Khaen Performance: an American Perspective on Traditional Pedagogical Practices

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KHAEN PERFORMANCE: AN AMERICAN PERSPECTIVE ON TRADITIONAL PEDAGOGICAL PRACTICES

A thesis submitted to the College of the Arts of Kent State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts

Charles Occhipinti

November 2020

Thesis written by

Charles Occhipinti

B.A., Appalachian State University, 2016

M.A., Kent State University, 2020

Approved by

______Andrew Shahriari, Ph.D., Advisor

______Kent McWilliams, D.M.A., Director, School of Music

______John Crawford-Spinelli, Ed.D., Dean, College of the Arts

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

LIST OF FIGURES ...... v

ACKNOWLEGMENTS ...... vii

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION TO THE KHAEN ...... 1 Introduction ...... 1 Survey of Literature ...... 3 Proposed Topic ...... 10 Source Materials ...... 11 Methodology ...... 11 Projected Results ...... 12

II. KHAEN CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE ...... 13 Introduction ...... 13 Construction of a Khaen ...... 16 Deconstruction and Reconstruction of a Khaen...... 25 Conclusion ...... 34

III. HISTORICAL AND MODERN TRENDS IN KHAEN PERFORMANCE ...... 35 Introduction ...... 35 Khaen as an Accompanying Instrument ...... 36 Lam Phifaa ...... 36 Phayaa ...... 39 Mawlam Phun ...... 40 Mawlam Glawn ...... 42 Khaen as a Solo Instrument ...... 45 Khaen as Part of an Ensemble ...... 47 Conclusion ...... 54

IV. PEDAGOGICAL PRACTICES OF THE KHAEN ...... 55 Introduction ...... 55 Oral Tradition...... 57 Jonny Olsen Wants to be Lao ...... 59 Khaen Pedagogy at the University Level...... 62 Standardizing the Practice ...... 64 Conclusion ...... 68

V. AN AMERICAN PERSPECTIVE ON KHAEN PEDAGOGY ...... 71 Introduction ...... 71 The Lessons ...... 73

iii

Lesson One – Holding the Instrument, Breath Control, and Notes ...... 73 Lesson Two – Learning A Traditional Melody ...... 76 Tangwai in Lai Yai ...... 77 Tangwai in Lai Noi ...... 78 Introduction Phrase ...... 79 Lai Sae ...... 79 Combining Skills Across Three Modes ...... 80 End of Formal Lessons ...... 80 Method Book ...... 80 Combined Strengths ...... 82 Obstacles to Learning Khaen ...... 85 Khaen Players in the United States ...... 88 Conclusion ...... 88

APPENDICES A. Thai-English Transliteration Guide ...... 91 B. Individual Artist Websites ...... 93

GLOSSARY ...... 94

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 97

LIST OF FIGURES

2.1 Two khaen baet with different fundamental tones ...... 13

2.2 Proper hand positioning demonstrated by the researcher; nuances to the hand positioning are made by individuals for comfort and flexibility ...... 14

2.3 Songsak Prathumsin, an instrument maker, leads Ajaan Khio (Priwan Nanongkham) to a bamboo thicket used for making musical instruments, e.g., flutes ...... 15

2.4 Bundles of bamboo drying in the sun ...... 17

2.5 Bundles of dried bamboo. Bundles of cut bamboo for khaen lay on the table ...... 17

2.6 Bundles of dried bamboo ready for individual khaen ...... 18

2.7 Unfinished Khaen and bundles of dried bamboo on a work table ...... 18

2.8 Reeds and unaligned nodes...... 19

2.9 Reed set inside the reed hole. Reed is also bent too far inside needing an adjustment .....19

2.10 A pitch hole that needs adjustment by removing some material ...... 20

2.11 Anatomy of a free reed ...... 21

2.12 Windchest ...... 22

2.13 Pipes, dividers, windchest, twine (used to bind pipes after repair)...... 23

2.14 Crack sealed with wood glue ...... 26

2.15 10-inch crack sealed with wood glue ...... 27

2.16 Pitch hole that needs cleaning up (pitch issue) ...... 27

2.17 A fully deconstructed khaen (missing one divider) ...... 28

2.18 Windchest with dividers and two pipes ...... 29

2.19 Labeled pipes with properly aligned finger holes ...... 31

3.1 Mawlam concert in Mahasarakham Province, Thailand, 2019...... 45

3.2 Ponglang instrument. Image used in accordance with Creative Commons Licensing ...... 50

3.3 Ponglang ensemble. Photo courtesy of Tourism Authority of Thailand ...... 51

3.4 The Paradise Bangkok Molam (mawlam) International Band. Photo courtesy of discogs.com ...... 53

4.2 Jonny Olsen, also known as Jonny Khaen. Photograph courtesy of Jonny Olsen ...... 59

4.3 Christopher Adler. Photograph courtesy of http://www.christopheradler.com ...... 65

4.4 Hal Walker album cover for Khaen Rock. Photograph courtesy of https://www.halwalkermusic.com...... 67

5.1 Expanding intervals from the middle octave (R4). This helps situate fingers and starts to develop finger technique ...... 76

5.2 This exercise is an example of how the notes on a khaen can be explored utilizing different intervals between notes ...... 76

5.3 This example shows the main chord cluster for lai noi and how that note cluster breaks down into the ascending and descending patterns ...... 78

5.4 Introduction phrase taught by Ajaan Khio ...... 79

5.5 An example of a melodic exploration. Melodies like this can be improvised to develop familiarity within specific modes ...... 83

5.6 This table shows the relationships between each note for the three lai derived from thangyao ...... 84

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

First and foremost, I want to thank my thesis committee. They have guided me through the arduous toil that was my first large scale research paper. Throughout the entire project, they have helped me grow as a researcher, a musician and most importantly a person. Thank you for the memories, not only at Kent State University but also the memories we all shared in Thailand.

From the bottom of my heart, ขอบคุณมากครับ Dr. Miller, Dr. Shahriari, and Ajaan Khio.

I would also like to thank the rest of the wonderful faculty at Kent State University that have guided me over the years. Without all of them I could not have made it through this part of my academic journey. Thank you Dr. Tiffe, Dr. Johnstone, and Dr. wa Mukuna

A big thank you to Ajaan Jarernchai, Dr. Adler, Dr. Garzoli, Mr. Olsen, and Mr. Walker, for taking part in my research. I have learned so much from you all and look forward to many years working you.

To Jeng and Pandis, thank you for your support on the long days of writing. Thank you for giving me a sounding board when I needed one and most importantly thank you for your friendship.

Last but not least, I would like to thank my family for their unconditional love and support as I achieve my academic goals. I love you all.

vii

KHAEN PERFORMANCE: AN AMERICAN PERSPECTIVE ON TRADITIONAL

PEDAGOGICAL PRACTICES

Introduction

My interest in studying ethnomusicology and the khaen, a free-reed bamboo mouth organ from Laos and northeast Thailand, began as a member of the Thai ensemble here at Kent State

University. I feel fortunate to be under the tutelage of one of the most highly regarded khaen musicians in the United States, Dr. Priwan Nanongkham (Ajaan Khio). Being at a university renowned for its scholarship in Thai music, I am motivated to continue this legacy by researching music and culture from Thailand. From December 17, 2018 - January 11, 2019, I traveled in Thailand with members of the KSU Department of Ethnomusicology and the KSU

Thai Ensemble. During this trip, we were exposed to many different aspects of Thai culture; language, food, religion, history, nightlife, and most importantly, music. We traveled through three of the four regions in the country: North, Northeast (aka Isan), and Central. We were able to attend a mawlam glawn concert in Mahasarakham Province, which featured the khaen.1 These concerts are attended by residents of the local community and can go late into the night.2

Attending this concert was a life changing moment for me. We were able to hear two exceptionally talented young khaen musicians accompanying a male and female performing duo.

These musicians exhibited an impressive and high level of musical aptitude in both technique and style, according to my professor, Ajaan Khio, who also attended the event.

1 Mawlam is repartee singing between two singers, normally one male and one female, with khaen accompaniment.

2 Terry E. Miller, Traditional Music of the Lao: Kaen Playing and Mawlam Singing in Northeast Thailand (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1985), 37. 2

The tradition of mawlam singing is deeply ingrained in Isan culture and is the seminal context in which the improvisational techniques of khaen performance developed. The musicians who performed at the village concert we attended displayed such improvisational skill. The male and female vocalists performed a repartee, both dancing and singing in direct response to each other. They also held a strong rapport with the audience. As we were the only farang, i.e.,

Westerners, in attendance, the vocalists readily identified and interacted with us to the enthusiastic response of the local audience.

The two musicians who performed on the khaen offered distinct types of performance and visual entertainment. The first musician was more focused on musical performance. His articulation was clear and fingering technique seemed flawless. His improvisations were complex, suggesting he was a highly talented khaen player, which was confirmed by later seeing his face throughout Roi-et on public banners promoting his future performances.

The second khaen player offered a more ostentatious display, giving a glimpse into the entertainment value of traditional performance practice beyond merely sonic production. His performance was as technically polished as the first khaen player, however he danced around the stage and had more direct interaction and rapport with the audience than the first musician, whose stage presence was more reserved. He would thrust his hips in a flirtatious and suggestive manner in the direction of women in the audience. His energetic performance was rewarded with many tips from the adoring spectators. While the two khaen players displayed two very different performance personas, they both shared a professional, polished style of playing.

As my first experience hearing the khaen played in its original cultural setting, I considered the performance of the highest caliber. This performance piqued my interest into how the khaen musicians were taught, how they learned the repertoire required for these performances, and how

3 long it took to get to this level of performance. Such interests fuel my current research into khaen pedagogy and oral transmission. This thesis will therefore examine khaen pedagogy from the perspective of an outsider, i.e., myself, in order to gain a more comprehensive understanding of how oral tradition in learning to play folk music instruments, such as the khaen, can be effectively embraced by non-native musicians.

Survey of Literature

Much of the research devoted to the khaen focuses on the mawlam tradition and the khaen’s role as an accompanying instrument. Terry Miller, Professor Emeritus at Kent State

University, has done the most research in this area. Traditional Music of the Lao: Kaen Playing and Mawlam Singing in Northeast Thailand takes an in-depth look at mawlam singing and the khaen’s role within this folk tradition.3 The last two chapters, “The Kaen, Description and

History” and “Kaen Playing in Northeast Thailand,” cover the construction and craftsmanship involved in making the khaen, as well as specific characteristics and techniques used to play the instrument. Additionally, Miller offers transcriptions and descriptions of several widely known folk melodies and improvisations that are commonly known to khaen performers.

The information in Miller’s book pertains to khaen performance by a group of men that have been playing the khaen for several decades. These musicians were of differing levels of musicianship. While khaen players were paid for their performances, according to Miller, it was only a very small portion of what the singers were paid and rarely exceeded one hundred baht a

3 Miller, Traditional Music of the Lao, xix-xxi, 189-294. Unlike Chinese, which has a nationally recognized transcription system called pinyin, there is no widely accepted transcription system for the Thai music. There are, however, two basic guidelines to Romanizing the Thai language. The first is a traditional linguistic approach, which requires knowledge of the phonetic alphabet in order to correctly pronounce each syllable. The second is a layman’s approach that results in many different spellings. As a result of this layman’s approach is the existence of multiple spellings of words, such as khaen. In this paper, I use the most widely found spelling of k-h-a-e-n. Historical research includes spellings of k-a-e-n and k-e-n-e. These spellings are only used when directly referencing or quoting source material significant to this thesis.

4 night, approximately $5USD at the time of his research. During this period, khaen players were not professionals and would only entertain an audience as a soloist in a private, not for profit setting.

Miller also wrote, An Introduction to Playing the Kaen in which he utilizes his research to create a westernized method to learning the khaen.4 As there are few resources that can be utilized for learning the khaen, this text is valuable in that it is the first in the English language.

The text includes explanations and exercises that teach the novice student how to perform in each of the six modes. The six modes, or lai, are organized by two basic scales; thangsan and thangyao. The thangsan scale includes lai sootsanaen, lai bo-sai, and lai soi modes. The thangyao scale includes lai yai, lai noi, and lai sae. Lai sae, the “E” mode, is typically not acknowledged by Thai performers due to the technical difficulties in improvising.5 A musician improvises within these six modes, though in common practice only five are used. Each improvisation is built on an existing lai which consists of five pitches, similar to a western pentatonic scale. Musical creativity and improvisation exist within this modal framework.6 This resource is useful for the self-taught student, as it covers many of the building blocks of how improvisation is executed in this tradition.

In addition to his books about Isan music, Miller has produced several journal articles.

“From Country Hick to Rural Hip: A New Identity Through Music for Northeast Thailand,”

4 Terry E. Miller, An Introduction to Playing the Kaen (Kent, OH: Self-published, 1980).

5 The orientation of the pipes on the khaen are designed to avoid the use of three consecutive pitches in either hand. The “E” mode uses 5 consecutive pitches with the right hand and the consecutive pitches on the left hand.

6 Miller, An Introduction to Playing the Kaen, 21-22.

5 tackles the changing musical climate of Isan through the last three decades of the 20th century.7

Miller offers some personal reflection on his initial research in Isan and the impact that his research and that of others has had on bringing the beauty of Isan culture to the world at large.

As a result of Isan culture being promoted by the government, many Thais take great pride in the food and music from the region, which has become a major influence on Thai culture. Over the twenty years between his initial research and the research for this article, Isan has rapidly modernized. The roads are now paved; the village homes are now filled with television sets and radios; and many Isan people are now living permanently in Bangkok to make more money for their families than they could farming in Isan. These migrating workers introduced Isan food and music, which quickly became popular among the sophisticated

Bangkok elite. This created a high demand for Isan culture and an opportunity for prosperity for the historically deprived people of Isan.

The evolution of traditional lam glawn music into luk thung music produced in the city of

Bangkok meant a new identity for the people of Isan and a virtual disappearance of the khaen from modern music.8 With luk thung, the role of the khaen became one of cultural symbolism rather than musical necessity. The musical role of the khaen was fulfilled by the Western guitar and the piano, reshaping the image of Isan culture as promoted by the government into a positive reflection of the region, even if the result was, according to Miller, the loss of status for the khaen.9 This point is seemingly contradicted by my experience in Thailand where the khaen is

7 Terry E. Miller, “From Country Hick to Rural Hip: A New Identity through Music for Northeast Thailand,” Asian Music 36, no. 2 (Summer-Autumn 2005): 96-106, https://www.jstor.org/stable/4098518.

8 Miller, Traditional Music of the Lao, 315, 318. Lum Glawn (lam glawn) is a Northeast Thai singing genre in which male and female singers alternate, often feigning a developing love affair. Pleng look toong (luk thung) is a rural popular song based on a regional style.

9 Miller, “From Country Hick to Rural Hip,” 101.

6 clearly an instrument of virtuosic levels of performance, great cultural importance and not merely symbolic of Isan culture.

Terry Miller and Jarernchai Chonpairot coauthored, “Musical Traditions of Northeast

Thailand,” in which they explained the historical setting of mawlam singing.10 There is little mention of the khaen, as the article focuses on the changing nature of oral tradition over generations. Based on this article and my experience learning the khaen, there is an inherent amount of melodic deviation, likely due to memory, that is accepted as stylistic differences from teacher to teacher.

