paper copies because it is in digital form. This environmental friendly characteristic equally preserves scarce natural resources. Storage space is not an issue because digital storage media are very efficient and compact. Ease of exchange, sharing or transmission E-portfolios can be shared using Internet download, e-mail, computer transfer as well as various forms of digital storage devices. An e-portfolio is easily distributed. Access to the Internet and reading permission are the only requirements for accessing an electronic drawing portfolio on the Web. An electronic drawing portfolio can be delivered instantly, without the need to wait for several weeks for delivery by post. There are also no packaging and shipping costs. An e-portfolio is portable and transportable with ease. The disadvantages of architectural design e-portfolios are discussed below.

48 Ethereality An architectural design e-portfolio is stored on mass storage media such as hard disks, compact disks, flash drives and other electronic data storage media. It is therefore invisible and weightless. In fact it cannot be detected by any of the five senses, not even by the so-called sixth sense. For example a compact disk with data is visually identical with one without data. The weight is also identical. A client may understandably be hesitant to pay an architect tens of millions of Naira for a multi-billion Naira project after the architect has submitted his design on a compact disk worth less than a hundred Naira. The client may be far less hesitant if the compact disk is used to print out hundreds of large drawings, several voluminous reports and to produce a detailed model using Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) technology. This lack of physical presence found in architectural design e-portfolios does not enhance confidence and challenges the perception of their material value. Media fragility The mass storage media used to store architectural design e-portfolios are very susceptible to damage by magnetic fields, physical shock, abrasion and even to damage by computer hardware and software malfunction. Even when handled using 'kid gloves', hard disks and other magnetic storage media will fail, often long before the rated Mean Time Before Failure (MTBF). Compact disks are especially susceptible to scratching, rendering them unreadable. They also break easily. Flash drives are notorious for corrupting data stored on them. This unreliability of storage media can sometimes be ameliorated by using backups, but the rapid changes in technology can render 'healthy' storage media obsolete and therefore unreadable by current devices. Impersonal style Traditional architectural drawings, even architectural working drawings are more than purely technical drawings. They possess qualities akin to those of paintings and sketches. They are subject to interpretation, and are art works in their own right. Thus drawings by Frank Lloyd Wright and even Leonardo da Vinci are still yielding fresh interpretations. Electronic architectural designs are however little more than technical drawings, and the tools used to create them promote impersonal style. Unique handwritings have been replaced by standard fonts, imperfections in lines that personalize drawings have been 'corrected' by software. Pen pressure, ink choice, paper texture and specifications as well as corrections and modifications cannot be captured by current CAD software. This loss of uniqueness has made it difficult to identify drawings prepared by individuals, and has effectively taken the craftsmanship out of draftsmanship.

49 Reduced confidentiality Traditional architectural drawings on paper can be kept confidential by locking up the drawings and protecting access to them. Security of electronic drawings is much more difficult to implement, as copies can be made from a highly protected computer, even from half way around the world. This is made possible by unintentional or sometimes deliberate security gaps in operating system, Internet and CAD software. Plagiarism phobias Architects understandably protect their designs and details to which they legally have copyright. Protecting this copyright is very difficult with electronic drawings. An architect can easily claim copyright to a plagiarized electronic drawing and even accuse the original producer of the drawing of plagiarism. Copy protection difficulties While it is possible to copy-protect electronic drawings, there is no copy protection technique that cannot be bypassed. Since the original electronic drawing and copies are identical, it is very difficult to tell the difference. In fact any difference may be in the form, in the storage medium, maybe even in the legal ownership, but not in the content. Sealing and authentication problems While sealing of electronic documents is now possible, this is achieved by using encryption technology, which can always be cracked using powerful super computers. Faking traditional architectural drawings and seals is much more difficult. Difficulty of maintaining revision history CAD software can make backups of drawings when saving changes, but archives of these changes are not saved in the same file. This archiving capability is already found in word-processing software such as Microsoft Word which uses a functionality called Versions to save incremental changes to a document into the same file. Any of the previous versions can be opened and saved as a separate file. The lack of such functionality in CAD software means that revision histories are lost, or at best very difficult to manage. The closest to maintaining a revision history is often the regular creation of DWF files from sheet sets.

Developing Workable and Flexible Standards for Design Studio E- Portfolios in Nigeria There are several techniques for enhancing the management of architectural design e-portfolios. They include the innovative use of batch plotting and various

50 file formats for e-portfolio management including creation, publishing to the Web, archiving, review, compression, protection, authentication, electronic transmission and exchange of electronic documents. Recommended standards for creating architectural design e-portfolio Architectural design e-portfolios are created using various software packages. One of the most popular is Adobe Acrobat which has the ability to combine and modify documents created in various file formats. Autodesk software can create the popular DWF format files while several other graphics and CAD software can be used to create files in the formats described in this lecture. Files in these various formats are usually combined together with text, photographs, sound, video and other files to create an e-portfolio in the PDF or DWF format. Recommended techniques for publishing and sharing of architectural design e- portfolios on the Web While architectural design e-portfolios are a good means of preserving architectural designs, they are usually created for access by others. This is achieved by publishing and sharing the architectural design e-portfolios. Publishing can be to a storage medium such as compact disks, on an intranet or on the Internet. In each case, there is often a restriction placed on access and distribution to limit access to a target population. Techniques of archiving architectural design e-portfolio An archive is a collection of historical records or the location in which these records are kept. A digital archive is a long-term storage area for files that are no longer in active use, or a file containing one or more files in compressed format for more efficient storage and transfer. A backup is a copy of a program or file that is stored separately from the original or a copy of a system or data file that is stored in a separate location in the event that the original or archived file becomes corrupt or unusable. The purpose of archiving architectural design e-portfolios is to preserve them for future use. This often involves compression to reduce file size and sometimes encryption to protect against unauthorized access. Techniques of reviewing architectural design e-portfolio The review of architectural design e-portfolios includes viewing and modification of the e-portfolio. Viewing is done using the appropriate software for the file format of the e-portfolio. The most popular DWF and PDF file formats allow zooming, panning, slide show and printing. The DWF format in addition allows layer control, properties management, orbiting and turntable views.

51 Modification is usually limited to markups and annotation. Autodesk Design Review allows combining multiple DWF files to create a composite DWF file. Sheets within a DWF file can be deleted, reordered, renamed or copied from the DWF file to another. Snapshots of any aspect of a DWF file can be taken and saved as a DWF file, which can then be merged with the same or another DWF file. Markup is the addition of callouts, text blocks, shapes (freehand, line, polyline, rectangle and ellipse), stamps, symbols and measurements to 2D and 3D DWF files. Adobe Acrobat is used to modify PDF files. Comments, extensive markups, text, graphics, audio and video clips can be added to a PDF file. Pages in a PDF file can also be added from another file, deleted or reordered. Advanced editing options include cropping, linking, touch-up and embedding of various tools such as buttons, radio buttons, check boxes, list boxes and text fields. Apart from modifying PDF and DWF files, they can be recreated from modified files from the original modelling, graphics and word-processing programs. Techniques of compressing architectural design e-portfolio There are two approaches to compression of computer files: lossless compression and lossy compression. Lossless compression reduces file size while retaining all the details of the file. When the file is decompressed, a file identical to the one before compression is obtained. This is the preferred method of compression used for data and text files. It is used by several file formats, including the GIF, PNG and ZIP file formats. Lossy compression on the other hand reduces file size by sacrificing some level of detail. Some file details are irretrievably lost, but the choice of the details to be omitted is such that the compressed file still closely resembles the original. This technique is best suited to bitmap files such as digital photographs. It is also used for audio and video files. The compression technique used for an e-portfolio depends on the format in which the e-portfolio is saved. A combination of both compression techniques is common in e-portfolios made from a combination of files of different formats, such as photographs and text files. Protection of architectural design e-portfolio Architectural design e-portfolios can be protected in many ways including access restriction, copy protection, modification restriction and encryption. The type of protection used depends on the target audience. Access restriction gives specific members of a project team access, copy and modification rights. This is normally achieved by using shares and user access

52 rights on NTFS volumes in Windows 2000/XP/Vista/7/8. Copy protection allows access and even opening of portfolios but not copying. This functionality is provided by several software packages including software packages that generate PDF files such as Adobe Acrobat. Access is often based on passwords or certificates. With modification restriction, users can view the portfolio but cannot modify it, even though they can annotate the portfolio. Both the DWF and PDF formats permit modification restrictions. This type of restriction is usually placed on portfolios meant for public access, for example via the Internet. Encrypted files require a password to open, even though they may be accessed and copied. They are used when the portfolio content is confidential or secret, and when such content is restricted to a specific person or persons. Authentication of architectural design e-portfolio Authentication of architectural design e-portfolios is the unique identification of an architectural design e-portfolio such that any change in content can be detected or the identity of the sender/creator can be confirmed. Copies of authentic architectural design e-portfolios are also authentic, since authentication is not meant to differentiate between a copy and an original. Authentication of e-portfolios is achieved through digital signatures, checksums and public key certificates. Authentication of the persons dealing with the e- portfolio can be achieved using tokens such as passwords, cryptographic keys or biometrics. Electronic transmission and exchange of electronic documents E-portfolios are transmitted or exchanged over local area networks, intranets and the Internet. Since delivery and access is practically instantaneous, it is common to have teams working on the same project and sharing files even when team members are separated by large distances. There are several collaboration software used to manage review and update of electronic documents by teams members distributed over diverse geographic areas and time zones.

