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THE UNIVERSITY OF HULL Analysis of low carbon transport in Brunei Darussalam: case study of a sustainability transition in an oil-rich economy Being a thesis submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the University of Hull by Muhammad Amirruddin Haji Abdullah BSc, Environment (Griffith University, Australia) MSc, Environmental Assessment and Monitoring (Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia) January 2015 Abstract Moving towards sustainable transportation is a challenging task for Brunei, a small oil-rich country situated in South East Asia, whose population currently enjoys subsidised petrol feeding a culture heavily reliant on the automobile for personal mobility. This study aims to investigate the potential for the development of low-carbon transportation in Brunei Darussalam by using the Multi-Level Perspective of socio-technical transition. This study uses mixed methods (survey questionnaires, interviews, and secondary data) to gain insights into the problems, issues, solutions and expectations of sustainable transportation in Brunei. In summary, Bruneians are over dependent on cars and the majority have negative attitudes and behaviour regarding bus services. The findings on resistance to alternative vehicles in this study are complex, compared to the current literature. The key factors are the car-oriented culture (the product of parenting, employment and security), current transport policies and other government initiatives (such as heavily subsidised petrol); all of which tend to promote the use of cars over buses. The data were then incorporated into the three levels of the Multi-level Perspective. Results indicated that the transition in Brunei towards sustainable transportation (particularly towards low carbon transportation) is on-going but few disruptions in the regime, (especially attitudes and perceptions) are occurring. The complexity of transition and the technical, institutional, policy and car-related cultures have proved to be the barriers. The niches are finding it hard to compete with the current regime. Furthermore, fragmentations in the transportation institutions contribute to the failure to make progress towards sustainability. Therefore, the potential for transition to low-carbon transportation is essentially challenging and a difficult task to achieve. Thus, this thesis contributes to the transition literature in which the study of human attitudes, behaviour and perceptions (non-technological niche) towards sustainable transport are often under-researched and the study of single, or top-down governance, seems to be limited. ii Acknowledgement In the name of Allah, The Most Gracious, the Most Merciful. All praises be to Allah, and the blessings and peace be upon our prophet Muhammad. I bear witness that there is no God but Allah, and I bear witness that Muhammad is the last messenger of Allah. This acknowledgement is to thank people who directly and indirectly encouraged, guided and supported me whilst completing this thesis. Without their encouragement and support, this thesis would not have been a reality. First, I would like to express my gratitude to the Government of His Majesty the Sultan and Yang Di-Pertuan Negara Brunei Darussalam through the Ministry of Education for giving me the opportunity and financing my PhD study in the University of Hull, United Kingdom. Thank you to Brunei Student Unit in London for their help managing my studies, finance and my welfare while living in the United Kingdom. I would like to give my special thanks to my principal supervisor, Dr Pauline Deutz, for her patience, support, encouragement and guidance of my study. I also offer my thanks to Professor Andrew Jonas and Professor David Gibbs for their support and guidance towards my studies. Thank you to those who gave their time to participate in my data collection. Special thanks to my parents: Haji Abdullah and Hjh Norzainah for their prayers, love and their full support. Thank you to my siblings: Hjh Norzaiham, Hj Athaaillah and family, Hj Aleem and Family, Amin, Adibah and Aziemah; uncle, aunties, cousins (especially Ain, Din and Muiz), and Aziyah, for their support and encouragement throughout my studies. I would like also to express my thanks to my close friends; Izime, Izzat, Muis, Ain, Mardiah, Sarinah, and Yusrinah, my housemates, Brunei Student Society in Hull, University of Hull Muslim Society and my research mates (in the Cohen Building and in the Graduate School) for sharing the laughter and sadness while living and studying there. And lastly, thank you to JamesHon Marketing and Management (Brunei) for helping me with my university enrolment and their friendly support towards completing my studies in Hull. Thank you all! iii Table of Contents Abstract .................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgement .................................................................................................................. iii Abbreviation ......................................................................................................................... viii List of tables............................................................................................................................. x List of figures ........................................................................................................................ xiii Chapter 1: Introduction ......................................................................................................... 1 1.0 Background ..................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Research aim ................................................................................................................... 5 1.2 Why study Brunei? ......................................................................................................... 6 1.3 Brunei’s demographic profile ......................................................................................... 7 1.4 Brunei’s political philosophy .......................................................................................... 9 1.5 Research significance .................................................................................................... 11 1.6 Thesis outline ................................................................................................................ 15 1.7 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 15 Chapter 2: Sustainability in transportation sector ............................................................ 16 2.0 Background ................................................................................................................... 16 2.1 Sustainability and transportation................................................................................... 16 2.2 Perception of motorised transport: cars vs. public transport......................................... 19 2.3 Transportation equity .................................................................................................... 22 2.4 Sustainable transportation ............................................................................................. 23 2.4.1 Definition ............................................................................................................... 25 2.4.2 Challenges and barriers to sustainable transportation ......................................... 26 2.4.3 Barriers towards sustainable transportation: Qatar as an example ..................... 34 2.5 The role of stakeholders ................................................................................................ 37 2.5.1 Government ............................................................................................................ 38 2.5.2 Public transport operators ..................................................................................... 39 2.5.3 NGOs...................................................................................................................... 41 2.6 Public participation ....................................................................................................... 43 2.6.1 Advantages of public participation ........................................................................ 43 2.6.2 Weaknesses and critiques of public participation ................................................. 45 2.7 Gaps in sustainable transportation ................................................................................ 47 2.8 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 47 Chapter 3: Socio-Technical Transitions Theory ................................................................ 50 3.0 Background ................................................................................................................... 50 3.1 Definition of transition .................................................................................................. 50 3.2 Socio-Technical Transitions ......................................................................................... 54 3.3 Multi-Level Perspective (MLP) .................................................................................... 55 3.4 Response to MLP .........................................................................................................
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