In contrast to the somewhat bleak outlook for the khaen in Miller’s “From Country Hick to Rural Hip,” Priwan Nanongkham’s thesis, The Ponglang Ensemble: New Developments in the

Music of Northeast Thailand, presents a more promising outlook on the new direction of khaen performance in Isan.11 The khaen is an integral part of many modern ensembles that have grown out of the musically rich northeast, being found in the ponglang ensemble, as well as the wong phin khaen, an ensemble comprised of phin, a plucked lute, khaen and a goblet drum, and luk thung ensembles.12 Through globalization, the khaen has been taken out of its traditional setting in the villages of Isan and is now an established instrument in the arena of modern music. The khaen can now be heard in Thai reggae bands, sampled in Thai rap, and in hybrid bands such as

Paradise Bangkok Molam International Band.

Nanongkham delves into the mythology surrounding the development of the khaen.

10 Terry E. Miller and Jarernchai Chonpairot, “The Musical Traditions of Northeast Thailand,” Journal of the Siam Society 67, no. 1 (January 1979): 1-16, http://www.siamese- heritage.org/jsspdf/1971/JSS_067_1b_MillerJarernchaiChonpairot_MusicalTraditionsOfNortheastThailand.pdf.

11 Priwan Nanongkham, “Ponglang Ensemble: New Developments in the Music of Northeast Thailand,” (master’s thesis, Kent State University, 2001).

12 Ponglang – Isan wood log xylophone; Luk Thung – Thai popular music using a Western rock band.

Much like Miller’s works, Nanongkham details the construction and performance technique of the khaen. In contrast to Miller’s research, Nanongkham provides the perspective of a culture bearer, as he is native-born Isan and an accomplished musician on the khaen, phin, khlui, and other instruments in the central Thai piphat ensemble.13 His perspective as a culture bearer validates his research and that of Terry Miller. Nanongkham emphasizes the importance of the khaen in the ponglang ensemble, as recently as the 1990s and 2000s. Since this time, further research has been sparse in relation to the ponglang ensemble or the khaen.

Gavin Douglas’ Music in Mainland Southeast Asia, gives a general background and introduction to music from the region, but contains only a short seven-page section on Isan music covering just basic information.14 Douglas refers to Miller’s works throughout the section on

Isan music and emphasizes the socio-political atmosphere relating to Isan music and Lao identity. Additionally, Douglas touches on the basic music theory of khaen performance, moving to a superficial description of technique and introduction to a couple of lai. This resource is best suited as an introduction to music in Southeast Asia.

In addition to these main resources, there is research found in Thai, German, and French.

These resources are primarily duplicating the research done by Terry E. Miller and Priwan

Nanongkham. Other resources utilized in this research will focus more generally on oral traditions in Southeast Asia, bi-musicality, and music pedagogy. “The Oral Transmission of

Music in Selected Asian Cultures,” by Patricia Shehan-Campbell details oral traditions in India,

Japan, and Thailand, including the application of oral tradition in musical practice.15 Across this

13 Piphat – A classical ensemble from Central Thailand.

14 Gavin Douglas, Music in Mainland Southeast Asia: Experiencing Music, Expressing Culture,” (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010).

15 Patricia Shehan, “The Oral Transmission of Music in Selected Asian Cultures,” Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, no. 92 (Summer, 1987): 1-14, https://www.jstor.org/stable/40318119.

8 small sample size of oral music traditions, Shehan-Campbell concludes that the development of strong aural skills is most important in the pedagogy of oral traditions. The development of aural skills encourages improved musical memory, which is essential in a musical tradition without written notation. This suggests the importance of aural training through imitation over written notation in khaen improvisation. The value of oral learning over learning through notation is a significant topic that will be analyzed through my own learning process. The process in which I am taking will have elements of oral tradition and traditional notation. Through the use of both approaches, I expect to come to some conclusions on the efficacy of both methods.

Bi-musicality, is the process by which a person learns multiple musical traditions. The term bi-musicality is coined in Mantle Hood’s “The Challenge of ‘Bi-Musicality.’”16 Bi- musicality is a tool for ethnomusicologists trying to gain a deeper understanding of the music of another culture. “If his desire is to comprehend a particular Oriental musical expression so that his observations and analysis as a musicologist do not prove to be embarrassing, he will have to persist in practical studies until his basic musicianship is secure.”17 It is the opinion of the researcher that bi-musicality is a critical skill to achieve in-depth understanding of a musical tradition. One should aspire to, at the very least, a basic level of musicianship in the tradition in which they are researching. Since music is a cultural universal and not a universal language, it is imperative for a researcher to learn the musical language.18 This research is a self-reflection on the path to bi-musicality.

16 Mantle Hood, “The Challenge of ‘Bi-Musicality,’” Ethnomusicology 4, no. 2 (May, 1960): 55-59, https://www.jstor.org/stable/924263.

17 Ibid., 58.

18 Bruno Nettl, “A Nonuniversal Language: On the Musics of the World,” in The Study of Ethnomusicology: Thirty-Three Discussions (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 2015), 69.

A potential issue with learning an oral tradition and achieving a high level of musicianship in that tradition is the lack of standard pedagogy which develops the basic musicianship needed to express one’s musical ideas. Oral traditions do not over emphasize the idea of notation dictating musicianship or the mechanics of instrumental performance.

Musicianship and mechanics are developed through trial and error and imitation of other expert musicians. In Thailand, even though the government funded an attempt to notate nearly 500 court music compositions, most of the notated works only consist of the main melody leaving much of the music to be transmitted through oral tradition.19 This is a break from the Western musical traditions in which we learn how to read music while learning how to make music.

Teaching Brass: A Resource Manual is a widely used pedagogical resource for teaching brass instruments in the Western music idiom.20 Perhaps we over complicate the practice of music in the West. Simply looking at the contents of this book makes that seem true. Acoustics of the Brass Instruments, Breath Control, The Embouchure, Articulation, Brass Instrument

Equipment; these chapters are before the author even addresses instrument specific pedagogy. 21

These are the basic concepts that are covered when we begin band classes in the West. Young musicians are inundated with information and concepts and pedagogy almost before they even play a note. The specifics of how to play correctly, properly execute a note, holding the instrument, and good posture are enough to detract even the most excited kid. Where oral tradition seems to lack a pedagogical foundation for teaching an instrument, it is perhaps true

19 Shehan, “The Oral Transmission of Music in Selected Asian Cultures,” 9.

20 Wayne Bailey, Patrick Miles, Alan Siebert, William Stanley, and Thomas Stein, Teaching Brass: A Resource Manual, (New York: McGraw Hill, 2008).

21 Bailey, Teaching Brass, iii.

10 that Western music places too high an emphasis on notation and pedagogy early on in the learning process.

The purpose of this research is to better understand how an outsider to a music tradition can more efficiently become bi-musical through an investigation of differing pedagogical approaches. How do we reconcile our inability to be an insider to a tradition? How far can we close the gap between insiders’ and outsiders’ levels of performance? How does pedagogy address this issue, if it does at all? This thesis will address these questions with the end goal of achieving a better understanding of how I, as an outsider to the khaen tradition, can best learn to perform the music of another culture with the hope that my experience and insights can be a resource for others traveling similar musical journeys.

Proposed Topic

This study focused on khaen pedagogy. Within the subject of pedagogy, it centered around how an outsider develops their musicianship in khaen performance outside the cultural setting in which khaen performance takes place. In this study, the researcher provided a reflective analysis of his experiences learning the khaen. As a classically trained Western musician that specialized in low brass instruments, many of the insights put forth in this study were derived from the researcher’s musicianship developed on trombone through years of rote memorization, notation, purposeful listening, private lessons, and through working with colleagues in low brass performance. The researcher then analyzed how his concept of Thai musicianship, Isan khaen performance, and a genuine attempt at authenticity were developed through private lessons with Ajaan Khio, listening to recordings, watching videos available on the internet, and attending a live performance in Thailand.

The end goal of this research was to obtain a better understanding of pedagogical practices related to the khaen, helping to fill a knowledge gap in ethnomusicological research with regards to the study of non-native musical instruments and the facilitation of oral tradition.

The researcher took a reflexive view of his experiences and development as a khaen performer, as well as those of other participating experts to contribute to the area of pedagogy in khaen music study. The result of this research was a better conceptualization of music performance from outside an individual’s culture and insights into some of the obstacles experienced along the way.

Source Materials

The primary source materials for this research were scholarly publications focused on

Northeast Thailand (Isan) music traditions, Western classical music pedagogy, bi-musicality, music of Southeast Asia, oral traditions in Southeast Asia, such as music, mythology, customs and traditions, and pedagogical practices in Southeast Asian music traditions. These resources were obtained through the Kent State University Performing Arts Library, OhioLink, and from the researcher’s personal library, as well as JSTOR, Music Index, RILM, the researcher’s personal journal collection, and through experts in Thailand and the United States. Additionally, live performances, online recordings of performances, and audio recordings were used as valuable resources. This information was then utilized to synthesize the researcher’s experiences learning the khaen in order to draw conclusions that will benefit a person learning an oral music tradition.

Methodology

Fieldwork for this research included private lessons with Priwan Nanongkham. These lessons were recorded, analyzed, and archived. Individual practice sessions were also recorded

12 and analyzed. This allowed the researcher to hear their musical development. The analysis of the researcher’s performance over the duration of this research marked the improvement made and served as a yardstick to measure the efficacy of existing pedagogy. In addition, multiple interviews were conducted with Thai music experts within the United States and Thailand. The intention of these interviews was to draw additional insights into how musicians think about and approach khaen performance and to understand recent pedagogical practices.

Projected Results

The projected result of this research was to offer a fresh perspective on the study of khaen by a non-native to the tradition with the goal of articulating specifics of performance technique not previously found in the literature. Some of these specifics were style, fingering technique, breathing technique, and performance traditions. This research also provided insight into pedagogical practices related to the khaen that can be adapted to other solo instrumental traditions. These included a combination of the strengths of both Western training and Thai oral tradition. The researcher intended to draw insights from his experiences that might be amalgamated into a comprehensive method of both teaching and learning how to play the khaen and similar solo traditions outside of Western Art Music.

CHAPTER II KHAEN CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE

Figure 2.1. Two khaen baet with different fundamental tones.

Introduction

The khaen is a free-reed mouth organ primarily constructed of bamboo in raft pairs. It is held with both hands and played by exhaling and inhaling through the instrument while covering and uncovering finger holes on each bamboo tube to sound pitches. In Laos and

NortheastThailand, it is the most prominent musical instrument of Lao and Isan. The khaen is constructed of bamboo pipes, a wooden windchest, metal reeds, a black wax, called khisut, and a grass cord that binds the instrument at the top and bottom.

The materials used to make khaen are directly related to the climate of Isan and Laos.

Isan and Laos are tropical regions that experience savannah-like weather in three seasons; winter,

14 summer, and rainy. The summer is from February to May; the rainy season is from May to

October; and winter is from October to February. Bamboo grows well and wild throughout Isan and Laos and the hot and humid climate makes maintaining the instruments much easier than, for example, the dry cold weather of Ohio.

Figure 2.2. Proper hand positioning demonstrated by the researcher; nuances to the hand positioning are made by individuals for comfort and flexibility.

The khaen is available in various sizes and numbers of bamboo pipes. The most commonly utilized khaen in Northeast Thailand today is khaen baet, which has 16 pipes in eight raft pairs. Raft pairs are matching pipes aligned in two rows and each row is played by the left or right hand (see figure 2.2). In addition to khaen baet, there is the khaen hok with six pipes arranged in three raft pairs, khaen jet with 14 pipes arranged in seven raft pairs, and khaen gao with 18 pipes arranged in nine raft pairs. Of the four variants of khaen, baet, jet, and gao are used

15 for serious music making. The khaen hok, which is a much smaller instrument in length, is considered a toy, but can still be used to make music. It is the limitation of range and notes that make the khaen hok a toy and not necessarily its diminutive size. The length of a pipe directly relates to the pitch that sounds when played. Longer pipes are lower in pitch than shorter pipes.

In the past, khaen lengths varied, sometimes reaching more than one meter.22 Today, however, khaen are rarely more than one meter long, as shorter khaen are more portable.

Figure 2.3. Songsak Prathumsin, an instrument maker, leads Ajaan Khio (Priwan Nanongkham) to a bamboo thicket used for making musical instruments, e.g., flutes.

22 Miller, An Introduction to Playing the Kaen, 8.

Construction of a Khaen

Few professional craftsmen currently make high-quality instruments in Northeast

Thailand. Most are farmers and only make khaen to order.23 The number of khaen makers has dramatically declined in recent generations and can be reasonably attributed to the transition from traditional to modern culture in Isan.24 The khaen-making season usually begins in January when khaen makers have more time to make instruments than during the farming season from

May to December.25 Khaen materials are typically bought from itinerant salesmen, rather than gathered on their own, although Songsak Prathumsin (Figure 2.3) often collects his own bamboo from deep in forested jungle areas.

The khaen-making process begins with the master khaen maker knowing where to harvest the right kind of bamboo (Figure 2.3). Bamboo comes in many types. A specific kind of bamboo, called mai hia in Lao or mai sang in Thai, is needed for the khaen.26 After the bamboo is dried outside for a month, the bamboo pipes, mai goo khaen in Thai, are cut to size, hollowed out, and straightened by a hot poker (Figures 2.4-7). The nodes on the bamboo become measuring points for the reed holes. The khaen maker aligns a desired set of nodules and cuts the reed holes (roo lin) about two inches above the nodes (Figures 2.8 and 2.9).27 Additionally, two pitch holes (roo pae) are cut above and below the reed hole (Figure 2.10). The pipe can produce a pitch after the reed is inserted. The pipe is then inserted into the windchest.

23 Priwan Nanongkham, personal conversation in Thailand, January 2019.

24 Thailand is seeing major growth in metropolises like Bangkok. This means more economic opportunities for traditionally agrarian areas which is leading to a decline in the labor force. Art Isan traditions like instrument making are seeing a decline.

25 Miller, Traditional Music of the Lao, 195.

26 Miller, An Introduction to Playing the Kaen, 8.

27 Ibid., 10.

Figure 2.4. Bundles of bamboo drying in the sun.

Figure 2.5. Bundles of dried bamboo. Bundles of cut bamboo for khaen lay on the table.

Figure 2.6. Bundles of dried bamboo ready for individual khaen.

Figure 2.7. Unfinished khaen and bundles of dried bamboo on a work table.

Figure 2.8. Reeds and unaligned nodes.

Figure 2.9. Reed set inside the reed hole. Reed is also bent too far inside needing an adjustment.

Figure 2.10. A pitch hole that needs adjustment by removing some material.

The reeds are traditionally made from old Thai coins melted into large metal sheets, which are then purchased and cut to size.28 The reeds are rectangular with a tongue cut in the middle (Figure 2.11). The reed can vibrate freely in both directions; thus, it is classified as a free- reed.29 As such, a player can create sound while either inhaling or exhaling over the reed to make it vibrate. Pipes of the same pitch are tuned by shaving the reeds. To raise the pitch, the tip of the tongue is shaved and to lower the pitch the base of the tongue is shaved. Pitch holes can also be shaved or have material added to them to change the pitch. Material glued into the pitch hole, such as a small piece of bamboo, will raise the pitch and removing material will lower the pitch.

28 In the past and to a small degree today, the reeds were hammered individually. Videos on YouTube posted by Jonny Olsen show khaen makers in Laos still using this technique.

29 Miller, An Introduction to Playing Kaen, 7

By making minute adjustments to the reed and pitch holes pipes of the same pitch can be matched. This ensures that the khaen sounds pleasant while played.

Tongue

Base of Tongue Tip of tongue

Reed

Figure 2.11. Anatomy of a free reed.

The windchest (dao khaen) is carved from tree roots of varying species, usually the mai- bradoo tree.30 Traditionally hand-carved, some makers use modern lathes to make the windchest, carving a blowhole and a nipple on either end. A strip of bamboo is placed as a spacer between the right and left rows of pipes in the windchest (Figure 2.18).