Relevant file formats The most popular file formats for architectural design e-portfolios that can effectively be used in Nigeria are the DWF and PDF file formats. Other popular formats that may be used for architectural design e-portfolios include the 3DS, DWG, DXF, GIF, JPEG, MAX, MPEG, PLN, PNG, RAR and ZIP file formats.

53 New techniques of managing architectural design e-portfolios using the DWF format. There are several novel electronic drawing portfolio management techniques made possible by the DWF file format. These include batch plotting and scripting, named views (snapshots), 3D views, layering, property sets and compression of DWF files. Using named views (snapshots) in DWF files A named view is a view created and named in Autodesk products such as AutoCAD. The view may show a portion of the model space from a specific point of view, and is commonly used to create plans, elevations, sections, axonometric and perspective views from a model. Each named view is shown in the Views palette of Autodesk Design Review. Apart from named views, the Views palette also displays standard, saved and published views as well as bookmarks. Using 3D views in DWF files The DWF file format has the ability to display 3D models. These 3D models can be viewed from various angles in axonometric and perspective views and also rotated freely. Various types of shading and display can be applied and tours of the interiors of architectural models can be conducted. Cross sections can be created and models can be disassembled. Autodesk Design Review even allows application of lighting effects to the 3D models. Layering of DWF files CAD drawings are organized in layers to enhance display and editing. Turning off some layers will make them invisible, making editing of objects on visible layers easier. Freezing a layer will make all objects on the layer unavailable for editing. Layers are also used to assign global properties such as line thickness, line type and colour to all objects on the layer. DWF files contain layer information from the DWG file. Thus layers can be turned on and off in a DWF for selective viewing and plotting. Property sets of DWF files Properties of objects can be exported when creating a DWF file and these properties can be viewed by DWF file viewers. For example, properties of a door may include manufacturer and cost. Compression of DWF files The size of a DWF file can be reduced by using compression utilities such as WinZIP. When drawings are saved in several DWF files, a single ZIP file can be

54 created containing all the DWF files. This makes file transfer easier and faster.

Prospects of architectural design e-portfolios in architectural education in Nigeria. The prospects of a permanent shift from traditional training methods to e- learning in architectural education in Nigeria are very bright. This shift is already being experienced and is enhanced and accelerated by the following: Ÿ Pressure from practice and the professional bodies for CAD literacy. Ÿ Crash in the cost of computing. Ÿ Global trends towards e-learning. Ÿ Peer pressure from other disciplines now embracing e-learning and CAD. The author strongly believes that the following recommendations will enhance the use of architectural design e-portfolios in Nigerian schools of architecture: Ÿ Use of efficient file formats for architectural design e-portfolios. Ÿ Innovative use of batch plotting and scripting. Ÿ Compression of e-portfolios for transmission and exchange or sharing. Ÿ Incorporation of multimedia elements into architectural design e- portfolios. Ÿ Efficient techniques for filing and archiving e-portfolios.

CLIMATE-SENSITIVE BUILDINGS The goal of design with climate is the production of climate sensitive buildings.

Characteristics of Climate-Sensitive Buildings Sustainable buildings in hot and humid tropical climate of a developing economy are characterized by efficient, functional, spatial and structural designs which result in reduced construction cost and effective circulation. Demand-side management of energy issues has many advantages including the following. Reduced need for artificial lighting and reduced use of electricity for cooling by: Ÿ Optimum size of openings. Ÿ Maintaining relatively small cooling loads through efficient cross- ventilation of all rooms and by screening from sunlight. Ÿ Recessed windows. Ÿ Projected parapet wall casting deep shadow on the windows and by window fins. Ÿ Balconies-walkways especially around courtyards in all buildings (acting

55 also as protection from driving rain). Ÿ Double volumes for extra cross ventilation. Rainwater harvesting Ÿ The internal gutters collect water to the water tanks positioned on all floors in utility rooms for flushing toilets. Ÿ Provision for collecting water from the roof through external gutters (double reinforced columns near the staircase to carry the load of water tanks on each floor. Maintenance-free finishes Ÿ Brick facing. Ÿ Stone finishes. Ÿ Terrazzo for floor finishes. Ÿ Long span aluminium roofing sheets. Landscaping Ÿ Effective drainage (use of percolated drains, use of large covered and open gutters). Ÿ Use of almond trees in car parks for dense shading. Ÿ Use of interlocking bricks for pavement for durability. Ÿ Use of decorative trees, shrubs and lawns for reduction of sun glare and temperature. However, the architect encounters many challenges in producing such buildings. These include: Ÿ Lack of national standards for green building in Nigeria. Ÿ Perennial powerless of architects and engineers in ensuring conformity by building contractors to specifications and contract documentation.

Examples of Climate-sensitive Buildings Designed by the Author The author has had the privilege of designing a few buildings and complexes where attempts were made to demonstrate the concepts of design with climate. These institutional and residential buildings successfully explore the concept of very suitable design in the regional context. It is the concept of courtyard design and generally it is a design which meets the micro-climatic and cultural demands of the region. Here the courtyard concept benefits from the local tradition and the buildings reflect socio-cultural and physical factors of the environment. The local tradition is reflected here in the scale and proportion of the buildings and the buildings relate well to the human scale. The enclosed outdoor spaces make a reference to the traditional courtyard and to the courtyard concept used

56 worldwide. The pleasant appearance obtained in a traditional courtyard by local means is also achieved here with the help of modern materials and techniques. These designs provide very cameral atmospheres which promote sense of belonging. All rooms and spaces created are also very proportional and pleasant. These buildings include (in chronological order): Ÿ Private residence for Mr Lanre Adesuyi, Bamboo Close, Palladan, Zaria (1987). Ÿ Block of Offices (with FUTA Cyber Café), Federal University of Technology, Akure (2002). Ÿ Kachallah Quarters (Vice-Chancellor's, Pro-Chancellor's and Chancellor's Lodges), Federal University of Technology, Akure (2002) Ÿ Central Bank of Nigeria sponsored Computer Resource Centre, Federal University of Technology, Akure (2003). Ÿ Prince Adeyera Adeyemo School of Postgraduate Studies, Federal University of Technology, Akure (2004) Ÿ School of Earth and Mineral Sciences Phase One, Federal University of Technology, Akure (2004). Ÿ Nigerian Federation of Catholic Students (NFCS) Lodge, St. Albert's Catholic Church, Federal University of Technology, Akure (2004). Ÿ Proposed Hostel for Students, Sacred Heart Seminary, Akure (2005). Ÿ Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences, Elizade University, Ilara Mokin (2008). Ÿ Proposed Grampian Hotel, Egbe, Kogi State (2008). Ÿ Proposed Senate Building, Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba, Ondo State (2010). Ÿ Proposed Museum of National History, Abuja (2012). Ÿ Rectory, St. Albert's Chaplaincy, Federal University of Technology, Akure (2012). Private Residence for Mr Lanre Adesuyi, Bamboo Close, Palladan, Zaria This is a private residence with two courtyards. The composite climate of Zaria determined many of the design elements, from the medium window size to the roof slope and provision of outdoor living spaces. The cultural aspect was very significant, with a clear separation of private and public spaces, and prevention of clear views of the interior from the adjoining street. Block of Offices (with FUTA Cyber Café), Federal University of Technology, Akure In the Block of Offices there are two symmetrical square-like courtyards within the building linked together with easy circulation provided. The standard for provision of access for the disabled people was followed and as a result they can

57 Plate 28: Car park in private residence for Mr Lanre Adesuyi, Bamboo Close, Palladan, Zaria. Source: Photograph by the author (1987).

Plate 29: Plan of Private residence for Mr Lanre Adesuyi, Bamboo Close, Palladan, Zaria. Source: Drawing by the author and Chidi Onuma.

58 easily access every room on a wheel chair. This public building can easily accommodate a large group of people coming out of the facilities and the group can easily dissipate into the facilities if awaiting further activities. The building also benefits from modern tradition and thus the Block of Offices can be classified as Late Modern architecture. There are a number of measures that this building undertook in respect of the microclimate -- for example, cross ventilation is provided in each room. The Conference Room has the best ventilation by benefiting from two courtyards while the entrance/exhibition area is always cool and breezy due to the open access to two courtyards and to the main entrance area with a well shaded entrance porch. The Cyber Café (a public space that requires bigger volume of air) benefited from the sloping terrain by obtaining much higher ceiling level than in the regular offices. That also helps in maintaining better microclimate of this public area.

Plate 30: Site Plan of the Block of Staff Offices, Federal University of Technology, Akure (2002). Source: Drawing by the author.

59 Plate 31: Plan of the Block of Staff Offices, Federal University of Technology, Akure (2002). Source: Drawing by the author.

Plate 32: Entrance to the Block of Staff Offices, Federal University of Technology, Akure (2002). Source: Photograph by the author.

60 Plate 33: Typical courtyard scene, Block of Staff Offices, Federal University of Technology, Akure (2002). Source: Photograph by the author.