30 Miller, An Introduction to Playing Kaen, 8.

Blowhole

Nipple

Figure 2.12. Windchest

Figure 2.13. Pipes, dividers, windchest, twine (used to bind pipes after repair).

The pipes are fitted into the windchest after they are fully assembled. Each pipe is secured into the windchest with khisut, a waxy excretion produced by an insect called maeng khisut.31 This material is malleable and is also used to plug the finger holes when sounding drone pitches. Without finger holes all of the pipes sound in unison and require finger holes to be burned into each pipe. These holes allow for each pipe to be activated individually by the fingers.32 Finally, spacers are secured at the top and bottom of the instrument with a cord called yanang. An additional cord binds the four longest pipes at the top of the instrument (Figure 2.9) to complete its construction. As yanang can become dry and brittle, this can be replaced by twine or string.

31 Miller, An Introduction to Playing Kaen, 8.

32 Ibid., 10.

The notes that a khaen plays are not standard. Each instrument is built to a singer’s or a khaen player’s specifications. Vocal ranges of singers are quite limited and in turn this limits the range of khaen that are suitable for singers. The lowest tone sounded on a khaen is considered the fundamental tone. The arrangement of the pipes and the intervallic relationship between both the pipes and pitches is standard. The pipes are strategically placed to accomplish several goals.

First, the placement avoids the use of three consecutive pipes with either hand (with the exception of playing lai sae, see chapter 4). Pipes on a khaen can be rather small, which makes it difficult to use more than two fingers on adjacent pipes. Second, the pipes are placed in consideration of the pentatonic scale, so that each mode is more easily played using the five most important notes of the seven-note octave. Third, the pipe placement creates balance between the hands, as neither hand is working disproportionately more than the other. Fourth, standardized arrangement of the pipes permits muscle memory development in the fingers, so that a skilled musician can play different instruments without having to learn new finger patterns.

The pitch production of the khaen from its lowest to highest tone is similar to the natural minor scale in western art music. A khaen musician can play scales that sound like relative major and minor scales. A major scale, for example, is played by starting with the third lowest pitch on the khaen. It is important to note that Lao and Isan performers do not think in western terms, such as major or minor.33

Terry Miller lists the qualities of a good khaen in his book, An Introduction to Playing

Kaen, which still is the only attempt at creating a playing method for khaen in English.

1. The kaen should not require a great deal of breath since if it leaks air, the player will become tired quickly. 2. Each note should sound the same pitch whether inhaled or exhaled.

33 Priwan Nanongkham, discussion during a lesson, 2019.

3. All notes should be equally loud for a given wind pressure, both singly and in octaves. 4. All octaves should be in perfect or near perfect tune. 5. The kaen should be comfortable for the player with the pipes wide enough to accommodate the fingers and the finger holes at a convenient height. 6. A good quality kaen will be as handsome to look at as it is pleasant to hear. Indifferently made kaen usually are not evenly cut at the top, have plastic binding instead of yanang, have lower nodes in a crooked line, and have a thin rough looking layer of khisut.34

Deconstruction and Reconstruction of a Khaen

In order to understand the construction and maintenance requirements of an instrument, such as the khaen, it is helpful to see each part disassembled from the whole and then reconstructed. This provides a more thorough understanding of the instrument and first-hand insight into how to properly take care of the instrument. This section documents the deconstruction and reconstruction of an inexpensive khaen.

This particular khaen was purchased from the eBay website for around $90USD. The website offers little information about the artisan or its specific origin within Thailand. The quality of an instrument is difficult to assess when purchasing an instrument through an online vendor. Typically, these instruments are meant as souvenirs for tourists or people mildly interested in learning how to play the khaen. The quality should be expected to be poorer than khaen built by one of the few remaining skilled craftsmen. The ideal way to acquire a professionally made khaen is to travel to Thailand and have one built specifically for your needs.

Khaen can also be found in Thai markets, but are usually of the same or worse quality than those

34 Miller, An Introduction to Playing Kaen, 11-12.

26 available online. Finding a well-built khaen in a market is possible, but rare, as these instruments are meant to be souvenirs and toys.35

Purchasing a khaen online comes with some accepted risks. The instrument may require some repair to bring it to an acceptable playing standard. Some common performance defects include pipes that do not sound or are severely out of tune, cracked pipes, and improperly functioning reeds. The eBay khaen purchased for this research had two cracked pipes and several reeds that were out of alignment, which caused several tuning issues. The craftsmanship was visibly lower than a professionally built khaen and the general condition was poor, suggesting a hurried construction and lack of attention to detail; both indicative of an instrument not meant for a serious student or professional.

Figure 2.14. Crack sealed with wood glue.

35 Terry E. Miller, conversation with author in Thailand, January 2019.

10-inch crack

Figure 2.15. 10-inch crack sealed with wood glue.

Figure 2.16. Pitch hole that needs cleaning up (pitch issue).

The risk of receiving a damaged instrument through the mail is high. Regardless of initial quality, these instruments are shipped from Thailand or Laos. As such, they will likely experience severe changes in temperature and humidity. Such changes, along with careless handling, can lead to cracked pipes, broken or bent reeds, or the complete destruction of the instrument by being crushed by heavier packages.

Figure 2.17. A fully deconstructed khaen (missing one divider).

Figure 2.18. Windchest with dividers and two pipes.

As mentioned above, the main materials of the khaen are bamboo pipes, a wooden windchest, khisut, and metal reeds (Figure 2.17). An additional four dividers create space between the two rows of pipes (Figure 2.17). Two of these dividers are placed inside the top and bottom of the windchest and sealed in with khisut (Figure 2.17). The other two dividers are placed at the top and bottom of the khaen where the yanang is wrapped. The khisut around the pipes must be airtight, otherwise air will escape when playing the instrument. Any leaks will require the musician to use much more air for the instrument to sound.

This khaen was disassembled to fix two cracked pipes and correct tuning issues. One crack was about ten inches and split the bottom of the pipe in half. The other crack was about one inch and appeared to have resulted from a heavy object smashing it during the construction or shipping process. After removing the pipes from the windchest, the cracks were repaired using

Gorilla glue for porous wood. Sewing thread was wrapped around the pipe to hold the repair together as the glue dried. This binding also helps to strengthen the structural integrity of the pipe for the future. Smaller cracks within the pipe were also glued, but did not require any additional binding.36

Removing the pipes does require careful attention, as cracked bamboo can cause cuts and splinters. To safeguard against this, a coin was used to press down on the top of the pipe while removing it from the windchest. The khisut must be pushed away from the pipe before it can be removed. Due to colder winter climates, this material typically becomes less malleable and requires heat from a hair dryer or other low heat source to make it malleable again. This heating process also requires careful attention, so that the khisut is not overheated, as there is a danger that the material can drip into the pipe and affect the function of the reed.37

Once removed, it is easier to inspect the pipes for damage. Each pipe should be labeled,

R1-R8 and L1-L8, i.e., right-side, pipes 1-8; left-side, pipes 1-8, before removing them (Figure

2.19). Some attention should be focused on the reeds, in order to address issues of playability and tuning. Some reeds may not sound and others may not be tuned accurately. The tongue of each reed can be inspected to ensure that it is on a level plane with the rest of the reed, not bent either inward or outward. Reeds that are bent outward from the pipe can be repaired by placing a small amount of pressure on the end of the tongue with a toothpick in order to realign them. The reeds are paper thin, so great care should be taken not to permanently damage them. If the entire

36 The materials and procedures used to repair the khaen in this chapter are not representative of a professional Khaen maker. These repairs are those of the author and possible solutions for others that find themselves far away from a professional maker.

37 Miller, An Introduction to Playing Kaen, 73.

31 tongue is out of alignment, slight pressure can be applied to the middle or base of the tongue to realign it.

Figure 2.19. Labeled pipes with properly aligned finger holes.

Some tongues may be bent into the pipe, which will require something very thin, such as a razor blade or a piece of paper to realign them. Tracing paper is a suitable tool, as sometimes a razor or piece of notebook paper will be too wide to fit in the space between the tongue and the rest of the reed. The tracing paper can be slid under the tongue and used to gently bend the tongue back to flush with the reed. Pulling the tongue slightly past center will typically result in a successful repair.

After being repaired, all of the reeds should sound with equal pressure whether inhaling or exhaling. This is important because a khaen should play evenly with the air flow in either direction, otherwise there will be intonation problems and an unevenness in sound, volume, and timbre. The quality of the reeds and success of those repaired can be checked by gently inhaling and exhaling through the reed while covering the finger hole. If the pipe sounds with minimal effort and even air pressure, then the repair is successful.

Having repaired the reeds, intonation issues were next to be addressed. One method of adjusting intonation is to shave the reeds. A thinner tip of the tongue raises the pitch, whereas a thinner base of the tongue lowers the pitch.38 The process of shaving a reed requires special tools and knowledge about reeds, attempting this is best done by someone with experience. In lieu of shaving the reeds, the pitch holes can be adjusted in size by shaving or adding material; adding or covering part of the pitch hole raises the pitch and shaving the circumference of the pitch hole lowers the pitch.39 I chose to shave away some material to lower pitches. Tiny slivers of bamboo are removed until the pitch is close or equal to the desired pitch. Since the khaen is played utilizing tone clusters and octave pairs, precision tuning is not generally considered a necessity.

Once the reeds are repaired and the tuning of each pipe is considered sufficient, the instrument can be reconstructed. This process is probably the most important, as improper reconstruction will result in an unplayable instrument. Prior to inserting the pipes, the khisut should be molded into small snake-like pieces. This makes it easier to wrap them around the tubes and fit between the pipes. The khisut ensures there are no air leaks between the windchest and the pipes.

38 Miller, An Introduction to Playing Kaen, 75.

39 Ibid., 75.

When positioning the dividers back into the top and bottom of the windchest, it is helpful to put pipes one and eight in on both sides of the dividers (Figure 2.18). This will allow for the proper placement of the dividers into the windchest and help guide in the rest of the pipes as you move along. The pipes are secured to the windchest with small rings of khisut wrapped around them at the top and the bottom of the windchest. Khisut also secures the dividers to both ends of the windchest. Throughout this process, careful attention should be given to keeping the fingerholes in a horizontal line and in the center of the pipe as it faces out to avoid problems in playing the instrument (Figure 2.19).

Once the pipes are inserted, attention should be turned to identifying any air leaks when the instrument is played. If more air flow is required than before repairs or air is escaping from between the pipes around the windchest, there is an air leak. Such leaks can be between the pipes, from cracks in the pipes, or between the rows, so assessing this can be a challenge.

Pressing the khisut with a piece of wood, such as a wet popsicle stick can help mold the material in order to seal the air leaks.40

One way to avoid damaging the khaen is to have a sturdy case for it. Unfortunately, khaen do not come with sturdy cases. Some will come with a cloth bag to carry them in but more than likely they will come without a case. This brings to the surface the issue of what to use for transportation and general safety of the instrument. Khaen are long and narrow instruments and thanks to their abnormal shape and relative obscurity, there are not a lot of options for cases.

Efforts can be made to convert other instrument cases (electronic keyboard cases, small trombone cases, etc.) into khaen cases but the most affective case is a rifle case. The benefit to using a rifle case is that two khaen can be fit into one case. The inside of a rifle case usually has

40 Miller, An Introduction to Playing Kaen, 73. Wetting the popsicle stick prevents the khisut from sticking to it.

34 a foam cushion that firmly secures the instrument in place. Sometimes the interior foam is too firm and will require the removal of some foam. A cushion that is too firm can bend or break the pipes of the instrument. A recess the shape of the khaen can create a nice custom and safe fit for the instrument. Whatever solution that is chosen, an effective case should provide stability, support, and crush resistance.

Conclusion

Understanding the construction of the khaen is important to ensure its maintenance and playability. The challenges of obtaining a quality instrument from Thailand increase the essential need for knowing how to make repairs. Depending on craftsmen of other musical instruments to fix any problems is less reliable than being self-reliant. The research presented in this chapter is intended to assist other khaen musicians in troubleshooting repairs on their own instruments.

CHAPTER III

HISTORICAL AND MODERN TRENDS IN KHAEN PERFORMANCE

Introduction

Although the origins of the khaen are unknown, the earliest mention of a similar instrument comes from Marin Mersenne’s Harmonie Universelle in 1637.41 Despite discrepancies, the instrument described has twelve pipes and the lengths of the pipes are graduated both above and below the reeds. The discussion suggests the author is describing the khaen. From this earliest recorded reference to today, the khaen has held significant importance in agrarian communities throughout Northeast Thailand and Laos. “The heart of Thailand beats in the villages.”42 The khaen provides that pulse.

In 2017, the khaen was identified by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and

Cultural Organization (UNESCO) as an intangible cultural heritage of the Lao People’s

Democratic Republic.43The khaen is regarded as the most iconic instrument of the Lao and Isan people, receiving much attention from scholars, primarily Terry Miller.44 Much written about the khaen in the past few decades, however, is merely restatements of his research and that of his former students, Jarernchai Chonpairot, and Priwan Nanongkham. Dr. John Garzoli, a scholar and professor of music from Melbourne, Austaralia published research on the changing musical

41 Marin Mersenne, Harmonie Universelle, translated by Roger E. Chapman (The Hague: M. Nijhoff, 1957): 308, quoted in Terry E. Miller, Traditional Music of the Lao: Kaen Playing and Mawlam Singing in Northeast Thailand (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1985), 219.

42 Ibid., 7.

43 “Khaen Music of the Lao People,” United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization Intangible Cultural Heritage, accessed August 5, 2020, https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/khaen-music-of-the-lao-people- 01296.

44 Miller, Traditional Music of the Lao, 14.

36 scenes related to Isan folk music and the khaen. Garzoli does not solely focus on the khaen, his research does highlight a transition from traditional performance to modern performance in modern contexts. Through music analysis, interviews, and interpersonal relationships, he ties modern khaen performance to traditional performance practices.

Throughout its history, khaen musicians have performed in the roles of accompanist, soloist, and ensemble member. This chapter focuses on the performance history of the khaen in these various capacities, as well as current trends in khaen performance, including a surge in female performers during the last decade.

The Khaen as an Accompanying Instrument

Many festivals and rituals throughout Northeast Thailand are accompanied by music. The most important of these include boon gatin, boon prawetsundawn, songkran, boon bung-fai, and various rite of passage rituals.45 The music performed at these events have influenced a number of the characteristic music markers of khaen performance such as the development of the six modes. The following section will highlight how khaen performance developed from these traditions.

Lam Phifaa

The performance origins of the khaen are unclear due to the lack of written historical documents. The most reasonable explanation is that it developed over a thousand years in Lao culture.46 Before Buddhism was introduced to Southeast Asia, Thais followed animistic beliefs and practices. Evidence of animistic traditions continue to permeate much of Thai culture today,

45 Miller, Traditional Music of the Lao, 7-8.

46 Priwan Nanongkham, “Khaen Repertoires: The Development of Lao Traditional Music in Northeast Thailand” (paper presented at the 1st International Conference on Lao Studies, Dekalb, IL, May 20-22, 2005), 8. Phifaa rituals are rituals accompanied by the khaen. The purpose of the ritual is to please the spirit that is believed to inhabit an individual.