Kachallah Quarters (Vice-Chancellor's, Pro-Chancellor's and Chancellor's Lodges), Federal University of Technology, Akure The Chancellor's, Pro-chancellor's and Vice-Chancellor's Lodges were designed on the same principle of a square plan with a concentric square courtyard. The diagonally positioned entrance porches give the buildings a unique appearance. The lodges with their detailing belong to Postmodern Architecture. In the design of the lodges climate played a vital role. The roofs have adequate slope of around 30 and also window hoods are provided for the windows. Outdoor sitting areas are provided in the courtyard which is well shielded from the sun. Balconies and big entrance porches are provided in the VC's lodge. These are also well shielded from the rain and sun. The positioning of the windows and the use of double volume in the case of the sitting room which incorporates a two-storey void improves the ventilation of the interior.

61 Plate 34: Main entrance to the Vice-Chancellor's Lodge, Federal University of Technology, Akure. Source: Photograph by the author (2011).

Plate 35: Chancellor's Lodge, Federal University of Technology, Akure. Source: Photograph by the author (2011).

62 Plate 36: Chancellor's Lodge, Federal University of Technology, Akure. Source: Photograph by the author (2011).

Computer Resource Centre, Federal University of Technology, Akure The Computer Resource Centre (2004) is a unique building designed on a honeycomb-like grid with a characteristic outline of the parapet wall. The Vice Chancellor, Professor Peter Adeniyi wanted a unique design in seven days. Two sketch designs were presented, but the shape of the second honeycomb design was an immediate hit. Thus began the creation of a modern building on a prehistoric budget of less than 10 million Naira. The building is climate sensitive and is well protected from rain and sun glare. It has an oblique courtyard which also acts as a passage hence there are two well linked entrances. The courtyard successfully accommodates the drastic change of levels. The sloping terrain was incorporated and helped in raising the height of the bigger rooms for multiple users. The landscape is also beautifully designed with stone works, interlocking brick pavements, decorative shrubs and palms to complement the structure. The aspect of provision for social gatherings was carefully considered. There are multiple places, corners and niches which people can choose for various individual or group associations. Big groups can easily leave the facilities because of the positioning of the entrances. There is very easy communication within all the facilities. The building benefited from modern tradition and thus the Computer Resource Centre can be classified as Late Modern architecture. This pragmatic and technocratic architecture draws its inspiration from the highest achievements of Modernism. For example, the architect did not hesitate to make the intriguing parapet wall of the external walls to follow the shape of the roof diverting from the modern trend where the parapet wall maintains a uniform

63 Plate 37: Main entrance to the Computer Resource Centre, Federal University of Technology, Akure. Source: Photograph by the author. height. By that the structure was more economical but it diverted from the common design. Very good cross ventilation was also achieved in every room in the Computer Resource Centre. This building has especially addressed and focused on the microclimate. One experiences sense of relief when entering the various spaces so well protected from sun rays, sun glare and the rain. This is mainly achieved by the use of the projected parapet wall and the passage running round the courtyard with various recesses. The projected parapet wall is lowered in an optimum way and seems to slightly cover the windows giving the necessary sun and rain protection. A very common problem in other buildings of rain entering the rooms through the windows can hardly arise here because of the unique parapet wall and roof design. The water is efficiently drained out from the roof towards the central courtyard and flushed out through the internal spouts to the gutter which occupies the entire passage area making the gutter large and very effective. The gutter takes advantage of the natural slope which even further enhances the efficiency of the drainage design.

64 Plate 38: Floor Plan, Computer Resource Centre, Federal University of Technology, Akure. Source: Drawing by the author.

65 School of Postgraduate Studies, Federal University of Technology, Akure This simple design was based on a diamond shape which remarkably distinguishes it from other structures. The shape is quite obvious within the courtyard while on the elevation the form is further enhanced by free standing columns. The columns in a way pronounce the importance of the building. On the extreme ends of the front elevation there are double diagonally positioned adjacent columns. They stand as if in analogy with the way tapered obelisks were used in ancient Egypt. The front elevation benefited from very ceremonial arrangement where the entrance columns are further utilized as an archway leading to the main entrance. It is pertinent to note that this concept was developed and prepared for the client within two days – making it quite a record. Unfortunately, the architects were not involved in the production of working drawings and the location and construction of the building, thus many of the concepts were misinterpreted during construction.

Plate 39: Main entrance to the School of Postgraduate studies, Federal University of Technology, Akure. Source: Visualization by the author.

66 Plate 40: Courtyard scene, School of Postgraduate studies, Federal University of Technology, Akure. Source: Visualization by the author.

School of Earth and Mineral Sciences Phase One, Federal University of Technology, Akure The School of Mines and Earth Sciences Phase One is a building very sensitive to the local conditions. It was designed on a slopping site and it smartly incorporates the change of levels. This huge complex is in harmony with its rocky site. The building has a pleasant appearance further enhanced by the repeated modules on the elevations. Their small intervals break up the monotony of the otherwise very massive building. The main accent on the elevation is the well celebrated entrance area which smartly incorporates the drastic change of levels. The roofs tell a lot about the different space usage. The laboratories and the lecture halls are especially elevated to obtain bigger volumes with slightly higher roofs than the adjacent ones. The use of the roofs and the courtyards makes the building to belong to Regional Architecture. The arched window fins and the decorated columns round the courtyard and the overall shape of the entrance area are postmodern elements. All the rooms in the entire complex are cross ventilated. Enough light, well screened from glare, is provided. The passage area is also well lit and ventilated. Although they were never installed, the design provided for two water tanks adjacent the stairs for collecting rain water which could be used to flush toilets in

67 Plate 41: School of Earth and Mineral Sciences, Federal University of Technology, Akure. Source: Photograph by the author.

Plate 42: School of Earth and Mineral Sciences, Federal University of Technology, Akure. Source: Photograph by the author.

68 Plate 43: School of Earth and Mineral Sciences, Federal University of Technology, Akure. Source: Drawing by the author (2004). case of inadequate supply from the mains. Excess rain water is automatically drained to the gutters. The drainage of the courtyard is novel. Water from the higher level is drained into two underground channels on the lower level. The construction of the channels allows water to percolate from the courtyard into the drains. The overall effect is the rapid disappearance of large volumes of water in case of flash floods. Unfortunately, the construction of this drainage was never completed.

Plate 44: Site Drainage of the courtyard of the School of Earth and Mineral Sciences, FUTA. Source: Drawing by the author (2004).

69 Nigerian Federation of Catholic Students (NFCS) Lodge, St. Albert's Catholic Church, Federal University of Technology, Akure This design is a good response to the culture and the climate. The tall roof, overhanging eaves and covered passages, relatively small windows with the recessed areas are the main moderators of the microclimate. The use of a courtyard and emphasis on design with climate makes this a building in the Regional Trend. In addition, many typical elements of Post Modernism can be seen here: the symmetrical solid façade, the entrance on a central axis which is emphasized by two columns and a large entrance Plate 45: Nigerian Federation of Catholic porch adorned by a big semicircle. Students (NFCS) Lodge, St. Albert's Catholic The original design was however Church, Federal University of Technology, Akure. Source: Visualization by the author. not followed in the construction of the building, and many features of the building were lost in the process.

Plate 46: Nigerian Federation of Catholic Students (NFCS) Lodge, St. Albert's Catholic Church, FUTA. Source: Visualization by the author.

70 Proposed Students Hostel, Sacred Heart Seminary, Akure This is a very dynamic design following the concept of a rotating wheel. The design permits all the dormitories to have equally good access to the courtyard and it permits perfect cross ventilation of each dormitory. The common room is well accessible from the courtyard through the covered walkway as well as all the other rooms. The entire block is well ventilated since a reasonable distance is maintained between each of the dormitories. The toilets are positioned at extreme ends thus permitting maximum ventilation.

Plate 47 : Proposed Students Hostel, Sacred Heart Seminary, Akure. Source: Visualization by the author.

Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences, Elizade University, Ilara Mokin The proprietor of Elizade University was very intent on technological excellence and he wanted the students to acquire technical skills that would contribute to national development. He also wanted a world-class university environment. This building was therefore designed to showcase and promote sustainable development. While the geometry of the designed encouraged interaction, the detailing provided for the basic essentials of light, air and water. All spaces enjoy good natural lighting and cross ventilation, while all the water from the roof was harvested and fed through an intricate system to all toilets. The drainage of the building received a lot of attention to reduce maintenance costs. Pipes were buried into walls and columns to drain water from air conditioners into the underground drains. All corridors and terraces likewise have piping to drain water directly into these drains. These extensive underground drains extend from the courtyard through various parts of the building to the external depend solely on gravity for evacuation of excess water. The building possesses a labyrinth of vertical and horizontal ducts used for plumbing, electrical installations and even computer networking. These ducts assist in the installation, maintenance and conversion of services. 71 Plate 48: Bird's eye view of the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences, Elizade University, Ilara Mokin. Source: Photograph by the author.

Plate 49: Main entrance to the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences, Elizade University, Ilara Mokin. Source: Photograph by the author.

72 Plate 50: Typical entrance to the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences, Elizade University, Ilara Mokin. Source: Photograph by the author.

Plate 51: Typical entrance to the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences, Elizade University, Ilara Mokin. Source: Photograph by the author.

73 Plate 52: Typical courtyard scene, Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences, Elizade University, Ilara Mokin. Source: Photograph by the author.

Plate 53: Typical ground floor corridor scene, Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences, Elizade University, Ilara Mokin. Source: Photograph by the author.

74 Proposed Grampian Hotel, Egbe, Kogi State The semi-rural location of this project encouraged the maximization of natural lighting and cross-ventilation to reduce running costs, given the relatively low hotel rates in the area. The use of recesses also contributed to reduction of maintenance costs. Proposed Senate Building, Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba, Ondo State The challenge of this project was providing a fully air-conditioned modern building with hundreds of offices, yet one that would remain functional in case of power failure. The solution proposed was based on a 3-pronged atrium covered with transparent roofing which provides natural lighting, but with ventilation by stack effect incorporated. Rainwater harvesting, natural lighting and ventilation of all spaces was achieved.

Plate 54: Proposed Grampian Hotel, Kogi State. Source: Visualization by the author.

75 Plate 55: Proposed Senate Building, Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba, Ondo State. Source: Visualization by the author.

Plate 56: Proposed Senate Building, Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba, Ondo State. Source: Visualization by the author. 76 Proposed Museum of National History, Abuja The emphasis of this project was natural lighting of exhibits and the prevention of glare. The proposal provides indirect lighting from external windows that run all round the building by reflecting lighting from the ceiling. Atriums covered with transparent roofing complement this lighting. While the building was designed to be fully air-conditioned, it could remain functional during power outages, since all spaces have adequate natural lighting and ventilation provided. Proposed Rectory, St. Albert's Chaplaincy, Federal University of Technology, Akure The emphasis in this project was cost reduction while showcasing modern design. Apart from rainwater harvesting and provision of adequate natural lighting and cross ventilation of all rooms, the compact design makes the option of running the building in sealed (fully air-conditioned) mode cost effective. Particular attention was paid to landscaping to marry the building with the site while achieving some monumentalism.

Plate 58: Proposed Museum of National History, Abuja. Source: Visualization by the author.

77 Plate 58: Main square of the proposed Museum of National History, Abuja, showing courtyards and underground parking. Source: Visualization by the author.

Plate 59: Proposed Rectory, St. Albert's Catholic Church, Federal University of Technology, Akure. Source: Visualization by the author.

78 Plate 60: Proposed Rectory, St. Albert's Catholic Church, Federal University of Technology, Akure. Source: Visualization by the author.

Plate 61: Proposed Rectory, St. Albert's Catholic Church, Federal University of Technology, Akure. Source: Visualization by the author.

79 Plate 62: Proposed Rectory, St. Albert's Catholic Church, Federal University of Technology, Akure. Source: Visualization by the author.

Plate 63: Proposed Rectory, St. Albert's Catholic Church, Federal University of Technology, Akure. Source: Visualization by the author.

80 MOST SIGNIFICANT CONTRIBUTIONS TO KNOWLEDGE IN ARCHITECTURE The author's most significant contributions to knowledge include books and monographs, journal publications and conference papers, locally developed software for architectural design with climate in Nigeria, educational software developed for architecture and building students' instruction as well as websites and portals developed for professional bodies and e-learning.

Books and Monographs The book, An Introduction to Building Climatology - A Basic Course for Architecture Students, was published by the Ahmadu Bello University Press in 1991, but it is still being used by many schools of architecture in teaching environmental science (Ogunsote, 1991a). Campus Planning and Architecture: Memoirs from Seven American Universities is a monograph aimed at restoring the architectural glory of Nigerian universities (Ogunsote and Prucnal-Ogunsote, 2006a). ABC of Personal Computers is a simple introduction to computing that sold thousands of copies, and is still being offered for sale on the Internet, despite being out of print (Ogunsote and Prucnal-Ogunsote, 1994). The author has also been an editor of some volumes of the Comprehensive Report of Proceedings of the Architects Colloquium (Architects Registration Council of Nigeria, 2009; 2010 and 2011).

Journal Publications and Conference Proceedings Some of the most cited publications by the author include Computing in Architectural Education in Nigeria - The ABU Experience (Ogunsote and Prucnal- Ogunsote, 1987b); COLDHOT - A Design Aid for Multi Index Thermal Stress Analysis (Prucnal Ogunsote and Ogunsote, 1988); Comfort Limits for the Effective Temperature Index in the Tropics: A Nigerian Case Study (Ogunsote and Prucnal- Ogunsote, 2002); Defining Climatic Zones for Architectural Design in Nigeria: A Systematic Delineation (Ogunsote and Prucnal-Ogunsote, 2002e); Choice of a Thermal Index for Architectural Design with Climate in Nigeria (Ogunsote and Prucnal- Ogunsote, 2003a); Modern Techniques of Using Timber in Building Structures and Components in Nigeria (Ogunsote and Adedeji, 2005); Curricular Anatomy of the CAD Proficient Architecture Graduate in Nigeria (Ogunsote, Prucnal-Ogunsote and Umaru, 2007); Methods and Resources for Web-Enhanced Architectural Research in Nigeria (Ogunsote, Prucnal-Ogunsote and Ude, 2010); and Combating Environmental Degradation through Sustainable Landscaping in Emerging Mega Cities: A Case Study of Lagos, Nigeria (Ogunsote, Adedeji and Prucnal-Ogunsote, 2011.

81 Locally Developed Software for Architectural Design with Climate in Nigeria The author also developed various software packages for use by architects for architectural design with climate and office management. FeeS This software was written using BetterBasic, and it calculates consultancy fees payable to consultants in the construction industry in Nigeria. It produces reports formatted for immediate insertion in proposals and reports. It contains comprehensive help and full text of all relevant decrees and documents (Ogunsote, 1989a). Klimax This software was also written using BetterBasic. It performs climatic site analysis for all state capitals and major towns in Nigeria. It contains long-term averages of climatic data for all state capitals. The climatic database is fully expandable and it produces formatted reports documents (Ogunsote, 1989b). CivilPay This spreadsheet-based fully integrated payroll program was designed for Civil Servants (Government establishments). It is totally automated with data entry modules, data validation modules, comprehensive reports and auto-format features. It is fully customisable documents (Ogunsote, 1992). Iyanga These are fully scalable Postscript Type I and TrueType soft fonts containing hundreds of typefaces in several weights and variations documents (Ogunsote, 1993). SAS: Students Affairs Secretary This is a network based relational database package for distributed management of multiple schools with complex individualised training programmes. It was developed using FoxPro for Windows 95 platform on Novell and compatible networks. It employs Rushmore optimisation, object oriented programming and a graphical user interface to facilitate easy data management and reporting documents (Ogunsote, 1995).

82 Major Educational Software Developed for Architecture and Building Students' Instruction The most significant software developed for architecture and building students' instruction are listed in Table 7:

Websites and Portals Developed for Professional Bodies and E-learning The author has developed some web sites for e-learning and for professional associations. Sdngnet.com This is the author's academic and professional website. More than five thousand students and academics visit this website monthly to download materials for study, teaching and research. It hosts e-learning materials consisting of thousands of pages for ten undergraduate and postgraduate courses taught by the author spanning the last eight years. Current and past lecture notes, course outlines, term papers and assignments are available. Also hosted are thousands of photographs taken by the author across the world, soft copies of the author's publications; and visualizations and animations of his design projects.

Table 7: Major Educational Software Developed for Architecture and Building Students' Instruction

Software Description

CLIDATA Database for climatic data. MOTOLA A FORTRAN-based computer program for determination of architectural and planning design recommendations based on the Mahoney tables. SHADE Determines sun-shading periods for design of solar shading devices in Nigeria. COLDHOT Multi-index thermal stress analysis for Nigerian cities. CLICOMP Spreadsheet for assessment of climatic compatibility of architectural designs. S4S Spreadsheet for solar shading.

Source: Ogunsote (1985a; 1985b; 1986; 1987; 1988 and 1989).

83 Archnetng.net ArchNetNG was conceived as a web portal for Nigerian architecture, an online community for the Nigerian architect, planner, urban designer, landscape architect and for everything that is Nigerian in architecture. It is a hosted, domain-specific, regional portal and the services proposed include directory services, library services, online publications, news (competitions, conferences, software reviews, featured architects and projects), building laws, professional forums, blogs, chat rooms, members area, email, website hosting services, advertising services, e-shop, customized search engine and mirroring of popular web resources. Although proposed since 2007, development has been hampered by funding. A proposal incorporating this web portal was recently submitted to the STEP-B programme. Aarches.net This is the official website of the Association for Architectural Educators in Nigeria (AARCHES). Apart from providing general information, it manages the online version and archives of the AARCHES Journal (AARCHES-J). Arconnigeria.org This domain was registered for the Architects Registration Council of Nigeria (ARCON) but is still under development. The focus of the website is the coordination of the Architects' Colloquia. Archibuilt.net This domain was registered for the Nigerian Institute of Architects (NIA) Archibuilt programme, but is still under development. The focus of the website is the coordination of the Archibuilt workshops. Etat.net This domain was registered for Etat Consulting, the National Consultant for the World Bank Millennium development Goals (MDG) Quick Wins project.

CONCLUSIONS Working in the area of computer applications in architecture with focus on design with climate has been very fulfilling. The fact that both computing and sustainability were not just passing fads but remained topical gave significant pioneering status to much of the work done in earlier years by the author. Despite having such an advantageous edge however, the progress made in computing in architectural education and green building in Nigeria remain unsatisfactory. While the author could definitely have been more involved in research in these

84 fields despite all odds, the lack of institutional support for research was a major obstacle. Both computing and sustainability were also relatively futuristic, and majority of stakeholders, even in the academia, were slow in accepting these novel approaches. The last decade has however witnessed significant improvement in prospects for research and development in these fields, and the favourable clime has resulted in publications and architectural designs that surpass the two previous decades combined.