37 e.g., spirit houses.47 As a result, Lao people considered the khaen to be sacred and it was only performed during annual festivals and for phifaa rituals.48

Known as phifaa, this ritual is lesser known than other traditions where khaen performance developed more visibly.49 The ritual calls on phi fha-phi tean, a sky spirit believed to heal, as well as control rain and fertility. The intent is to appease a ghost or spirit that has made a person sick. The attendees and the mawlam phifaa bring offerings, such as cigarettes, flowers, clothing, candles, food, perfumes, etc.50 These offerings are presented on an altar and intended to lure the phi (spirit), sky spirit, to the ceremony.51 Phi are also enticed to the ceremony through dancing and singing. Formal clothing is typically worn, such as sarongs and shirts decorated with especially fine patterns.52 Such dress is intended to further motivate the spirits to descend from the sky and heal the afflicted.

A mawlam phifaa is only one type of spiritual healer. There are many types of spirits believed to affect a person, each kind requiring a different ritual and ritualist.53 There is no typical phifaa ritual or accompanying music ensemble. The ensemble can have as many as

47 Spirit houses are small shrines for the protective spirits of a certain place. These are found outside of homes and businesses throughout Southeast Asia. They are usually presented as small roof structures on a pillar. In Thailand, it is common to see food and drink offerings for the protective spirits.

48 Nanongkham, “Khaen Repertories,” 8. Phifaa rituals are rituals accompanied by the khaen. The purpose of the ritual is to please the spirit that is believed to inhabit an individual.

49 Ibid., 8.

50 The term maw translates as a skilled person; lam means to sing. A mawlam is a skilled singer. The mawlam phifaa is the ritualist, typically an older woman that is not a trained singer.

51 Miller, 67.

52 David Hinton, “Healing Through Flexibility Primers,” In The Oxford Handbook of Medical Ethnomusicology (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 156.

53 Miller, Traditional Music of the Lao, 63-64. Pi faa, pi taen, phayaa taen, pi dum or pi chua, pi da-haek or pi nah, pi bao, pi bawp, pi pet, pi prai, pi prong, pi hoong, pi um, pi het, da-boo-ban, and jao-paw-pa-kao are some of the primary spirits.

38 perhaps ten mawlam phifaa, or simply one, but a mawkhaen, a skilled khaen player, is always included.54 The khaen acts as a bridge between the physical and spiritual worlds, and is likely a remnant of pre-Buddhist beliefs where the instrument is considered to hold spiritual power.55

Slight variations exist among different phifaa rituals, but all follow a basic format. The ritual begins with a ritualist assessing whether or not a person’s ailment is caused by a spirit.

This usually occurs after an individual has been examined by a medical doctor, maw yah, who can provide no diagnosis of their ailment. Once determined that a spirit is the cause, the patient is seen by one or more ritualists. The mawlam phifaa is called when a person is in no physical pain, but still seems weak or debilitated with no obvious cause.56 The mawlam phifaa now has the responsibility of luring the sky spirit into their body, allowing them to learn which spirit inhabits the victim. The ritualist then attempts to lure the spirit out, so that healing can occur. In this ceremony, the mawlam phifaa and mawkhaen act as a conduit to connect the sky spirit to the physical realm and heal the victim, ridding them of the invading spirit.

The khaen player, who is always male, performs using the lam thangyao scale. As the khaen player plays, the mawlam sings when compelled by the spirits. The mawlam will enter at random times disregarding any other singing and the khaen player. 57 The khaen player’s music serves as the main enticement for the spirit to enter the ritualists body so she can diagnose the victim. The khaen serves as a medium between the physical and spiritual worlds.

54 Hinton, Healing Through Flexibility Primers, 152.

55 Nanongkham, “Khaen Repertoires,” 7.

56 Miller, Traditional Music of the Lao, 66.

57 Ibid., 68.

Phayaa

Also important in the development of khaen performance is its use in a courting ritual, known as phayaa. Phayaa is a kind of witty banter between adolescent boys and girls. After dusk, the adolescent boy, sometimes in more than one group, would play the khaen as they walked to where the girls were gathering to spin thread. This would signal the girls as to their arrival and also reassure them that they were not thieves.58 Once the boys reached the girls, the boys would use their knowledge of traditional or phayaa poetry and wit to talk with the girls.

This was a form of alternating banter that along with playing the khaen was seen as attractive to the young girls.59 Each line of phayaa consists of three parts; an introduction, a main phrase of seven to twelve syllables in four beats, and an optional tag of one beat. Although the poetry is delivered in a tongue-in-cheek manner using simile, metaphor, pun, and double entendre, the expectation is that the vocalist is conveying sincere sentiments of love.60

The boys would also play the khaen late at night on their way back home. In the quiet of the night this would often times wake the sleeping adults. The beautiful sounds of a skilled khaen player would pique the interests of parents with daughters and perhaps identify the khaen player as a possible suitor.61 This is likely when lai yai and lai noi were first introduced in the khaen repertoire. Lai yai and lai noi are derived from the thangyao scale (see chapter 1).

The khaen developed its first lai or mode in the context of the phayaa ritual. In terms of khaen performance, a lai is a set of notes used in an improvisation. Each lai consists of five notes

58 Nanongkham, “Khaen Repertories,” 9.

59 Ibid., 9.

60 Miller, Traditional Music of the Lao, 27-30.

61 Priwan Nanongkham, personal correspondence, May 29, 2020.

40 that are used to accompany a vocalist. For western trained musicians, it is easiest to understand these as pentatonic scales, although, it is important to understand that this is not how Thais or

Laotians think about their music.

Mawlam Phun

Phayaa directly influences the mawlam tradition, which is most strongly associated with the development of khaen performance practices.62 The lyrics in mawlam performance are based on poetry.63 Two main types of mawlam are highly influential to khaen performance today: mawlam phun and mawlam glawn. Mawlam phun is performed by one singer (mawlam) and one khaen player (mawkhaen), whereas, mawlam glawn is performed by a male mawlam, a female mawlam, and a mawkhaen.64

Beginning around the nineteenth century, mawlam phun is thought to be the longest surviving lam in Isan.65 The tradition was thought to be extinct until early 2020. In Miller’s book, Traditional Music of the Lao, he notes the lack of lam phun performers in 1974, finding only seven living artists with no students leading him to the conclusion that the tradition would soon disappear. However, Miller revealed in a personal conversation that a man he believed was the last traditional lam phun singer was teaching at Roi-et College of Dramatic Arts in Roi-et,

Thailand.66 John Garzoli, a research fellow at Monash University in Melbourne, Australia, and

62 Mawlam Glawn is one of many ways to spell this Thai tradition. Lam Glawn can also be spelled molam klon, lam glawn, lum glawn, molam glawn, and mawlam klawn. In this manuscript, for the sake of consistency it will be spelled mawlam glawn throughout unless in a direct quote.

63 Buenconsejo, ed., A Search for A New Theory of Music (Philippines: University of the Philippines Center for Ethnomusicology, 2003), 307. 64 Buenconsejo, A Search for A New Theory of Music, 307.

65 Nanongkham, “Khaen Repertoires,” 10; Miller, Traditional Music of the Lao, 40.

66 Miller, conversation with the author, March 27, 2020.

41 an expert on Thai classical and folk music, also mentioned in an interview that lam phun was a focus of study at Khon Kaen University in Khon Kaen Thailand.67 Though the art may be lost in its original context as part of Isan village life, researchers and scholars continue to maintain it.

Lam phun is a form of poetic recitation accompanied by a mawkhaen. The mawlam recites epic length poems that can take several nine-hour nights to perform in their entirety.

These poems are comprised of stories and folktales passed from generation to generation through the performances of itinerant mawlam. Local stories or Lao jataka tales are included as well.68

While the origin of lam phun is unknown, it is closely related to other secular and sacred storytelling traditions, such as nungsu pook, tet nitan and tet boon prawet, without using sacred texts.69

Lam phun has two main sections; the introduction and the body. The introduction uses the thangsan scale, but alternates between thangsan and thangyao scales once the performance moves into the body. Lam phun performances tend to speed up and the mawkhaen’s responsibility is to mimic the vocalist. When the vocalist alternates between thangsan and thangyao, the khaen player alternates between lai bo-sai and lai noi. Lai yai and lai noi modes develop as a result of this alternating pattern.70

67 John Garzoli, Interview with the author, April 12, 2020.

68 Miller, Traditional Music of the Lao, 40. Originating in India, Jataka tales are stories of the previous births of the Buddha.

69 Miller, Traditional Music of the Lao, 40. An nungsu pook and lam phun are strongly related, as they both share the same repertoire of poems. An nungsu pook is differentiated by the fact that it reads the poems directly from nunsu pook manuscripts. Lam phun is also closely related to or derivative of tet nitan and tet boon prawet, which are Buddhist chanting practices.

70 Nanongkham, “Khaen Repertoires,” 10-12.

Mawlam Glawn

Lam glawn is a musical repartee between a male and female mawlam. These performances are also quite long, traditionally beginning around 9 pm and continuing until dawn.

Both mawlam and mawkhaen study anywhere from several months to years to achieve a high level of mastery. Though khaen players are typically self-taught, they are expected to work with a khaen master for guidance in order to excel in their art. Traditionally, a student asks a khaen master if they will teach them. If accepted, the student may live with his teacher, behaving as if they are part of the family. While there is no payment for lessons, the student is expected to help with chores on the farm and around the home.71

During the farming season, a student will work during the day and practice during breaks.

The master allows the student to go to sleep early, because lessons typically take place deep into the night, usually around one or two o’clock in the morning. This is meant to encourage the student to have a clear mind and a quiet space to focus his attention. The khaen master will play a phrase and his student repeats that phrase until mastered, then moves on to the next phrase.

Though the period spent with a teacher varies depending on the skill and work ethic of the student, three to six months is typical.72

Mawlam similarly study with teachers for an undetermined amount of time.73 This process, however, takes much longer, often between three to five years for a novice mawlam to master the required skills needed for long shows that require intense memory.74 This formal

71 Nanongkham, “Khaen Repertoires,” 14.

72 Ibid., 14-15.

73 Miller, Traditional Music of the Lao, 43.

74 Buenconsejo, A Search in Asia for A New Theory of Music, 307-8.

43 study is handled in one of two forms: the student pays the teacher for lessons, or they live with the teacher. The cost of lessons varies, but a student may pay anywhere from five baht per lesson to three hundred baht a month.75 If a student lives with their teacher, they will work on the farm during the day and take lessons afterwards, similar to that of a khaen student. Living with the teacher is traditional and part of the culture, so the student does not have to pay.76

The aspiring mawlam memorizes poems by rote. Some students learn poems in short verses, while others memorize entire poems at once. The speed at which one sets a poem to memory is determined by the tenacity of the student. Once a poem is successfully memorized, a student starts to set the piece to music. The music is considered secondary to the content of the poem. A mawlam student will imitate the singing of their teacher. As a result of Lao being a tonal language, the contour of the melody is predetermined by the language.

In tonal languages, vocal inflections change the meaning of words. Those that use the same phonemes (homophones) do not necessarily share a meaning, for instance, ห้ๅ (ha) and หๅ

(ha). ห้ๅ is pronounced with a falling tone and means “five.” หๅ is pronounced with a rising tone and means “to look for.” The direction of the melody should be parallel to the tones in the language, otherwise the meaning of the words changes. The khaen player must be conscious of this as well, because their improvisations are based on the words of the poems.77 This places considerable responsibility for the success of a performance on the khaen musician as well, even

75 The Thai baht is the current currency in Thailand. As of September 13, 2020, the exchange rate is 31THB to 1USD.

76 Miller, Traditional Music of the Lao, 45

77 Priwan Nanongkham, conversation during a lesson, 2019.

44 though he is considered an amateur, whereas the mawlam is regarded as a professional performer.

The khaen’s role as an accompanying instrument is well established in the traditional folk music annals of Isan. Much like folk music in the United States, accompanying instruments take a secondary role to the singer. The voice is prioritized over the instrumentalist. This is exemplified by the amateur role a mawkhaen plays to the professional role of the mawlam. To further emphasize this point, mawkhaen are not hired nor are they paid by event planners. The mawlam either have their own mawkhaen or they hire one and then pay them a small percentage of their pay.78 The mawkhaen is of lower status than the more revered vocalist, although their skills as a musician are also complex and highly developed.

Lam glawn uses two scales, lam thangsan, lam thangyao, and lam toei, a fixed musical form composed in thangyao.79 These scales help to organize the pitches the mawkhaen can use for their accompaniment. When accompanying a melody in lam thangsan, the mawkhaen plays either lai sutsanaen, G-A-C-D-E-G, or lai bo-sai, C-D-F-G-A-C. When accompanying a melody in lam thangyao, the mawkhaen plays in lai yai, A-C-D-E-G-A, or lai noi, D-F-G-A-C-D.80

The use of these lai was a new development in khaen performance in the early 20th century. Through the art of lam glawn, lai sutsanaen is introduced. At this point in the development of khaen repertoire, there are four regularly played modes: bo-sai, sutsanaen, yai, and noi. These modes address the different vocal needs of men and women. Men are usually accompanied using lai bo-sai and lai noi, whereas women are accompanied using lai sutsanaen

78 Nanongkham, “Khaen Repertoires,” 15.

79 Miller, Traditional Music of the Lao, 307.

80 Buenconsejo, A Search in Asia for A New Theory of Music, 311. There are five common modes in khaen performance.

45 and lai yai. To further develop the accompanying ability of the khaen to match differing male and female voices, two additional lai were created: lai soi and lai sae.81

Figure 3.1. Mawlam concert in Mahasarakham Province, Thailand, 2019.

Khaen as a Solo Instrument

In the last fifteen years, a new venue for khaen performance has developed – the internet.

The internet has provided new platforms that have the ability to reach a much broader audience than localized village concerts of the past. These platforms act as a new stage on which khaen performers can highlight their craft. Videos of concerts, solo performances, and practice sessions can be uploaded and made instantly available. Videos uploaded to YouTube, an online video-

81 Nanongkham, “Khaen Repertoires,” 18.

46 sharing website, have reached millions of people. Khaen players from diverse backgrounds now have the ability to share their music with the world.

Sombat Simla, for example, is a blind khaen master from Mahasarakham, and has several videos on the YouTube website. Other khaen musicians that appear on YouTube are Nouthong

Phimvilayphone, Jonny Olson, Daeng Toy, Somdee Luangnikon, Oneta, Tongseuy, Bia,

Bounseung Synanone, and Boonlert.82 YouTube can be utilized as a surrogate for having a teacher because one of the main roles that a teacher plays in a musician’s life is that of a musical example. All students, whether learning an oral tradition or from written notation, need a musical example to imitate. In this way, YouTube acts as a modern resource for direct imitation that parallels being taught by a live professor. Some musicians even record lessons and post them on

YouTube as resources for khaen students.

YouTube provides a safe space for traditional practices to be broken, such as encouraging the appearance of female khaen players on a traditionally male-only instrument. Wimonrat

Suwamat, for example, has numerous videos of traditional Isan performance along with videos of herself performing many different lai. Anyone can upload videos of themselves playing the khaen. This introduces a new platform for postmodern musicians to freely break from traditional norms that within their home country might impede their progress. Suwamat utilizes the platform to showcase her talent on khaen, whereas traditional contexts may not be available to her.

Another musician making use of YouTube and the khaen as a solo instrument is Hal

Walker. Walker is an independent musician in Kent, OH. He is a singer, songwriter, and self- described “musical explorer.”83 His music is very modern and quite a departure from traditional

82 Appendix A includes a list of Youtube video, channel links, and webpages related to the khaen.

83 “About Hal Walker,” Hal Walker Music, accessed August 6, 2020, https://www.halwalkermusic.com/bio/.

Isan cultural settings. Walker’s music is a direct reflection of his background as a guitar, piano, and harmonica player. He has a penchant for taking musical instruments from other cultures, learning how the instrument is traditionally played, and making his own unique musical creations. In early 2020, Walker expanded his khaen performance digital outlet from YouTube to other social media platforms, like Tik-Tok and Facebook and streaming media like Spotify,

Apple Music, and Pandora. Through a multi-media approach, he reaches thousands of fans interested in the khaen.