RECOMMENDATIONS The prospects of computing gaining even more relevance in architectural education and practice and of green building becoming the norm rather than the exception are very bright. Young academics going into these fields will find themselves in the mainstream of international research, which should promote their academic progress and significance. This new generation and their counterparts in practice are advised to focus on the following issues. 1. Nigeria and tropical developing countries should be the focus of their research. There is still much work to be done in developing standards in all areas of sustainable architectural design for Nigeria. 2. Research on computing in architectural education and practice should focus more on the architect as a user of technology. The phase wherein architects had to learn to program computers is passing away, and better results can be achieved by teaming up with experts in relevant fields to develop software and processes. 3. The role of the architect is being eroded by other professionals in the building industry. We need to improve the training of architects, and this should start from enhancements in the quality and professionalism of lecturers, the standard and relevance of the curriculum, and the provision of a conducive environment and modern equipment for training. 4. The architect is often side-lined after completing conceptual design of buildings. We need to teach graduate architects relevant skills that will assist them in developing project ideas, and be actively involved in all aspects of project management, including partnering with clients as shareholders in projects. The model in the USA where an architect assumes much more responsibility for, and suffers much more repercussion for the success or failure of projects should be considered for adoption. 5. There is need to place more emphasis on collaboration between professionals in the building industry. 6. E-learning has come to stay. Investing in significant research to develop

85 training materials and databases specific to the Nigerian developmental aspirations is necessary. 7. The integration of computer technology and environmental science is continuing and may witness very significant breakthroughs soon. We should be a part of this process.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I want to acknowledge God Almighty for making this day a reality. I have had various plans for this day, but God had an appointed time and place for me. There are so many people that have contributed to my success. I can only mention a few. My late father, Mr Amos Ogunshote, taught me to have faith in God, to ask questions and seek answers to them, to rely on the sweat on my brows, to train my hands, and to have hope in technology. My mother, Mrs Aduni Ogunshote has always been there for me, and somehow managed my rebellious nature. I thank my late father-in-law, Mr Wojciech Prucnal, for treating me as his favourite son, and my mother-in-law, Mrs Helena Prucnal, for being both a mother and godmother. I thank all my brothers and sisters, especially Mr Abiodun. Temitayo Ogunsote, former Director of Finance, National Broadcasting Commission; Mr Babatunde Ogunshote, Offshore Exploration Projects Manager, Nigerian Agip Exploration Limited, Abuja; Mr Oladele Ogunshote and Mrs Mojisola Adesanya. I thank all my teachers in the following schools: ICC Agodi Primary School, Agodi, Ibadan; Progressive Day School, Odo Ona Kekere, Ibadan; Prospect High School, Abanla, Ibadan; The Polytechnic, Ibadan; the University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland; Cracow University of Technology, Cracow, Poland; Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria and the Federal University of Technology, Akure. I thank my first teacher, Mrs T. A. Alakuro and the Proprietors of Prospect High School, Abanla, Ibadan, Mr and Mrs T. O. Ogunkoya. I am especially grateful to my mathematics teacher in secondary school, Mrs E. E. Ajobo, who made me believe that limits are only for some people. I thank all my lecturers in Cracow, especially Prof. Zdzislaw Arct, Prof. Janusz Bodganowski, Prof. Wiktor Boniecki, Prof. Wladyslaw Borusiewicz, Prof. Jan Bruzda, Prof. W. Bulinski, Prof. W. Ceckiewicz, Prof. Mieczyslaw Chowaniec, Prof. Elzbieta Dambska, Prof. Jozef Frazik, Prof. Zdzislaw Frydrych, Prof. Stanislaw Kaczmarczyk, Prof. Witold Korski, Prof. Zbigniew Klewar, Prof. M.

86 Ksiazek, Prof. Roman Husarski, Prof. Bohdan Lisowski, Prof. Maria Markowska, Prof. Tomasz Mankowski, Prof. Nowakowska, Prof. Zbigniew Palasinski, Prof. Wanda Pencakowska, Prof. Kazimierz Rozycki, Prof. A. Rudnicki, Prof. Barbara Samek, Prof. Andrzej Skoczek, Prof. T. Przemyslaw Szafer, Prof. Mieczyslaw Tobiasz, Prof. Jerzy Tyszkowski, Prof. Teresa Zajaczkowska, Prof. Lezsek Zajaczkowski, Prof. Stanislaw Zagorec and Prof. Wiktor Zin. I thank all my past Vice-Chancellors, especially Prof. Ango Abdullahi, Prof. Daniel Saror, Prof. Ekundayo A. Adeyemi, Prof. Robert A. Ogunsusi, Prof. Peter O. Adeniyi, Prof. Adebisi Balogun and Prof. E. A. Fashakin. I am especially grateful to the Vice-Chancellor, Prof. Adebiyi G. Daramola. I thank the Vice- Chancellors of the University of Jos, Prof. Sonni Tyoden and Prof. Hayward Mafuyai, under whom I spent my sabbatical leave, and the Vice-Chancellors of the Federal University of Technology, Yola (now Modibbo Adamawa University of Technology), Prof. Abdullahi Yusuf Ribadu and Prof. Bashir Haruna Usman under whom I was a Visiting Professor. I thank the immediate past Registrar Dr. (Mrs) E. F. Oyebade, and the Registrar, Dr. (Mrs) M. O. Ajayi. My academic career has been shaped by mentors who guided me in research, publication and administration. I recognize Prof. Stanislaw Juchnowicz, my M.Sc. supervisor; late Prof. Shim Adeshina, my Godfather and former Minister of State for Agriculture; Prof. E. A. Adeyemi, who served as my Head of Department, supervisor and Vice Chancellor; Prof. Hamman Tukur Sa'ad, former Vice Chancellor of the Federal University of Technology, Minna who was my Head of Department and administrative mentor; Prof. Olajide Solanke, my PhD supervisor; late Prof. F. W. Szwerdtfeger, my PhD co-supervisor; Prof. U. Nkwogu, Dr. Andrzej Zastawnik, my adviser at the Cracow University of Technology; Dr. Zbigniew Sikora, Engr. Danuta Rutecka, Prof. E. O. Oladipo, formerly of Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), who co-supervised my PhD, Prof. John Godwin of the University of Lagos and Prof. Aradeon who examined my PhD. I thank Prof. S. V. Szokolay (University of Queensland), Prof. E. F. Meffert (University of Nairobi), Prof. Ettouney (Cairo University), Prof. J. A. Oladipo (ABU), Prof. E. W. Ebong (ABU), Dr. A. P. Celik (UNCHS- HABITAT, Nairobi), Dr. H. T. Bozimo (ABU), Prof. B. K. Olorukooba (ABU) and Miss R. Y. Labrie (Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Berkeley). I thank my MBA supervisor, Mr. A. B. Akpan and my MTech Civil Engineering supervisors, Prof. Joseph Olasehinde Afolayan and Dr. Chinwuba Arum.

87 I thank all my professional mentors, clients and associates including Chief Michael Ade-Ojo of Elizade Motors, Arc. Zubair Ahmed, fnia; Arc. Ibrahim Haruna, fnia, current President of the Nigerian Institute of Architects (NIA); Multi-systems directors; Arc. A. S. Abubakar, fnia, the Honorary General Secretary (HGS) of the Nigerian Institute of Architects; Arc. Mohammed Jimoh Faworaja, Past President of the Association of Professional Bodies of Nigeria (APBN) and Past President of ARCON and NIA; Arc. Aliyu, ARCON President and Past President of NIA; late Arc. Layi Balogun, ppnia; Arc. Dele Oguneye, ppnia; Arc. Tunji Bolu, ppnia; ppNIA; Arc. Sale M. Yunusa, fnia; Arc. Olu Bamisaiye, fnia; Arc. Abdulkadir of Benna Associates, Zaria; Arc. Akin Odeyemi (Kaduna), Mr Andrew Ohioma (ARCON); Mr Sulemanu Momodu, former Director of Finance, NTA Headquarters, Lagos; late Mr Akinloye, former Director, NTA Headquarters, Abuja; Mr T. A. Azeez, General Manager, NTA Ado Ekiti, Engr. Amana, former Director of Engineering, NTA Headquarters, Abuja and Mr Wale Iledare, former Director, NTA Headquarters, Abuja. I acknowledge the full scholarship I received from the Federal Government of Nigeria which enabled me to pursue both undergraduate and postgraduate studies in Poland. I appreciate the support received from the Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria for my Doctor of Philosophy in Architecture (PhD) and Master of Business Administration (MBA) programmes. I thank all my colleagues in the Department of Architecture and the School of Environmental Technology, especially Dr. Yomi Adedeji, Dr. Victor Adegbehingbe, Arc. (Mrs) Adegbie, Arc. James Afolami, Dr. I. O. Aje, Dr. O. B. Akinbamijo, Arc. Olaniyi Aluko, Prof. A. S. Asaju, Prof. R. A. Bello, Dr. A. A. Emmanuel, Prof. J. O. Fashakin, Prof. R. B. Fatuyi, Arc. S. A. Ganiyu, Dr. I. B. Kashim, Prof. S. R. Ogunduyile, Prof. Deji R. Ogunsemi, Dr. Ayo Olajuyigbe, Prof. Julius A. B. Olujimi, Dr. F. K. Omole, Dr. M. A. Oyinloye and Dr. Taiwo. I especially thank the other Professors in my Department – Prof. Tunde Arayela, Prof. Akin Fadamiro and Prof. Abiodun Olotuah. I am particularly grateful to God for allowing me to witness the elevation of Prof. William Barnabas Quirix, whom I supervised, to the position of Vice-Chancellor of the Kaduna State University. I am grateful to all my colleagues in FUTA especially Prof. J. Ade-Ajayi, Prof. C. O. Adedire, late Prof. Cyril O. Adegoke, Prof. F. C. Adetuyi, Prof. O. S. Adewale, late Prof. Afolayan Agric, Prof. L. A. S. Agbetoye, Prof. O. O. Ajayi, Prof. M. O. Ajewole, Prof. A. A. Akindahunsi, Prof. Valentine A. Aletor, Prof. T. T. Amoo, Dr. J. O. Babatola, Dr. Ahmed Balogun, Prof. J. O. Borode, Prof. O. A. Fagbenro,

88 Prof. S. O. Falaki, Prof. J. A. Fuwape, Prof. L. Lajide, Prof. S. O. Ojeniyi, Prof. J. S. Ojo, Prof. A. S. Ogunlowo, Prof. A. M. Oguntuase, Prof. S. A. Ola, Prof. (Mrs) V. U. Ola, Prof. J. A. Omotosho, Dr. Otaigbe, Prof. A. V. Popoola and Prof. M. A. K. Smith. I am also grateful to academic colleagues in other universities especially Prof. Simeon Osuide (AAU), Prof. U. A. Awuzie (IMSU), Arc. Nwanguma (IMSU), Prof. Oruwari (RUST), Prof. Eziashi (UniJos), Prof. Natalia Anigbogu (UniJos), Prof. Udegbe (AAU), Dr. Joseph Eizielen Ahiamba (AAU), Dr. Remi E. Olagunju (FUTM), Dr. A. M. O. Atolagbe (LAUTECH) and Arc. Oko Michael Oko (UniJos). I thank my Lord Bishops, Most Rev Dr. Jude Ayodeji Arogundade and Most Rev Dr. Francis Folorunsho Alonge. I thank my Reverend Fathers, especially Rev Father Peter Otiko, Rev Father Raphael Adesulu, Rev Father Valentine Omolakin, and Rev Father Rufus Kuteyi. I thank our family friends especially Arc. Victor Ugwummadu and Mrs. Ruth Ugwummadu; Prof. Ralph Mills-Tettey, Registrar, Ghanaian Registration Council of Architects; Prof. Olumide Olusanya and Prof. Niyi Okedele, both of the University of Lagos; Prof. Zanzan Akaka Uji of the University of Jos; Prof. Sunny Oniye, Prof. Tonie Okpe, late Prof. Kevin Ihejirika and late Dr. Deji Odutola of the Ahmadu Bello University; Dr. Raufu Mustapha and his wife Dr. Kate Meagher both of the University of Oxford; Prof. Umaru Danbatta, Former Vice-Chancellor, Bayero University, Kano; Dr. Imarhiagbe, Dr. and Dr. Mrs Olanrewaju, Dr. Omolase and Prof. Jimmy Adegoke of the Kansas State University, Kansas, USA. I thank our children, Arc. Omotola Anna Ude and Arc. Bolanle Voitek Ogunsote; our son-in-law, Engr. Cyril Ude; and our grandson, Emmanuel Ude for bringing sunshine into our lives. Finally, I thank my wife, Prof. (Mrs) Bogda Prucnal-Ogunsote, my life partner and erstwhile classmate in undergraduate school, who has stood by me through thick and thin, and who has shared most of my academic endeavours. Mr Vice-Chancellor, distinguished Ladies and Gentlemen, I thank you for listening.

89 Plate 64: Prof. (Mrs) Bogda Prucnal-Ogunsote at the Taj-Mahal, Agra, India.

Plate 65: Our daughter, Arc. Omotola Anna Ude with our son-in-law, Engr. Cyril Ude.

90 Plate 66: Our son, Arc. Bolanle Voitek Ogunsote

Plate 67: Our grandson, Emmanuel Ude.

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94 Commemoration of the Silver Jubilee of Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. December 7 - 11. Ogunsote, O. O. & Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (1987b). Computing in Architectural Education in Nigeria - The ABU Experience. Nigerian Institute of Architects Journal, 3:3, 12 - 20. Lagos. Ogunsote, O. O. & Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (1987c). The Use of Computers for Student Instruction in Building Climatology in A Developing Country like Nigeria. Proceedings of the Second International Symposium on Building Climatology. Theme: New Developments in Building Climatology, Moscow, 12 - 15 May, 1987. Ogunsote, O. O. & Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (1990). The Easy Way to Personal Computers - The IBM PC Disk Operating System. Asekome Press, Zaria. Ogunsote, O. O. & Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (1994). ABC of Personal Computers. Asekome Press, Zaria. Ogunsote, O. O. & Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (1996a). Introduction to Spreadsheets (Lotus 123). Asekome Press, Zaria. Ogunsote, O. O. & Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (1996b). Introduction to Word Processing (WordPerfect 6.0). Asekome Press, Zaria. Ogunsote, O. O. & Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2001). FeeS for Windows: Computer Software for Calculation of Consultancy Fees Payable in the Construction Industry in Nigeria. Biennial General Meeting and Conference of the Nigerian Institute of Architects, November 21-24, Enugu. Ogunsote, O. O. & Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2002a). A Review of Popular Software for Computer Aided Architectural Presentations: The Pros and Cons of Convergence of the Current Potpourri. Nigerian Institute of Architects Ekiti State Chapter Pre-Inauguration Workshop. Theme: Computer Technology and the Building Industry in Nigeria. 30 October – 1 November, 2002. Ado Ekiti. Ogunsote, O. O. & Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2002b). Comfort Limits for the Effective Temperature Index in the Tropics: A Nigerian Case Study. Architectural Science Review, 45:2, 125-132, Sydney, Australia. Ogunsote, O. O. & Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2002c). Control of Tropical Microclimates through Landscape Design: Concepts and Methods. National Workshop on Landscape Design for the Federal Capital Development Authority, Abuja organised by the Department of Architecture, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Ogunsote, O. O. & Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2002d). Decay versus Aging in Modern Nigerian Cities: The Environmental Dimension. Proceedings of the Nigerian Institute of Architects Annual General Meeting and Conference. Theme: The Decaying City – The Architect's Dilemma and Challenges. 20 – 23 November,

95 2002 (pp. 1-10). Ibadan. Ogunsote, O. O. & Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2002e). Defining Climatic Zones for Architectural Design in Nigeria: A Systematic Delineation. Journal of Environmental Technology, 1:2, 1-14. School of Environmental Technology, Federal University of Technology, Akure. Ogunsote, O. O. & Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2002f). Reducing Population- Engendered Urban Heat Islands: Sustainable Design through Landscaping and Renewable Technologies. National Conference on Population, Environment and Sustainable Development in Nigeria, organised by the Research Group for African Environment and Development in collaboration with the Department of Geography and Planning Sciences, University of Ado Ekiti, Ado Ekiti. June 6-8. Ogunsote, O. O. & Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2002g). The Natural Component in Modern Architecture: An Appraisal of Parks and Gardens in Paris and Lagos. National Workshop on Landscape Design for the Federal Capital Development Authority, Abuja organised by the Department of Architecture, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Ogunsote, O. O. & Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2003a). Choice of a Thermal Index for Architectural Design with Climate in Nigeria. Habitat International – A Journal for the Study of Human Settlements, 27:1, 63-81. Pergamon Press, London. Ogunsote, O. O. & Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2003b). Sourcing of Building Materials on the World Wide Web: A Nigerian Perspective. Proceedings of the Nigerian Institute of Architects Biennial General Meeting and Conference. Theme: A Building Materials Policy for Nigeria, 3 – 6 December 2003 (pp. 122-137). Abuja. Ogunsote, O. O. & Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2003c). The Use of Search Engines, Web Directories and Indices on the World Wide Web for Architectural Research in Nigeria: Resources and Methods. The Association of Architectural Educators in Nigeria (AARCHES) 2003 Annual General Meeting and Conference. Theme: Methodological Issues in Architectural Research. 24 – 27 September, 2003, Zaria. Ogunsote, O. O. & Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2004a). Achieving CAD Proficiency by Architecture Graduates in Nigeria: A Roadmap. Paper presented at the Annual Architecture Week Seminar of the Ife Architecture Students Association. Theme: Architecture and Technology in a New Era. Department of Architecture, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, 1– 6 March 1, 2004. Ogunsote, O. O. & Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2004b). Reducing Urban Heat Islands: Sustainable Design through Landscaping and Renewable Technologies.