Christopher Adler, another composer and khaen performer, has an abundance of information about the khaen on his personal website, including a guide for composing music for the khaen and videos.84 He is one of only a few performer-scholars who focus on promoting the khaen as a solo instrument. He has over 25 years of research in traditional Isan music. Adler focuses on composing new music for the khaen. His compositions extend the performance boundaries of the khaen from the rice fields of Northeast Thailand to the world of western art music. Though much of his focus centers on modern compositions, his website also provides detailed information about the history and culture of the khaen.85

Khaen as Part of an Ensemble

The earliest examples of khaen performing in an ensemble context date back to perhaps

1932 in early forms of likay theatre in Isan.86 Throughout its early history, the khaen was mainly played in formal settings such as rituals. However, the khaen was also played as part of a small ensemble with the phin in informal settings. This ensemble, wong phin-khaen or phin khaen

84 “Biography,” Christopher Adler, accessed August 6, 2020, http://christopheradler.com/.

85 Christopher Adler, “Christopher Adler Composer Performer Improvisor” accessed October 4, 2020. http://www.christopheradler.com/.

86 Miller, Traditional Music of the Lao, 74.

48 ensemble, was played among villagers in the evening after work on the farm was finished.

Young men would gather to talk, smoke cigarettes, and chew betel nut. Some of them would bring instruments as entertainment. This small informal ensemble developed beyond just khaen and phin into a more formal larger ensemble that included small percussion instruments such as the thon or chap lek.87

These new groups became the accompanying ensemble for mawlam phloen. By the

1970s, electric instruments like the guitar, bass guitar, and organ were favored over traditional acoustic instruments. The small percussion instruments were also replaced by the modern drum kit. By the 1980s, traditional instruments were no longer used.88 Recently, there has been a resurgence of traditional Isan instruments within modern bands. A couple of these groups are covered below.

The khaen was also included in ensembles accompanying likay theatre, a traditional theatre from central Thailand. Likay was likely introduced to Northeast Thailand by traveling theater troupes. The Isan people adapted this theater, likay-Thai, to their own cultural tastes with flamboyant costume styles and traditional literature and called it likay-Lao, which led to the development of mawlam moo and mawlam phloen.89 However, there does seem to be a resurgence of traditional instruments in some modern ensembles such as

The new northeastern likay style was performed in the Lao language and utilized Isan instruments, including the khaen, phin (three-stringed lute), saw bip (two-stringed fiddle with a

87 Priwan Nanongkham, “Modern Isan Music as Image: A Positive Identity for The People of Northeast Thailand,” (PhD diss, Kent State University, 2011), 354, ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global.

88 Nanongkham, “Modern Isan Music as Image: A Positive Identity for The People of Northeast Thailand,” 355.

89 Miller, Traditional Music of the Lao, 73-80.

49 metal can resonator), thon ramana (small hand drums), glawng yao (large goblet-shaped drums), and ching (small cymbals). Early in the development of likay-Lao, performances were executed on the ground in front of a white or colored cloth and in traditional Isan clothing. Women in these troupes wore Lao skirts and men wore long-sleeved shirts and pants similar to likay-Thai performers.90

Likay-Lao spawned the theatrical traditions of mawlam moo and mawlam phloen, which would overshadow the earlier tradition of mawlam glawn. Lam moo and lam phloen differed from likay-Lao. They performed on raised stages with ornate costumes, had many actors and roles, and the music ensemble performed in a corner of the stage. Lam moo and lam phloen were much more lavish in costume and design. The better the stage decorations and the more extravagant the performances, the more the troupes charged.91

Practices of musical accompaniment varied considerably from early Isan music, such as mawlam glawn. In mawlam traditional instruments began to be replaced by electric guitar, drums, and electric organ in the late 1960s.92 Mawlam phloen was accompanied by khaen and phin and also added a drum set, additional percussion, and pretty girls in western style short skirts.93 Instrumentalists were very casual about their performances and often smoked cigarettes during a show.94 Though these musicians were quite casual, today the members of ponglang ensembles are more serious in their presentation.

90 Miller, Traditional Music of the Lao, 73-80.

91 Ibid., 84.

92 Nanongkham, “Modern Isan Music as Image: A Positive Identity for The People of Northeast Thailand,” 311.

93 Ibid., 317.

94 Miller, Traditional Music of the Lao, 97.

The ponglang ensemble is nowadays the unofficial symbol of Isan folk music.95 The ensemble is named for the ponglang, a twelve to fifteen keyed, wooden xylophone suspended vertically from a wooden stand, which is central to the ensemble (see figure 3.2). Traditionally, musicians stand on either side of the instrument and strike the keys with wooden mallets, the left-side musician playing melodic material and the other musician playing drone pitches by repeating the same notes throughout the performance.96 Since the 1980s, only one person typically plays the ponglang.97

Figure 3.2. Ponglang instrument. Image used in accordance with Creative Commons Licensing.

95 The ponglang instrument is the symbol of Kalasin College of Dramatic Arts and Kalasin Province.

96 Miller, “From Country Hick to Rural Hip: A New Identity through Music for Northeast Thailand,” 96- 106.

97 Priwan Nanongkham, personal correspondence, June 1, 2020.

The repertoire for the ponglang ensemble, like the repertoire for the khaen, is derived from the pentatonic scale. A typical ensemble today consists of khaen, wot, ponglang, phin, glawng yao, and other modern instruments, such as electric bass and drum kit. Ponglang ensembles accompany female dancers dressed in traditional Isan clothing.

Figure 3.3. Pong lang ensemble. Photo courtesy of Tourism Authority of Thailand.

An interesting aspect of the dance performance is the presence of a phin hai, which is a set of ceramic pots with a rubber band stretched across the top (see figure 3.3). Phin hai was once used to play low range pitches, but is now replaced with the electric bass. The dancers pretend to play phin hai during a performance.

Much of the traditional folk music from the past is no longer favored by modern youth, having been replaced by rap music, modern luk thung, and other entertainments reflective of the

52 modernized world and highly influenced by the western entertainment industry. Even forty years ago, Terry Miller’s research mentions the dire state of mawlam, which has continued in a downward trajectory to the present day in terms of its popularity. Though its inclusion causes some consternation among traditional musicians and some scholars due to the khaen’s relevance to traditional Lao culture, the khaen is a popular instrument included in modern ensembles.

With the decline of traditional contexts such as mawlam glawn, khaen musicians must seek new venues and musical forms in which to thrive.98 As a distinctive musical instrument of

Isan culture, the khaen is often prominent in modern music from the region. The Paradise

Bangkok Molam International Band and Boonhugsa are examples of contemporary musicians combining Isan instruments with modern instruments to create a genre of music that is a fusion of old and new musical styles.

The Paradise Bangkok Molam International Band is a multi-piece fusion band that was created by Maft Sai and Chris Menist. Sai and Menist are best known for their Sound of Siam series, a compilation of albums focusing on popular Thai music from 1960 – 1982 such as luk thung, jazz, mawlam, and luk thung Isan. This ensemble is inspired by northeast Thai folk music, as evidenced by the presence of phin, played by Kammao Perdtanon, and khaen, played by

Sawai Kaewsombat. The resulting mix of traditional Isan instruments with modern electric bass and drum set is a modern-day fusion of traditional Isan folk music with modern Western influences like blues and dub. The khaen may serve an accompanying or lead role, playing in both traditional style and popular style.

98 Miller, “From Country Hick to Rural Hip,” 101.

Figure 3.4. The Paradise Bangkok Molam International Band. Photo courtesy of discogs.com.

Boonhugsa is an Isan jazz fusion band from Chiang Mai, Thailand. Their music combines elements of music from Northeast Thailand and jazz, bringing Isan folk elements into the modern music idiom. Boonhugsa’s musical identity emphasizes Isan musical culture. This is portrayed through their conscious effort to play Isan instruments as they are played in traditional

Isan music, e.g., the khaen. The Isan tradition that has the most influence on Boonhugsa’s music is mawlam. Expressing this influence is intended to evoke feelings of nostalgia and enthusiasm among their listeners.

Conclusion

As musical culture in Thailand evolves, new traditions are established that reflect the ever-changing culture of the Isan people. There are many musical spaces where the khaen is recognized as a cultural force of creativity. Though some of these spaces have largely disappeared with the modernization of Thailand, the khaen maintains a distinctive presence in new musical contexts. From an instrument of rural Isan culture and its role in past courtship practices to its prominent use as an accompanying instrument for various vocal traditions, such as mawlam glawn, and appearance in ensemble contexts, such as theatrical genres and the modern ponglang ensemble, the khaen has avoided a loss of cultural value and instead achieved a central place in the midst of Isan’s cultural evolution.

CHAPTER IV

PEDAGOGICAL PRACTICES OF THE KHAEN

Introduction

In western art music, pedagogical practices are constantly going through nuanced changes. There are guilds and associations, groups on Facebook, authors and performers that focus on the art of pedagogical practices. Teaching music is a complex career that usually requires years of higher education. There are multiple approaches to the discipline. New techniques and ideologies about how best to teach a student a technique or skill are vetted by professionals every day on online forums. In Thailand, khaen pedagogy, an oral tradition, is being transformed by a modern Thai population that is growing up with the internet. Modern technology is not fundamentally changing the pedagogy as much as it is providing an abundance of resources for those that are learning how to play the khaen, whether in Thailand or elsewhere.

The internet has become a teaching aid that is changing how people learn the instrument.

Even before the internet was invented, new modern technologies were influencing traditional practices of teaching khaen. Gone were the days of live-in students, students having one master, and a scarcity of information. Vinyl records, cassettes, radio, television, and compact discs (CDs), were providing new mediums for khaen music to be accessed. These technologies, while maybe not as prevalent in rural Thailand, were making their way into the hands of people from outside the region. The availability of varying entertainment media made Isan folk music more readily accessible to foreigners. Multi-media platforms started to change the way students of music, and specifically khaen, were able to experience the art of khaen performance. These modes of musical experience also became viable as teaching aids.

The khaen is taught through oral tradition. Melodies, styles, techniques, and performance practices are passed on from one generation to the next through speech and in-person interaction.

A teacher teaches his student, who then becomes the teacher of his own students and so on, passing the tradition from one generation to the next. This process is now being transformed through the internet, which has dramatically changed the way we learn music and how musical traditions are being transmitted to a broader audience.

The process of reading notes on a page and reproducing the ideas of a composer has also been enhanced by the advent of the internet. Teachers can post instructional videos online to reach a greater number of students. Orchestras post highlights from concerts that can be used as references for students. Multimedia products can serve as learning material to music students.

Students now have far more access to artists to imitate sound, style, and presentation than ever before. These new advances in technology provide a fertile landscape of teaching materials that have changed the way we learn music, providing teachers with a wide variety of materials to develop hybrid learning environments that enhance their students’ learning process, whether through oral or written tradition. The most effective techniques and practices from oral tradition and written notation can be adapted to the individual learners needs.

This chapter focuses on oral tradition as it is traditionally practiced in Thailand, the introduction of some standardization into the practice, and a hybridization of the tradition by musicians from outside of Thailand utilizing modern technologies to learn. Through interviews with a Thai professor from Mahasarakham and four non-Thai musicians, the topic of oral tradition, standardization, and hybridization of the learning process is discussed.

Oral Tradition

In the past, students moved into the homes of their teachers to learn how to play the khaen. Although today this practice is rare, some students from outside the country or the local area are at times sent to the homes of famous mawlam and mawkhaen to take lessons. In contrast to this tradition, many Isan khaen players are brought up hearing the sounds of the khaen in their homes. Many mawkhaen began learning their art from their father, grandfather, or uncle.99 It was once believed that only a male from one of these mawkhaen families could learn the khaen.

If a person’s father or close relative was a mawkhaen then he would undoubtedly be a khaen player because the skills were believed to be passed down only through the family.100 This particular view ignores the scores of children in khaen families that did not end up playing the khaen or the many mawkhaen that did not have khaen playing relatives. People born into these mawkhaen families did, however, have more chances to hear khaen music on a regular basis and internalize it.

Students that did not benefit from being born into a khaen family had to find a teacher.

The student or his parents would ask a khaen teacher to accept them. If he was accepted as a student, he would take part in a wai khru ceremony to honor the teacher. The student would bring a small tray or bowl of candles, incense, and flowers as an offering to the teacher. For the first lesson, the teacher would demonstrate the fingering technique, how to hold the instrument, and the breathing technique employed to play the khaen. The student would then spend time practicing his khaen until he was comfortable with the fingerings.101

99 Jarernchai Chonpairot, personal correspondence, May 22, 2020.

100 Ibid., May 22, 2020.

101 Ibid., May 22, 2020.

Once the student was familiar enough with the instrument to start learning from the teacher, the teacher would begin to teach the student lai yai by playing a song or melodic passages for the student in that mode.102 During the lessons, the student was responsible for observing the teacher, listening to the melody and memorizing the tune. The student would repeat the tune until he was able to play it without mistakes.103 If the student did not live with his teacher, he would go home and practice until he felt ready to learn more from the teacher.

Once a student could play the first piece to the satisfaction of the teacher, he could move on to the second piece, which was usually in lai sutsanaen.104 The cycle of the teacher playing, the student observing, listening and imitating, the teacher giving feedback, and the student going home to practice was repeated for several lessons. If the student lived with his teacher, he would stay anywhere from three to six months or longer, if necessary.105

102 Jarernchai Chonpairot, personal correspondence, May 22, 2020.

103 Priwan Nanongkham, “Khaen Repertoires: The Development of Lao Traditional Music in Northeast Thailand” (paper presented at the 1st International Conference on Lao Studies, Dekalb, IL, May 20-22, 2005), 14.

104 Jarernchai Chonpairot, personal correspondence, May 22, 2020.

105 Nanongkham, “Khaen Repertoires: The Development of Lao Traditional Music in Northeast Thailand,” 15.

Figure 4.2. Jonny Olsen, also known as Jonny Khaen. Photograph courtesy of Jonny Olsen.

Jonny Olsen Wants to Be Lao

In the last few decades, it has become rare for students to stay with teachers. That practice is mostly a tradition of the past.106 The effectiveness of the practice is exemplified by the success of Jonny Olsen, an American khaen player who in 2005, won the Khon Kaen Khaen

Competition in Khon Kaen, Thailand. Before learning to play the khaen, Olsen grew up in

California. He used to skateboard and was in punk rock bands (perhaps foreshadowing, one such band being named L.A.O. (Life’s All Over)). In 2002, he was working in the kitchen of a vegan restaurant that served Thai cuisine. Here he would start to become accustomed to the sounds of

Thai music, singing Isan folk songs with his friend, Thongdee.107 Thongdee was from Isan and introduced Olsen to the sounds of Isan folk music. Eventually, Olsen’s enthusiasm for Isan music led to a group trip to Thailand with his coworkers. While in Thailand, he found a small toy khaen

(khaen hok) and bought it. This was just a souvenir but after he played the instrument, he knew

106 Jarernchai Chonpairot, personal correspondence, May 22, 2020.

107 Jonny Olsen, interview, June 4, 2020.

60 he needed a better khaen. Thongdee introduced Olsen to khaen players and makers in Buriram

Province, Thailand. After hearing the skilled players, Olsen knew he wanted to play like they did. He also knew that he had to stay in Thailand in order to learn the instrument. Deciding to stay in Buriram for six months, Olsen began his traditional training on the khaen. Jonny Olsen said of the experience “I was really amazed to see the master khaen players there and I instantly wanted to play like they were…I went to other villages learning from other masters in Northeast

Thailand and Laos. The whole time I was recording so that in the future I could listen to it again, in case I forgot something. Now I got it all memorized.”108

When asked what possessed him to study the khaen so seriously, he said, “something about the sound really connected with me; my heart and spirit. I wanted to learn it because I thought it was fun and there was something magical about the khaen. You know, it’s like dance music. It’s catchy and fun.”109 By the time he began to study the khaen, Olsen had learned Isan and Lao folk songs through Thongdee, traveled through Thailand, and was primed for the experience.

After his initial six month stay in Buriram, Olsen’s next trip to Thailand was for a year and a half. During these eighteen months he learned many Isan folk songs that he still remembers today. It took Olsen around three years to progress from absolute beginner to winning the 2005

Khon Kaen Competition, making him the first and only foreigner to date to win the competition.

During those three years, he took lessons with khaen masters from around Isan, such as Sombat

108 Jonny Olsen, “About Jonny Olsen,” Laotian American National Alliance, last modified March 1, 2012, https://www.facebook.com/LANAUSA.ORG/posts/about-jonny-olseni-was-first-introduced-to-lao-culture-by- working-at-a-thai-rest/10150717738817835/.

109 Jonny Olsen, interview, June 4, 2020.

Simlah, a blind khaen player considered by many to be a living legend.110 Jonny Olsen also studied mawlam with Mae Ratri Sivilai,

When asked why he thought he won the Khon Kaen Competition, he said, “It probably had to do with the entire performance. I mixed up all the styles that I had learned. I also danced like the tradition demands. The other performers did not have as clean articulations and did not seem to commit to the performance the way I did. Perhaps I was just naïve when putting myself out there like that, but I think it won the competition for me.”111

Jonny Olsen’s career as a mawkhaen and mawlam propelled him into being a minor pop star in Laos. He was able to fuse his past as a punk rock musician and create a kind of pop music that was different from anything that Laotian people had seen from a foreigner. “I wanted to do something different, to turn it into something more like rock, to appeal to a wider audience.

Because if I just sang the old-style folk songs, I think it'd be boring for people. But I never thought I'd do this. It just happened.”112

When Olsen was learning the khaen in Buriram, his teacher did not speak English and

Jonny spoke no Thai. Before his lessons began, Olsen performed a wai khru to be “given the khaen spirit by the teacher.”113 Since his teacher spoke no English and Jonny spoke no Thai, his only goals were to watch, listen, and practice until he could recreate what he was taught. His teacher would show him the fingerings and the patterns without the aid of any solfege or

110 Ibid., June 4, 2020.

111 Jonny Olsen, interview with author, June 4, 2020.

112 “Koy Pen American - Jonny Olsen Is Bigger Than Jesus (In Southeast Asia),” Vice, last modified July 31, 2009, https://www.vice.com/en/article/qbzz53/koy-pen-american-jonny-olsen-is-bigger-than-jesus-in-southeast- asia.

113 Jonny Olsen, Interview by author, June 4, 2020.

62 mnemonic devices. At first, his teacher would show him simple patterns and then the patterns began to include more intricate leaps and intervals. The first lai he learned was sutsanaen. During his time taking lessons, the local farmers would practice after work and were mesmerized by the

“foreigners’ interest” in their music.114 His first six months in Buriram followed the pattern of observe, listen, practice. He also recorded all of these lessons.

Olsen later learned of Ratri Sivilai from fellow American khaen player and composer,

Christopher Adler. Olsen returned to Thailand in 2003, to study with Sivilai in the small village of Huasai. For four months, he spent every night practicing. He understood almost nothing the teacher said, but recorded the lessons, replaying them for days until he could reproduce all the tones the teacher made. In this way, he learned how to sing the sounds of the language before he learned how to speak the language. Olsen recalled, “I stayed inside all the time, practicing these songs, trying to sound as native as I could possibly get.”115

Khaen Pedagogy at the University Level

Through several interviews conducted through Facebook messenger and emails,

Jarernchai Chonpairot, a professor in the College of Music at Mahasarakham University explained how the current university curriculum is designed and how it supports khaen musicians. At the university level there are three areas of music study; Thai classical music,

Western art music and Isan folk music. Music students come into college planning to major on a specific instrument. In addition, students must also learn piano, khong wong yai, and khaen.116 In

Thailand, much like in the United States, employment as a music teacher might include teaching

114 Jonny Olsen, Interview by author, June 4, 2020.

115 Ibid., June 4, 2020.

116 Jarernchai Chonpairot, personal correspondence, May 22, 2020.

63 all types of music for students from elementary school to high school. There may only be one music teacher as well. These situations require the teacher to be able to present Thai classical music, Thai folk music, and Western music to their students. They must learn enough during their university training to teach and perform a little bit of all three types of music.

By the time students interested in the khaen reach college, most of them have been taking lessons throughout high school. The university khaen teachers are there to help them with some teaching aids, like charts that show the tonal system or fingerings. The tradition of learning the khaen through listening, observing, and memorizing has not changed.117 While it might seem that a major overhaul of the oral tradition would be needed to standardize the pedagogy at the university level, in actuality, great care to preserve as much of the oral tradition as possible.

Little notation is used at all. Khaen students are also required to do fieldwork through interviews, recordings, and transcriptions of professional khaen players. They utilize these resources in their practice and at the end of each semester take a final exam that consists of performing solos that were recorded and transcribed during fieldwork.

Khaen pedagogy has never been standardized and remains as such to a large degree.

Some schools, however, now use Thai alphabet notation. Thai alphabet notation associates Thai letters to corresponding solfege syllables. This is a borrowed technique from Central Thai notation.118 In this borrowed system, do-re-mi-fa-sol-la-ti is represented by the Thai letters ด-ร-

117 Jarernchai Chonpairot, personal correspondence, May 22, 2020.

118 Ibid., May 22, 2020.

ม-ฟ-ศ-ล-ท. Some teachers try to use this notation to transcribe improvisations but “this is not an effective way of teaching Isan music.”119

At Mahasarakham University, students still must find a khaen master outside of the school to study with after they have learned the basics of khaen playing through their university teachers. The role of the khaen master is to teach the student more advanced solo pieces. The students then present these solo pieces during a senior recital.

In addition to studying with a local khaen master, students now have the benefits of using cassettes, CDs or VCDs, books written by Terry Miller and Jarernchai Chonpairot, and the internet. While transcribing music and using books gives a student an idea of how improvisation is performed, it does not replace the listening, observing, and memorizing from their outside teachers. Because Isan music is not precomposed, like that of Thai classical music, the

“traditional methods still prevail.”120

Standardizing the Practice

In his book An Introduction to Playing the Kaen, Terry E. Miller attempted to standardize the pedagogy of learning khaen based on his research and personal experience with learning the instrument. This is the most thorough method book found in the English language and can be used similarly to how a method or etude book is used in the western art music tradition.

Christopher Adler, for example, has utilized this book among other resources with great success.

Miller’s book coupled with Adler’s training in composition and transcription allowed Adler to

119 Jarernchai Chonpairot, personal correspondence, May 22, 2020.

120 Ibid., May 22, 2020.

65 build a base of knowledge about how the khaen was traditionally played and informed his many compositions for the instrument as well as his own playing technique.

Figure 4.3. Christopher Adler. Photograph courtesy of http://www.christopheradler.com.

In an interview conducted on April 6, 2020, Christopher Adler spoke about how he learned the khaen. “I was really looking for something new to study because there was no gamelan at Duke University. I saw some Thai music and khaen music and mawlam at the

Smithsonian Folk Life Festival [1994] and that was it.”121 Coincidentally, Adler found a khaen at a thrift store in Durham, NC and it was playable. His history as an organist made the khaen resonate well with him. The sounds of the note clusters through the pipes of an aerophone were familiar to his ears. Having already developed both a research methodology and good practice habits through his training as a composer, he searched for books, audio recordings, video

121 Christopher Adler, interview, April 6, 2020.

66 recordings, and anything else that would enable him to learn this newfound instrument. His early learning process was dominated by transcribing solos and recreating what he heard on recordings and playing from Terry Miller’s book An Introduction to Playing the Kaen. The traditional method of listening, observing, and memorizing was the natural process that he was taking without stepping foot in Thailand or learning from a live khaen master.

After about three years of learning the khaen and graduate study at Duke University, he was able to visit Thailand. With Ajaan Jarernchai’s help, he was introduced to a mawlam, Ratri

Sivilai, in Khon Kaen for five or six days, where he met some of her khaen players, who were mostly talented high schoolers. His trip to Thailand also served as an opportunity to purchase some recordings that were not available in the United States. His early visits to Thailand were sporadic and only came every few years; although today he returns to Thailand at least once a year.

On his second and third trips to Thailand in the late 1990s, he was able to meet master khaen players, make more recordings, and talk to them about what they played and why they played certain melodies and improvisations. His early focus was to do as much research as possible, so he learned how to speak and read Thai very quickly. Much of the research in the

1990s was in Thai as it is today in the 2020s. Through his research, he was able to learn specific characteristics of different genres by matching his transcriptions to sleeve information that came with cassettes and CDs. It was not long before he realized that genre distinctions were more about the singers and less about the khaen player.122

Adler developed his own personal playing style through his in-depth research and transcriptions. He stayed true to the tradition through transcribing music and learning what

122 Christopher Adler, interview, April 6, 2020.

67 characteristics were acceptable and what was not acceptable, by taking lessons with khaen masters in Thailand. It was important for him to learn and stick to the tradition as closely as possible, even though he was learning in a non-traditional way from abroad. This is how he showed respect for the tradition.123 It was not only his playing, but his respect for the culture and the traditions of Isan folk music that endeared him to Thai people.

In the 1990s, there was a widespread opinion throughout khaen researchers that standardizing the traditions was going to lead to less creativity. Recent history, however, shows the diversity of players and talent visible on YouTube counters the opinions of Ajaan Jarernchai and Adler. “I think the internet has done wonders…there are a lot of really good original ideas out there now…I feel like the tradition is in good shape now.”124 The internet has helped to create a place for the younger generation of serious players to showcase their talents. In Adler’s estimation, the solo tradition of khaen performance is just as varied and original as ever.

Figure 4.4. Hal Walker album cover for Khaen Rock. Photograph courtesy of https://www.halwalkermusic.com.

123 Christopher Adler, interview, April 6, 2020.

124 Ibid., April 6, 2020.

Hal Walker is another person who learned the khaen through non-traditional means.

Walker is a singer and songwriter from Kent, OH. He has learned several instruments from outside the western art music idiom and played them in ways that are non-traditional, such as the banakula (shaken idiophone) and the khaen. He learned the khaen in a similar way to Christopher

Adler. Walker read Miller’s books, listened to recordings, and experimented on his own. Unlike

Adler, Walker was not focused on learning how to play the khaen in a traditional manner. His interest was in taking this instrument that sounded beautiful to him and playing it in new and innovative ways.

Walker has learned the khaen through years of experimentation. His finger technique is not what a traditional khaen player would use. The music he makes is not what you would hear from a Thai or Lao mawkhaen. His music is, however, harmonically complex and very accessible to western musicians. The popularity of his Tik-Tok videos, where he created short clips of his own compositions for khaen, have resulted in many collaborations with other musicians.125 His process for learning the khaen was simply to learn where each pitch was on the khaen, find harmonies that he thought sounded interesting, and make music. Over the intervening years he has developed his own style and sound.126

Conclusion

Music pedagogy changes over time. The introduction of modern technology, such as radio and television, record, cassette and CD players, the internet and streaming media,

YouTube, Facebook live, Spotify and Apple Music, have fundamentally changed the way music is consumed, taught, and learned. Some traditional approaches to music pedagogy can be

125 Tik-Tok is a video-sharing social networking service used to create and share short music, lip-sync, dance, comedy and talent videos of 3 to 15 seconds, and short looping videos of 3 to 60 seconds.

126 “Spotify,” Hal Walker Singer, Songwriter, Musical Explorer, https://www.halwalkermusic.com/spotify/.

69 circumvented by these new technologies, such as having a teacher’s physical presence. Rather than seeing a diminishing effect on pedagogy, advances in technology are strengthening the ways in which pedagogy can be most effective. For instance, through the advent of the internet, interest in music of previously regional genres is greatly increasing.

As interest in previously obscure musical genres and instruments from researchers, students, and enthusiasts increases, it is reasonable to conclude that an increasing number of people will be following non-traditional approaches to learning music. We could see more students following similar approaches to studying khaen as artists such as Christopher Adler or

Hal Walker. The outcome of these ventures into unfamiliar music will certainly have varying success. The level of proficiency or success is irrelevant to the reality that students now have access to technologies in combination with resources, such as print media, that can and will allow them to learn how to play instruments and music effectively.

A new age of pedagogy and learning does not mean traditional methods to learning music will end. Innovative ways to modernize khaen pedagogy, while also holding firmly to past traditions are being introduced to the university system. At Mahasarakham University, the students that major on the khaen receive a high level of education, while also being directed to the community to find khaen masters to teach them. This method is an effort to keep the individuality and variability of khaen performance and the improvisational depth that has historically been present. The introduction of modern technologies has only strengthened the number of opportunities for students to learn.

The tradition of living with and among khaen musicians, much like Jonny Olsen and students of the past, enveloping themselves in the art and the culture accompanying the music tradition, is largely gone. Whether the student learns from books, through a combined approach

70 that is more structured, or through the purely oral tradition, students have many effective options for their learning. Today’s ever-present access to information has encouraged a blossoming era of global access, which continues to change how we acquire, approach, and learn music.

CHAPTER V

AN AMERICAN PERSPECTIVE ON KHAEN PEDAGOGY

INTRODUCTION

This project began as an investigation of my own learning process. I wanted to know how

I learn, to examine what processes I used while learning and to know if there is a better way for me to learn music. I also wanted to understand what elements of the learning process were limiting to my musical growth. Understanding, for example, how notation versus rote memorization helped or limited my musical progress was essential. Identifying how music pedagogy benefited or hindered me enabled me to understand how I internalized music, so that it becomes a part of my musical lexicon. Acknowledging that such an examination of my personal learning processes is a necessarily subjective and reflexive inquiry, the conclusions drawn here are based on my three decades of experience as a musician from elementary school to college, from my introduction to the recorder, my experience on trumpet leading to euphonium, then tuba, and finally trombone.

When I began to learn how to play the khaen, I was already well equipped with musical experiences that aided in the process of internalizing khaen performance. I studied many instruments to varying levels of proficiency -- some to a professional level, others to an amateur level and still others to a hobbyist level. As a classically trained trombone player, I spent years practicing three to six hours a day improving my playing. The techniques that I learned in the process have proven effective when applied to subsequent instruments. Learning the khaen has likewise utilized many of the skills I previously acquired. This process of learning a new instrument offered me an opportunity to apply what I have learned as a classically trained

72 musician to a music tradition unlike anything that I experienced before; a tradition that from the beginning was entirely foreign to me.

I began my musical education as a child more than thirty years ago. Aside from playing the Jeopardy theme on a toy xylophone, I had little musical training when I began to study the trumpet at age eleven. The trumpet led to my interest in learning the euphonium, tuba, and the trombone. Eventually, I chose to earn a performance degree on bass trombone. I had also chosen to learn other instruments along the way, such as the ukulele, bass guitar, and piano. By the time

I began learning the khaen, I had a long history of musical practice, which informed my learning process. Having previous experience in music required that I analyze how it affected the way that I learned the khaen.