96 In: Ibitoye, O. A. (Ed.), Scientific and Environmental Issues in Population, Environment and Sustainable Development in Nigeria. Department of Geography and Planning Science, University of Ado Ekiti, Ado Ekiti. Pp. 127-139. Ogunsote, O. O. & Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2005a). “Reflection of Culture and Climate in Modern Nigerian Architecture”. A Poster Display and a Film on Computer Animation in Architecture: Exhibit for the Nigerian Universities Research and Development Fair organized by the National Universities Commission, Abuja, 6 - 8 December, 2005. Ogunsote, O. O. & Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2005b). Production of Intelligent and Active Architectural Drawings: Synergy of Autodesk Architectural Desktop 2005 with 3D Studio Max Version 7. Proceedings of the International Conference on Science and Technology, Federal University of Technology, Akure. 14- 19 August, 2005. Akure. Ogunsote, O. O. & Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2006a). Campus Planning and Architecture: Memoirs from Seven American Universities. A monograph of the Department of Architecture, School of Environmental Technology, Federal University of Technology, Akure. Ogunsote, O. O. & Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2006b). Sustainable Campus Planning and Architecture: A Comparative Study of American and Nigerian Universities. Paper presented at the Staff Seminar of the School of Environmental Technology, Federal University of Technology, Akure. 15 June 2006. Ogunsote, O. O. & Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2007a). “Architectural Design for Sustainable Development in Nigeria: A Case Study of the Federal University of Technology, Akure”. A Computer Animation Exhibit for the Joint African Union – Economic Commission for Africa Science, Technology and Innovation Exhibition, 25 – 30 January, 2007, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Ogunsote, O. O. & Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2007b). “Architectural Design for Sustainable Development in Nigeria: A Case Study of the Federal University of Technology, Akure.” Pamphlet and poster display for the Joint African Union – Economic Commission for Africa Science, Technology and Innovation Exhibition, 25 – 30 January, 2007, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Ogunsote, O. O. & Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2007c). Extreme Weather and Climate Events: Implications for Urban Planning, Architecture and Tourism Infrastructure in Nigeria. Proceedings of the 2007 International Conference of the Nigerian Meteorological Society. Theme: The impacts of extreme weather and climate events on socio-economic development in Africa. Federal University of

97 Technology, Akure, November 11–15, 2007. pp 87-107. Ogunsote, O. O. & Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2007d). Towards Convergence of Computer Aided Architectural Presentation Software. Proceedings of the 43rd Annual Conference of the Science Association of Nigeria. Federal University of Technology, Akure. Ogunsote, O. O. & Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2007e). Towards Convergence of Computer Aided Architectural Presentation Software. Bulletin of Science Association of Nigeria, Vol. 28, 85-90. Available from http://www.sciencenigeria.org/index.php?option=com_docman&task = doc_download&gid=20&Itemid=24. Ogunsote, O. O. & Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2008). Virtual Infrastructure as a Viable Substitute for Physical Infrastructure in Architectural Education in Nigeria. Proceedings of the Association of Architectural Educators in Nigeria (AARCHES) 2008 Annual General Meeting and Conference. Theme: Challenges of Resources Development for Architectural Education in Nigeria. Main Auditorium, Imo State University, Owerri, November 13 – 15, 2008. Ogunsote, O. O. & Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2012). In Search of Alternative Inspirations, Aspirations and Interpretations of Modern Architecture: An Odyssey across Exotic Asia. A School Seminar Paper, School of Environmental Technology, Federal University of Technology, Akure. Ogunsote, O. O. (1984). Design of the New City Centre for Zaria Urban Area in Nigeria. (M.Sc. Thesis). Faculty of Architecture, Cracow University of Technology, Cracow, Poland. Ogunsote, O. O. (1986a). “Sun shading Periods for Architectural Design with Climate in Nigeria Trends and Observations”. Research Report, Department of Architecture, A.B.U., Zaria. Ogunsote, O. O. (1986b). “The Human Dimension in Modern Architecture (Two Parisian Case Studies)”. The 1985/86 Staff Seminar Series, Department of Architecture, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Ogunsote, O. O. (1986c). Comfort and Computers. Proceedings of the International Conference on Urban Climatology in Tropical Countries: The Effect of Climate on Urbanisation in the Tropics. 14 - 17 April. Nairobi, Kenya. Ogunsote, O. O. (1986d). MOTOLA, STRESS and SHADE Educational Software for Tropical Countries. Proceedings of the Seminar on Computer Aids: Computers and Climatic Data, British Research Station, Garston, England, 10 - 11 June 1986. Ogunsote, O. O. (1987). “Climatic Zones for Architectural Design in Nigeria: A Compendium of Existing Definitions and a Proposal for their Systematic Delineation”. A doctoral seminar paper presented to the Department of Architecture, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.

98 Ogunsote, O. O. (1988a). “A Critical Appraisal of the Comfort Conditions in the Climatic Design Zones of Nigeria”. A doctoral seminar paper presented to the Department of Architecture, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Ogunsote, O. O. (1988b). Information Technology and Design - Notes on Electronic Alternatives to Pen, Pencil, Paper and Paint-box. Proceedings of the International Society for Education through Art (INSEA) Africa and Middle East Regional Congress, 7 12 August, University of Lagos, Lagos. Ogunsote, O. O. (1989a). “A Review of the SOLAR-1 Computer Program for Solar Analysis”. Research Report, Department of Architecture, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Ogunsote, O. O. (1989b). “An Assessment of the Appropriate Comfort Limits for the Effective Temperature Index in Nigeria”. Research Report, Department of Architecture, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Ogunsote, O. O. (1989c). “FeeS - Professional Software for Calculating Consultancy Fees in the Construction Industry in Nigeria”. Research Report, Department of Architecture, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Ogunsote, O. O. (1989d). A Review of Current Computer Hardware and Software Relevant to Architectural Design in Nigeria with Special Emphasis on the PC Standard. Nigerian Institute of Architects Seminar on Computers in Design and Project Management. Sheraton Hotel, Lagos. 6-7 February, 1989. Ogunsote, O. O. (1989e). Architectural Design Recommendations Based on Climatic Site Analysis for All State Capitals and Major Towns in Nigeria. Report submitted to the National Primary Education Commission, Kaduna. Ogunsote, O. O. (1989f). CLICOMP - A Dynamic Method for the Assessment of Climatic Compatibility of Buildings in Nigeria. Nigerian Institute of Architects Seminar on Computers in Design and Project Management. Sheraton Hotel, Lagos. 6-7 February, 1989. Ogunsote, O. O. (1989g). Computer Assessment of Climatic Compatibility of Buildings in Nigeria. Proceedings of the IFHP/CIB/WMO International Conference on Urban Climate, Planning and Building. Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan. 6-11 November, 1989. Ogunsote, O. O. (1989h). Review of Current Computer Hardware and Software Relevant to Architectural Design in Nigeria with Emphasis on the PC Standard. The Nigerian Institute of Architects Journal, 4:6, 11-14. Lagos. Ogunsote, O. O. (1989i). Spreadsheet for Analysis of Climatic Compatibility of Designed and Existing Buildings. The Nigerian Institute of Architects Journal, 4:6, 15-22. Lagos. Ogunsote, O. O. (1990a). Architectural Design with Nigerian Climatic Conditions in

99 View: A Systems Approach. (Doctoral Dissertation). Department of Architecture, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Ogunsote, O. O. (1990b). Computer Training Requirements of the Nigerian College of Aviation Technology, Zaria. Ogunsote, O. O. (1990c). Data Storage and Retrieval for Urban and Building Climatology in Africa. African Urban Quarterly special issue on Urban and Building Climatology, 5:1, 9-13. World Meteorological Organisation (WMO), Nairobi, Kenya. Ogunsote, O. O. (1990d). S4S - Spreadsheet Program for Solar Shading in Nigeria. Proceedings of the World Renewable Energy Congress, Reading, United Kingdom. 23-28 September. 5 pp. Ogunsote, O. O. (1991a). An Introduction to Building Climatology - A Basic Course for Architecture Students. Ahmadu Bello University Press, Zaria. Ogunsote, O. O. (1991b). Computer Assessment of Architectural Design. Habitat International – A Journal for the Study of Human Settlements, 15:4, 1-16, Pergamon Press, London. Ogunsote, O. O. (1991c). Notes on Computerised Storage of Climatological Data for the Architect. In: UNEP, Climate and Human Settlements - Integrating Climate into Urban Planning and Building Design in Africa. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Nairobi, Kenya. Ogunsote, O. O. (1991d). Report on Computerisation of Kashim Ibrahim Library, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria (Committee Member). Ogunsote, O. O. (1993a). Computerisation of National Personnel Records, Inventory and Pensions Schedule for Nigerian Television Authority, Victoria Island, Lagos. Ogunsote, O. O. (1993b). Computerisation of the National Research Institute for Chemical Technology, Basawa, Zaria. Ogunsote, O. O. (1993c). Report on Computerisation of Environmental Development Consultants, Kano (Consultancy). Ogunsote, O. O. (1994). “Structural Analysis of the Computer Industry in Nigeria: Strategies for a Sustainable Market Monopoly”. Master of Business Administration Thesis, Department of Business Administration, Institute of Administration, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Ogunsote, O. O. (1998). Proposal for the Installation of a Local Area Network (LAN) for the Finance Directorate, Nigerian Television Authority Headquarters, Victoria Island, Lagos. Ogunsote, O. O. (1999). Proposal for a Networked Personnel Records System for the Nigerian Television Authority Headquarters, Victoria Island, Lagos. Ogunsote, O. O. (2000). Three-Dimensional Modelling in AutoCAD 2000:

100 Production of Drawings using Multiple Layers and Layouts in Paper Space. National Workshop on Appropriate Architectural Education in the New Millennium organised by the Association of Architectural Educators in Nigeria (AARCHES), February 2000, Federal University of Technology, Akure. Ogunsote, O. O. (2001a). A Guide to Setting up a Workshop for Computer Aided Design and Draughting. In: Nkwogu, U. O. (Ed.), Architects and Architecture in Nigeria: A Tribute to Professor E. A. Adeyemi. AARCHES, Akure. Ogunsote, O. O. (2001b). Computerisation of the Kashim Ibrahim Library, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria: The Way Forward. Ogunsote, O. O. (2001c). Klimax: A Computer Program for Climatic Site Analysis. Valedictory Conference of the Association of Architectural Educators in Nigeria (AARCHES), Federal University of Technology, Akure. September 13-15. Ogunsote, O. O. (2001d). Specifications for the Computer Laboratory in the Department of Architecture, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Ogunsote, O. O. (2001e). Three-Dimensional Modelling in AutoCAD 2000: Production of Drawings Using Multiple Layers and Layouts in Paper Space. Journal of the Association of Architectural Educators in Nigeria (AARCHESJ), 1:6, 82-86. AARCHES, Akure. Ogunsote, O. O., Adebayo, E. L. & Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2007). Current Vistas and Realities of eLearning in Architectural Education in Nigeria. Proceedings of the Online Educa Berlin 2007 13th International Conference on Technology Supported Learning and Training. Hotel Intercontinental, Berlin, November 28–30, 2007. Ogunsote, O. O., Adedeji, Y. M. D. & Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2011). Combating Environmental Degradation through Sustainable Landscaping in Emerging Mega Cities: A Case Study of Lagos, Nigeria. Proceedings of the International Union of Architects (UIA) XXIV World Congress of Architecture, September 25 – October 1, 2011, Tokyo, Japan. Ogunsote, O. O., Ogunsote B. V. & Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2007). ArchNetNG: Design Concept and Specifications for the Premier Web Portal for Nigerian Architecture. Proceedings of the 2007 Annual Conference of the Association of Architectural Educators in Nigeria (AARCHES). Theme: Globalization and Architectural Education. October 17–19, 2007 (pp. 70-80). Imo State University, Owerri, Nigeria. Ogunsote, O. O., Ogunsote, B. V. & Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2008). ArchNetNG: Leveraging Web 2.0 Technologies for Self-Propagation of Open Resources for Architectural Education in Extended-Family Cultures. Proceedings of the E-Learning Africa 2008 3rd International Conference on ICT for

101 Development, Education and Training. Accra International Conference Centre (AICC), Accra, Ghana, May 28 – May 30, 2008. Ogunsote, O. O., Ogunsote, O. A. & Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2007). The Use of Design Studio E-Portfolios for Architectural Education in Nigeria: Problems and Prospects. Proceedings of the E-Learning Conference 2007, Federal College of Education, Omoku, Rivers State, Nigeria. Theme: Application of e-learning in Education and Training. 19-21 November, 2007. Organised by E-Learning Network of Nigeria in collaboration with Federal College of Education, Omoku, Rivers State, Nigeria. Ogunsote, O. O., Omofaye, J. O. & Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2006). The Challenges of e-learning in Architectural Education: A case study of the Federal University of Technology, Yola, Nigeria. Proceedings of the Association of Architectural Educators in Nigeria (AARCHES) 2006 Annual General Meeting and Conference. Theme: The Challenges of Architectural Education in the 21st Century. 25 – 27 October 2006, Minna. Ogunsote, O. O., Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. & Adegbie, M. (2010). Optimising Passive Cooling Systems in Residential Buildings: A Case Study of Akure, Nigeria. Proceedings of the International Conference on Man, Technological Advancement and Sustainable Environment held at the Federal University of Technology, Akure, 25 -27 October 2010 (pp. 215 – 217). Akure, School of Environmental Technology, Federal University of Technology, Akure. Ogunsote, O. O., Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. & Ogunsote, B. V. (2011). Towards the Development of a Green Building Rating System for the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). Proceedings of the International Union of Architects (UIA) XXIV World Congress of Architecture, September 25 – October 1, 2011, Tokyo, Japan. Ogunsote, O. O., Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. & Ude, O. A. (2010). Methods and Resources for Web-Enhanced Architectural Research in Nigeria. Journal of the Association of Architectural Educators in Nigeria (AARCHESJ), 8:1, 56-74. AARCHES, Owerri. Ogunsote, O. O., Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. & Ude, O. A. (2011). Sustainable Design of University Buildings in Tropical Climates: A Case Study of Three Universities in Ondo State, Nigeria. Proceedings of the International Union of Architects (UIA) XXIV World Congress of Architecture, September 25 – October 1, 2011, Tokyo, Japan. Ogunsote, O. O., Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. & Ugwummadu, V. E. (2010). The Role of Architecture in Achieving Environmental Sustainability in Nigeria: Lessons from the 2010 Convention of the American Institute of Architects. Proceedings of the International Conference on Man, Technological Advancement and Sustainable Environment held at the Federal University of

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103 Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. & Ogunsote, O. O. (2010). Developing Workable Standards for Design Studio E- Portfolios in Architectural Education in Nigeria. Journal of the Association of Architectural Educators in Nigeria (AARCHESJ), 8:1, 39-55. AARCHES, Owerri. Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (1994). A Study of Modern Trends in Some Aspects of Architecture in Nigeria. Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Architecture, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria. Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2001). Classification of Nigerian Architecture. Journal of the Association of Architectural Educators in Nigeria (AARCHESJ), 1:6, 48-56. AARCHES, Akure. Prucnal-Ogunsote, B., Ogunsote, O. O., Ude, O. A. & Ogunsote, B. V. (2011). Towards the Establishment of a Green Building Council and the Development of a Green Building Rating System for Nigeria. Proceedings of the 2011 Architects Colloquium, June 28 – 30, Musa Yar'adua Centre, Abuja. Architects Registration Council of Nigeria (ARCON), Abuja. Ralph, P. & Wand, Y. (2009). A proposal for a formal definition of the design concept. In Lyytinen, K., Loucopoulos, P., Mylopoulos, J., and Robinson, W., editors, Design Requirements Workshop (LNBIP 14), pp. 103–136. Springer-Verlag doi:10.1007/978-3-540-92966-6_6. Retrieved from http://www.springerlink.com/content/978-3-540-92965- 9/#section=18660&page=1&locus=10. Ralph, P. (2010). Comparing two software design process theories. Proceedings of the International Conference on Design Science Research in Information Systems and Technology (DESRIST 2010), Springer, St. Gallen, Switzerland, 2010, pp. 139–153. Reynolds, R.A. (1980). Computer Methods for Architects. The Butterworths Group. Sommerhof, G. (1968). Purpose, Adaptation and Directive Correlation. In: Modern Systems Research For the Behavioural Scientist. Buckley, W. (Ed). Aldine Publishing Company, Chicago. Ugwummadu, V. E., Ogunsote, O. O. & Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2008a). Building a Library of Local Content for Photo-based Architectural Visualizations in Africa. Proceedings of the Online Educa Berlin 2008 14th International Conference on Technology Supported Learning and Training. Hotel Intercontinental, Berlin, December 3 - 5, 2008. Ugwummadu, V. E., Ogunsote, O. O. & Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2008b). Simulation of 3D Models using 2D Mapping in Architectural Design Visualizations. Proceedings of the E-Learning Africa 2008 3rd International Conference on ICT for Development, Education and Training. Accra International Conference Centre (AICC), Accra, Ghana, May 28 – May 30, 2008. United Nations (1971). Design of Low Cost Housing and Community Facilities, Volume

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105 COPYRIGHTED COMMERCIAL SOFTWARE FOR ARCHITECTS AND BUILDERS Ogunsote, O. O. (1989a). FeeS: Calculates Consultancy fees payable to consultants in the construction industry in Nigeria. Produces reports formatted for immediate insertion in proposals and reports. Contains comprehensive help and full text of all relevant decrees and documents. Ogunsote, O. O. (1989b). Klimax: Performs Climatic Site Analysis for all State capitals and major towns in Nigeria. Contains long-term averages of climatic data for all State capitals. Fully expandable database and formatted reports. Ogunsote, O. O. (1992). CivilPay: Spreadsheet based fully integrated payroll program designed for Civil Servants (Government establishments). Totally automated with data entry modules, data validation modules, comprehensive reports and auto-format features. Fully customisable. Ogunsote, O. O. (1993). Iyanga: Fully scaleable Postscript Type I and TrueType soft fonts containing hundreds of typefaces in several weights and variations. Ogunsote, O. O. (1995). SAS: Students Affairs Secretary. Network based relational database package for distributed management of multiple schools with complex individualised programmes. Developed using FoxPro for Windows 95 platform on Novell and compatible networks. Employs Rushmore optimisation, object oriented programming and a graphical user interface to facilitate easy data management and reporting.

MAJOR EDUCATIONAL SOFTWARE DEVELOPED FOR ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING STUDENTS' INSTRUCTION. Ogunsote, O. O. (1985a). CLIDATA: Database for climatic data. Ogunsote, O. O. (1985b). MOTOLA: A FORTRAN based computer program for determination of architectural and planning design recommendations based on the Mahoney tables. Ogunsote, O. O. (1986). SHADE: Determines sun-shading periods for design of solar shading devices in Nigeria. Ogunsote, O. O. (1987). COLDHOT: Multi-index thermal stress analysis for Nigerian cities. Ogunsote, O. O. (1988). CLICOMP: Spreadsheet for Assessment of Climatic Compatibility of Architectural Designs. Ogunsote, O. O. (1989). S4S: Spreadsheet for Solar Shading.

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