Reflexivity is a theoretical approach to research in sociology that was developed by sociologist, Pierre Bourdieu. Reflexive is defined as “relating to, characterized by, or being a relation that exists between an entity and itself.”127 Bourdieu’s theoretical approach of reflexivity is therefore understood as the process of self-reflection given by the researcher; in this case, between the pedagogy of khaen as an oral tradition and my experience with the pedagogy of western classical music. The relationship between the informant and researcher is circular. The informant and the researcher both have a shared influence on one another. This can show itself in research as the unknowing introduction of personal cultural biases being imparted on the subject.

Using this theory, a researcher can examine their research and see at what points their own cultural experiences interact with the research. Pierre Bourdieu’s use of reflexivity is a research approach that consciously acknowledges and studies the impact of the researcher’s ethnocentric biases on their analysis of their subject of investigation. In “Towards a Reflexive Sociology: A

127 "Reflexive," Merriam-Webster.com, Accessed October 3, 2018, https://www.merriam- webster.com/dictionary/reflexive.

Workshop with Pierre Bourdieu,” by Loic J. D. Wacquant, Wacquant considers Pierre

Bourdieu’s work as a theory that, “presents a multi-faceted challenge to the present divisions and accepted modes of thinking of sociology.”128 In short, reflexivity is a mode of thinking that places the researcher in a position of self-evaluation, in order to minimize the impact of their ethnocentrism on the analysis of their subject.

Even though the point was to learn through oral tradition, this was perhaps shortsighted. I began this endeavor with a wealth of knowledge and two decades of experience with music. I brought with me some preconceived notions about what the process would be like and used my prior experience to enhance the overall process. My experience is not that of a student starting with no musical background. This differentiation between me as an experienced performer and that of a student with no musical background is essential in understanding the conclusions that I offer in this chapter.

The Lessons

Lesson One – Holding the Instrument, Breath Control, and Notes

I was excited when Ajaan Khio agreed to teach me how to play the khaen. We did not talk about how the lessons would go. I sat on the floor cross-legged in front of him as he played each khaen in his office. He found one that he thought would be appropriate for me and handed it to me. I could only hold the instrument. I knew how to make a sound but nothing else. This is how our first lesson began. Ajaan Khio showed me where to put my hands, what pipes each finger played, how to make the right embouchure, and a cluster of notes to play.

The first thing we did was play a tone cluster. I do not remember what it was, nor did I know enough to understand it or remember it. The purpose was to learn how to make the sound

128 Loic J. D. Wacquant, “Towards a Reflexive Sociology: A Workshop with Pierre Bourdieu,” in Sociological Theory 7, no. 1 (Spring 1989): 26.

74 even between the exhale and the inhale. This proved to be more difficult than I thought it would be. As a trombone player, I know how to control my exhale to a desired effect, but I had no concept of how to inhale to the same desired effect. Controlling your breathing to produce musical sounds is simply not a natural action.

When inhaling to play an instrument like the trombone, your only consideration is to inhale as much air as physically possible in the amount of time you have. Sometimes you have several beats, one beat, or a fraction of a beat. You are breathing in a way that should feel as natural as possible while taking a large, deliberate breath that is quite unnatural. The process of making a sound on the trombone requires a controlled exhale, manipulated by buzzing lips, to create the sounds that you desire and an inhale of as much air as is needed to play the next musical phrase. It takes years of repeated thoughtful breathing and practice to be efficient in this process. Inefficiency when breathing is detrimental to good playing.

In my years playing with the Chesapeake Bay Wind Ensemble, at Appalachian State

University, and with a number of other ensembles, I was able to develop a breathing technique that felt natural when playing brass instruments. This experience was useful because I already understood how to control my breathing, which easily transferred to playing the khaen, though it was quite different. Breathing while playing the khaen is very rhythmic. It is timed with emphasized notes and inhaling and exhaling happens more rapidly. This differs from the trombone where breathing is based on melody. A trombone player will inhale large amounts of air between the end and beginning of musical phrases. This is not necessary when playing the khaen.

I did not need to take a huge breath before initiating a note and I did not need a quick controlled inhale playing the khaen. Instead, what was needed were rhythmically planned

75 breaths. The inhale is controlled in a way that recreates the same sound in volume and intensity, as the exhale and vice versa. Learning this skill comprised the first few minutes of my first lesson; breathing in and out to create an even sound on the khaen. The next few minutes of the lesson were spent learning the order of the pipes, playing them in octave pairs, and learning some strategies for becoming familiar with the fingering patterns of the instrument over the next few weeks. This lesson took place on the last day of classes during the 2017 fall semester at Kent

State University. The next few weeks would be winter break, which allowed me time to get comfortable with the khaen and learn how to play the notes in ascending and descending order.

Playing notes ascending and descending was often a mundane exercise when practicing khaen. Ajaan Khio’s advice was to play the ascending and descending notes in different patterns, for instance, playing an ascending and descending pattern with intervals of thirds or fourths.

When practicing different note patterns on the khaen creativity was essential to getting past the monotony of the drills. While developing familiarity and muscle memory with the instrument, these kinds of exercises were also the starting point for developing creativity for improvisation.

It was fundamental to keep these exercises interesting.

Expanding intervals (figure 5.1) was an exercise that reinforced familiarity with fingerings and with a variety of intervals. I have used this exercise in many different contexts, such as with university ensembles, as well as in private lessons to reinforce pitch accuracy. In practice with the khaen, it reinforced familiarity with the instrument, such as note and finger placement, and was played slowly at first, gradually increasing in speed. I used this exercise with the khaen to develop muscle memory in my fingers. With enough practice, the fingers just started to go where they needed without my thinking about them.

Figure 5.1. Expanding intervals from the middle octave (R4). This helps situate fingers and starts to develop finger technique.

Ascending and descending the range of the instrument in differing intervals was another exercise that built familiarity. The exercise below was especially useful when playing in octave pairs. Adding the bottom octave and playing in octave pairs developed the proper dexterity for playing khaen in addition to building increased comfort in the fingering technique. These exercises were some of the ways that I learned how to navigate playing the khaen. Even though these patterns were utilized as exercises for finger technique, they were still played musically and should be played with the same amount of intensity and emotion as any other melodic line.

Figure 5.2. This exercise is an example of how the notes on a khaen can be explored utilizing different intervals between notes.

Lesson 2 – Learning A Traditional Melody

The first lesson after winter break served two purposes - to display fingering technique and to start learning a traditional melody. Fingering technique was developed by playing numerous exercises, like Figures 5.1 and 5.2 repeatedly. Each repetition would increase in tempo. If any clarity was lost by increasing speed, the last speed in which the notes were clear would be played until Ajaan Khio felt I was ready to increase the speed, focusing on clarity of notes and fluency of the fingers.

The second purpose of the lesson was to learn a traditional melody. Perform, repeat, correct, repeat; this was the pattern for all subsequent lessons. Ajaan Khio would perform the phrase. I would repeat it. He would correct me. I would repeat it again. This continued until the new melodic phrase was firmly set to memory. Next, we would play the previously learned phrase followed by a new phrase to ensure the sequence was correct. Once the both phrases were smoothly connected, the lesson ended.

Over the next two years, every lesson followed this same pattern. There was no set length for these lessons nor for the period of time between lessons. Typically, the lessons lasted about

15-20 minutes with the longest lesson taking 45 minutes and the shortest lesson about 5 minutes.

I learned the entire melody for Tangwai, a traditional Lao melody, in roughly one month.

Tangwai in Lai Yai

Tangwai was the melody Ajaan Khio taught me to explore the modes of lai yai, lai noi, and lai sae. I learned Tangwai in a methodical order; basic melody, basic melody plus minor ornamentation, and finally a traditional performance presentation of tangwai. The goal was to learn this song thoroughly and in the traditional Isan style. In addition to Tangwai, I learned patterns that can be used as opening material to improvisation (figure 5.4).129

Early lessons focused on reinforcing memory of the main melody. This process was slower than reading notated music, as the latter usually does not require memorization of the music at all. Memorizing the music alleviates the need for sheet music and instills in the performer a musical independence early in the learning process. I found this approach quite rewarding, as I could more rapidly begin to ornament and improvise on the melody.

129 Priwan Nanongkham, lesson, March 19, 2019.

Once I had memorized the melody in lai yai, we began adding ornaments, such as grace notes, and a slight rhythmic change. This process further engrained the melody into my musical memory, which allowed me more freedom to improvise my performances. Once Ajaan Khio felt

I had mastered the melody with improvised ornamentation in lai yai, lai noi was introduced.

Tangwai in Lai Noi

The introduction to lai noi was unlike any introduction I previously had to a new piece of music. I was shown the cluster chord, which used all of the notes of the mode. Knowing which notes are in the note cluster tells the performer which notes are in the mode (figure 5.3). I was given no direction as to what I should be doing with lai noi other than to experiment with the mode and try to find tangwai in it. It was now my responsibility to put the notes in order to create patterns to facilitate familiarity and explore the mode through learning tangwai and other melodic patterns previously learned. With this direction by Ajaan Khio, I also needed to ensure I was improvising in both modes. Free improvisation helped me become more comfortable playing the two modes and also allowed me to explore my own creativity. The next lesson was spent making sure I knew the pentatonic scale of lai noi, comparing its differences to lai yai, and learning how to play the basic melody of tangwai within this new mode. Additionally, I was progressing to a more complex version of tangwai in lai yai mode.

Figure 5.3. This example shows the main chord cluster for lai noi and how that note cluster breaks down into the ascending and descending patterns.

Introduction Phrase

Learning to play an introductory phrase in the correct style was the next skill taught to me. After a couple of lessons, I was able to play the introduction in the proper style. Once I learned the new introductory phrase in lai yai, I was instructed to learn it in lai noi. In the thangyao scale, melodies are transferrable between lai yai, noi, and sae. A student can develop familiarity between multiple modes while having a limited repertoire. The skill of transferring material from mode to mode was difficult. While I was learning in these two modes, lai sae was also introduced and I was tasked with transferring the melodic material into this new modal context.

Figure 5.4. Introduction phrase taught by Ajaan Khio.

Lai Sae

Lai sae was introduced much like lai noi, except with the warning that this mode did not use standard fingerings and was rarely learned. Understanding how the fingerings worked for lai sae took longer than the previous modes. I soon realized this was the “E” mode from Terry

Miller’s research.130 The balance of notes between hands, which is the basis for the arrangement of the khaen pipes, is undone in this mode. L2-L4 and R3-R7 are played consecutively.131 My exploration of this mode was slow. I found it challenging to adapt to the irregular fingering

130 Miller, Traditional Music of the Lao, 266.

131 Ibid., 266.

80 pattern. By this point, my muscle memory was solidified, so my fingers instinctively searched out the standard pipes. Readjusting to a mode that makes use of so many consecutive pipes and a slightly altered fingering was difficult. This irregularity made learning lai sae more complicated than lai yai and lai noi and required much slower and deliberate practice to build confidence.

Combining Skills Across Three Modes

Being introduced to three modes and having a melody learned, the focus now became learning tangwai and the introduction phrase in each mode. I transferred the basic melody of tangwai to lai noi and lai sae, while also learning how to ornament and improvise on tangwai in lai yai. This included adding more ornaments, adding tone clusters, creating new rhythms and allowing myself to be creative when improvising on the melody. By this time, I was comfortable playing tangwai and I could improvise over the melody in lai yai.

End of Formal Lessons

Unfortunately, as I had just gained the confidence in mastering a melody and ability to improvise in these various modes, my lessons came to an abrupt end. The last semester of my study at Kent State University was cut short due to the COVID-19 pandemic in the United

States. Our semester was only half complete and social distancing began and continued for many months. Students were sent home, faculty were locked out of their offices, and the campus was empty. All classes moved to online delivery and face-to-face classes ended. Performance classes, such as music ensembles, dance, and private lessons stopped. Though my time learning the khaen in this setting ended, my journey learning the khaen continued.

Method Book

The motivation for this research was to learn the khaen in a way that was as close to traditional as possible. I purposefully avoided utilizing Terry E. Miller’s method book, An

Introduction to Playing Kaen, as a pedagogical resource. Though I learned much in reading the book and it aided in my understanding of the instrument’s construction, how to care for the khaen, basic techniques, and its modes, I did not use the book as a method to getting ahead of

Ajaan Khio. It was my opinion that understanding the oral tradition and its effectiveness would have been subverted with the use of this resource as a method book. However, once the coronavirus abruptly ended the spring semester of 2020, I felt it was time to refocus my learning process through written material.

A reliance on method books is the same way I have learned how to play all western brass instruments. School and private teachers of western art music rely on the use of method books to guide their students. This allows for easy assigned tasks and trackable goals from week to week.

I use method books with my trombone students. This was a return to what was familiar to me.

Reading notes on a page and converting that visual stimulus into music.

With Terry Miller’s book, I quickly learned new modes and could advance at my own pace by reading the music and not relying solely on my memory. My familiarity with lai yai, lai noi, and lai sae meant there was little need for reviewing these sections of the book, however, I did use them for the well-known melodies transcribed in western notation. This quickly allowed me to increase the number of simple melodies that I knew, as well as ornament them with the process I learned from Ajaan Khio.

The technical patterns, introductions and endings, and melodies presented in this book allowed me to quickly learn new material. With notation, I could perform the music without ever having heard a melody, having already developed the skill of reading western notation. Through this method, I became familiar with lai sutsanaen, lai bo-sai, and lai soi without focusing on

82 simultaneously trying to memorize and play various melodies. I appreciated this transition from oral tradition because it was familiar and self-guided.

Despite the absence of in-person instruction, learning khaen performance with this method book in combination with other technology, such as recordings and streaming media, was possible. This kind of multi-media approach offered me the benefit of student paced learning. The combination of all of these different mediums can substitute for the absence of a live teacher, but does not replace the overall effectiveness of having one to provided immediate feedback.

Combined Strengths

When I started to learn the khaen, I had no interest in the same learning process I followed when studying the euphonium, tuba, and trombone. My curiosity was on the differences between the oral tradition and the western written tradition. My preconceptions were that neither approach would be objectively, or even subjectively better than the other. In learning the khaen, I came to realize that these approaches complement each other. By studying through a purely oral process, I also became more aware of how aspects of oral tradition are utilized in our modern academic setting where music literacy is emphasized. For instance, the production of a desirable sound on trombone requires that a student be able to reproduce a preferred sound. The teacher plays a note that is easily played by the student, such as “F” in the staff. The student would be responsible for hearing, internalizing, and recreating the sound to the best of their ability. When a sound is internalized and the student can hear that sound in their head, it becomes the object of recreation. The student would then practice with an increased emphasis on their new found idea of a desirable sound. Someone, i.e., the instructor, needs to provide the example for the student to emulate. This process is represented in oral tradition.

As a beginner student in band or orchestra, a primary focus is on learning scales.

Familiarity with how to play scales from memory in new and creative ways aided me in practicing the different khaen modes in ways that were musically interesting to me. Being creative early in the learning process allowed me to more quickly feel comfortable while playing a mode or scale. This also helped to break up the repetitive monotony of practicing modes and scales with no specific melody in mind.

When learning a new mode, I played patterns that sounded musical to me. Sometimes these patterns were created by focusing on specific intervals. Sometimes I concentrated on interesting melodic contours (Figure 5.5). Whichever pattern that I used, I tried to play in a musically interesting way. Though I had received this practice tip from many previous teachers, my trombone professor at Appalachian State University, Dr. Drew Leslie, encouraged this mentality as a staple of my practice routine.

Figure 5.5. An example of a melodic exploration. Melodies like this can be improvised to develop familiarity within specific modes.

Aural training, such the skill of being able to sing a written melody without first hearing it, i.e., sight-singing, was crucial to my ability to transfer knowledge from one mode to another.

Transposing melodies required that I use my ability to hear the difference between keys.

Classical trombonists regularly learn to play orchestral excerpts in all twelve keys of the equal-

84 tempered tuning system.132 Learning an excerpt in a different key teaches the musician to play in tune and helps to memorize the melody and intervallic relationships. This particular skill translated well to playing the khaen. The scales within thangyao and thangsan, for example, sound similar, so transposing between modes is considered a necessary skill.

For example, the modes lai yai, lai noi, and lai sae share the same intervallic relationships between notes. In ascending order, the intervals are a minor third, major second, major second, minor third, and a major second. A student who learns one mode can then transfer what they know to the other two modes. While Thai and Lao khaen players do not think in this manner, the ability to transpose is an important skill that helps in the learning process.133 The student becomes a more well-rounded musician by developing their skills in all modes. Internalizing the different sonic features of each mode comes more easily with familiarity. Though the mode might be unfamiliar or new, having learned the melody encourages transposition to the new mode.

Lai Yai Lai Noi Lai Sae

A to C = m3 D to F = m3 E to G = m 3

C to D = M2 F to G = M2 G to A = M2

D to E = M2 G to A = M2 A to B = M2

E to G = m3 A to C = m3 B to D = m3

G to A = M2 C to D = M2 D to E = M2

Figure 5.6. This table shows the relationships between each note for the three lai derived from thangyao.

132 Orchestral excerpts are small sections of orchestral standards in which your instrument has a fundamentally difficult or important part. These are used as audition materials for amateur and professional orchestras all over the world.

133 Priwan Nanongkham, lesson, October 22, 2019.

Learning the khaen through a modified oral tradition, supplemented with printed material, and having access to more khaen performances than students thirty years ago, made it possible for me to continue learning the khaen even without being completely engulfed in the culture. For me, using this combined approach to learning the khaen was a fortunate outcome after the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Obstacles in Learning Khaen

There are obvious commonalities between learning a musical language through oral tradition versus the western approach that emphasizes written notation that made both seem familiar to me. There are also differences that caused me frustration. I often felt lost during the early stages of learning to play khaen through oral tradition. These feelings of confusion were, however, quickly remedied by leaning on my previous musical experience. If I did not know specifically what I should be playing, I improvised. There were, however, unexpected psychological, rather than musical, challenges, that made learning the khaen difficult.

One of my biggest obstacles in learning the khaen as an outsider to the tradition was imposter syndrome. Imposter syndrome, as defined by Merriam-Webster is “a psychological condition that is characterized by persistent doubt concerning one's abilities or accomplishments accompanied by the fear of being exposed as a fraud despite evidence of one's ongoing success.”134 This manifested itself as doubts about my ability and my motives for learning the khaen. These doubts were fueled by my understanding of the theoretical approach of reflexivity as applied to ethnomusicological research. When thinking about my new musical endeavors, I inevitably thought about how I was potentially affecting a musical tradition, which became a

134 “Imposter syndrome,” Merriam-Webster.com, Accessed August 14, 2020, https://www.merriam- webster.com/dictionary/imposter%20syndrome.

86 great concern for me. My research into the folk tradition of khaen performance will likely have an impact, large or small, on the genre and how it is perceived by others. I hope that my research will be viewed positively, however, my worry stunted my development, allowing doubt to enter my mind quite frequently.

The subject of bi-musicality, introduced by Mantle Hood in 1960, is the concept that in order to understand a foreign music, one must develop basic musicianship in the tradition.

If his desire is to comprehend a particular Oriental musical expression so that his

observations and analysis as a musicologist do not prove to be embarrassing, he will have

to persist in practical studies until his basic musicianship is secure.135

This concept of bi-musicality became the defense mechanism that helped me overcome my feelings of inadequacy.

The term bi-musicality suggests that truly understanding a music can only be achieved through performance. Though plagued by doubts caused by my imposter syndrome, bi- musicality enabled me to frame my efforts in learning the khaen as a common experience for ethnomusicologists in their process of research. Though these imposter syndrome feelings did not fully recede, my efforts as a performer-scholar could be viewed through the lens of bi- musicality as a mental approach that is conducive to accepting and learning a new music tradition.

135 Mantle Hood, “The Challenge of ‘Bi-Musicality,’” Ethnomusicology 4, no. 2 (May, 1960) 58, https://www.jstor.org/stable/924263.

The ability to move between different performance traditions has long been a necessary

skill required of musical specialists, particularly those working in urban contexts, in a

variety of traditions around the globe.136

The necessity for this ability to move from one genre to another is a requirement of being a music researcher. Many researchers pursue multiple areas of research, though they are not necessarily proficient in every type of music studied. Being bi-musical, however, enhances our ability to understand the nuances of new and unfamiliar music practices.

Everyone, whether an insider or outsider to a music tradition, starts at the same place when they begin to study music. The concept of bi-musicality gives agency to those learning multiple traditions and explains why this skill is important for researchers, as well as life-long music enthusiasts. “The training of ears, eyes, hands and voice and fluency gained in these skills assure a real comprehension of theoretical studies."137 Learning a new musical tradition provides a direct connection with that musical culture and the knowledge attained through generations of practitioners.

The cultural background of students need not be a barrier if they have an interest and the drive to understand, learn, and take part in the music. Having appropriate guides in this process is important and can occur through direct face-to-face lessons, method books, videos, online lessons, etc. As discussed previously, there are musicians that excel at playing the khaen, like

Jonny Olsen, Christopher Adler, and Hal Walker (see chapter 4).

136 Stephen Cottrell, “Local Bimusicality Among London's Freelance Musicians,” Ethnomusicology 51, No. 1 (Winter 2007): 85, https://www.jstor.org/stable/20174503.

137 Hood, “The Challenge of ‘Bi-Musicality,’” 55.

Khaen Players in the United States of America

Jonny Olsen is the prime example of a foreigner excelling at and mastering a musical culture outside of their own musical background. His ability to envelope himself in the culture early on and spend significant time studying the music eventually led to his winning the 2005

Khon Kaen Khaen Competition.

Dr. Adler, now well into his career as a composer, has been positively received by Lao and Thai musicians as well. His use of different resources, such as audio recordings and transcriptions, allowed him to develop a traditional style. His training in western art music has allowed him to push the cultural boundaries of the khaen while becoming the world’s leading innovator and composer for the khaen.138 .

With regards to Hal Walker and his playing style, which he admits is not traditional, he can still be regarded as a musician experiencing success on the instrument. Through his utilization of social media, he has reached thousands of fans and represents an example of success in music in a new era of immediate access through the internet.139

Conclusion

My initial interest in an instrument that was unfamiliar to me turned into an inquiry about the growth of myself as a musician. Anne Rasmussen, a well-known ethnomusicologist, succinctly captures what I learned during my research.

Whether or not one is born and bred in a musical tradition, one’s musicality is the result of a patchwork of experience. A culturally specific sense of musicality may certainly be developed through the process of being native to that culture, but musicians’ musicalities are also collections of encounters and choices:

138 “Christopher Adler,” New Music USA, accessed September 26, 2020, https://www.newmusicusa.org/profile/christopheradler/.

139 On TikTok, a video sharing app, videos of Hal Walker performing his own compositions have received over 250,000 likes and followers.

pastiches of performances they have experienced, the lessons they have taken, the people with whom they have played, the other musicians they admire, other musics that they play or enjoy, and the technical and cognitive limitations of their own musicianship.140

My purpose was to explore the pedagogical practices of learning the khaen and draw insights from that experience. In the end, the outcome was much more meaningful. I had musical encounters with people from all over the world through our collective musicianship. I shared the stage with musicians and dancers, all of whom I will forever be humbled to have encountered. I have not just learned about music; I have learned about people through their music, which is far more valuable to me than just learning an instrument.

The absence of notation does not make oral tradition different from how we learn music.

Elements of oral traditions, such as imitation, repetition, a dependence on aural skills, like listening and matching pitch, are present in traditions that utilize notation. What I expected to be a brand-new way to learn an instrument and a music tradition ended up being a reinforcement of all the great musical practices of my lifetime. Singing melodies, following a master’s guidance, the elation of improvising creative melodies in a recorded practice session, performing on stage with other musicians, including my teacher, these are highlights that can be taken from every stage of my development as a musician. They are also highlights from a couple years well spent learning how to play the khaen.

The most important lesson I learned over the past two years is that for me, musical journeys, whether within or outside of your culture, are ultimately the same. They start with a beautiful sound that finds its way into your brain. That sound creates curiosity. That curiosity

140 Anne K. Rasmussen, “Bilateral Negotiations in Bimusicality: Insiders, Outsiders, and the ‘Real Version’ in Middle Eastern Music Performance,” Performing Ethnomusicology: Teaching and Representation in World Music Ensembles, 225.

90 leads to an investigation into the music. What is that instrument? What kind of music is this?

Where does it come from? How do I learn this? Where do I find an instrument? Who can teach me? This investigation leads to more listening. This fueled my desire until I could no longer only listen; I needed to learn to play the music.

Learning an instrument can become an addiction. The origin of the instrument is irrelevant. Developing competency on the khaen, fed my desire to learn more. I now need to play the khaen every day. My drive to learn more about the khaen and further develop my performance on the instrument has been fueled by bits and pieces of information gathered from my professors, recordings, videos, the internet, and interactions with other performers. I have absorbed these resources in my own way as a life-long student of music, leading me to the conclusion that the “best” pedagogy is unique to each individual student.

APPENDIX A

THAI-ENGLISH TRANSLITERATION GUIDE

Consonants

Thai Alphabet English Transliteration Initial Final ก G k ข ค ฆ Kh k ง Ng ng จ J t ญ Y n ฉ ช ฌ Ch t ด ฎ D t ต ฏ T t ถ ฐ ท ฑ ธ ฒ Th t น ณ N t บ B b ป P b ผ พ ภ Ph b ฝ ฟ F b ม M m ย Y - ร R n ล ฬ L n ว W - ซ ทร ศ ษ ส S t ห ฮ H -

Vowels

Vowels Thai Vowels English Transliteration -ะ, ั a -า aa ั , ั i ั , ั อ ue ั , ั u เ-ะ, เั, เ- e แ-ะ, แ- ae โ-ะ, -, โ- o เ-าะ, -อ aw เ-อะ, เั , เ-อ oe เัยะ , เัย ia เั อะ, เั อ uea ั วะ, ั ว, -ว- ua ัา am ใ-, ไ- ai เ-า ao -รร- an

* Because more than one system exists to transliterate the Thai language into Romanized

English, some words remain true to their widely accepted transliteration such as Khon Kaen and

Isan.

APPENDIX B

INDIVIDUAL ARTIST WEBSITES/CHANNELS

Dr. Christopher Adler - http://www.christopheradler.com

Jonny Olsen - https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCGAjzZ6sC0806Lg40U2Es2w

Hal Walker - https://www.halwalkermusic.com/; YouTube Channel: https://www.youtube.com/user/banakula

INTERNET RESOURCES RELATED TO KHAEN

Center for World Music - https://centerforworldmusic.org/2016/01/world-music-instrument-the- lao-khaen/

Gotchaws6 - https://www.youtube.com/user/gotchaws6

Gukhaen - https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCNhSZo56irmnbFugF-0IWwg

Gullivergarden - https://www.youtube.com/user/gullivergarden

Hug Isan style music - https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCB-mqs3YGJow9as5D_ES6mQ

Laomusic Danxang - https://www.facebook.com/traditional.music.of.lao

Khaenlao - https://www.youtube.com/user/hayride29

Molam Lao – Topic - https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCCyHGsHdeFldup-RZLgjp-Q

Wayiaxiongkhaen - https://www.youtube.com/user/wayiaxiongkhaen

โต้ง อน ร กษ์ - https://www.youtube.com/โต้งอน ร กษ์

หมาเก้าหาง Makaohang Official - https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCQJeLIruf- buJIMjWxlZIzQ/videos

ท วล ่ คนไม่ขาดแคน - https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCQvgqY8iDKbDQP3hM23ZL7w

GLOSSARY

Ajaan (อาจารย์). A professor or teacher, term usually associated with a university professor.

Baht (บาท). Thai Currency.

Farang (ฝร่ ง). A Westerner.

Isan (อ สาน). A Sanskrit term meaning northeast that refers to Northeast Thailand.

Khaen (แคน). A free reed mouth organ predominantly found in Northeast Thailand and Laos.

Khaen baet (แคนแปด). A free reed mouth organ with sixteen pipes organized in eight raft pairs. The standard khaen in Isan.

Khaen gao (แคนเก้า). A free reed mouth organ with eighteen pipes organized in nine raft pairs.

Khaen hok (แคนหก). A free reed mouth organ with six pipes organized in three raft pairs, sold as a souvenir.

Khaen jet (แคนเจด ). A free reed mouth organ with fourteen pipes organized in seven raft pairs

Khisut (ข้ ส ต). A wax secreted by a species of stingless bee called maeng khisut (แมงข้ ส ต) used to produce an airtight seal on some Isan instruments such as the khaen.

Lai (ลาย). A five-note mode common in khaen performance.

Lai po-sai (ลายโป้ซ้าย). A thangsan mode, C-D-F-G-A.

Lai noi (ลายนอ้ย). A thangyao mode, D-F-G-A-C.

Lai sae (ลายเซ). A thangyao mode, E-G-A-B-D.

Lai soi (ลายสรอ้ย). A thangsan mode, D-E-G-A-B.

Lai sutsanaen (ลายส ดสะแนน). A thangsan mode, G-A-C-D-E.

Lai yai (ลายใหญ). A thangyao mode, A-C-D-E-G.

Lam (ลา ). Verb meaning “to sing.”

Lam glawn (ลากลอน ). A music genre from Thailand that features a vocal repartee between a female and a male singer accompanied by the khaen. Lam glawn evolved from the vocal genre lam phun.

Lam phifaa (ลาผ ฟ้า). A ritual ceremony, found in Thailand, sung to cure illnesses caused by spirits.

Lam phun (ลา พ้ น). A narrative singing style with khaen accompaniment that originated in the early nineteenth century.

Luk thung (ล กท ่ง). The literal translation means "child of the field" which has come to represent a genre of popular country music that come out of the northeast region of Thailand.

Maeng khisut (แมงข้ ส ต). A species of stingless bee found in Thailand.

Mai bradoo tree (ไม้ประด ). Tree used to harvest the wood used to make khaen windchests.

Mai hia/mai sang (ไมเฮ้ ย). Bamboo used for making khaen.

Mawlam glawn (หมอลากอน ). repartee singing between two singers, normally one male and one female, with khaen accompaniment.

Phayaa (ผญา). The traditional courtship poetry of Lao.

Piphat (ป ่พาทย์). Thai classical ensemble of gong circle, xylophone, and vertical flute or oboe.

Phi taen (ผ ฟ้าผ แถน). A sky spirit believed the help heal the sick.

Phifaa (ผ ฟ้า). Isan grand spirit believed to have power to control rain.

Phin (พ ณ). Isan three-stringed plucked lute.

Ponglang (โปงลาง). Neotraditional Isan vertical log xylophone.

Roo lin (ร ล ้น). Holes cut into the khaen into which are placed the reeds.

Roo pae (ร แพ). Pitch holes cut into opposite sides of each pipe at fixed distances on khaen tube.

Thangsan (ทางส้ น). A term that refers to the style of music played in lai sutsanaen, lai po-sai, lai soi. Thang means “way” and san means “short” and refers to “short-note music.”

Thangyao (ทางยาว). A term that refers to the style of music played in lai yai, lai noi, and lai sae. Thang means “way” and yao means “long” and refer to “long-note music.”

Yanang (ยานาง/หญ้านาง). A tough grass used to bind the khaen tubes

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