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Thesis Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Phd) in Media, Culture, and Society at the University of Hull By

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Thesis Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Phd) in Media, Culture, and Society at the University of Hull By THE UNIVERSITY OF HULL ‘Silence No More’: An In-Depth Cyberconflict Analysis of the Nirbhaya Rape Case and Digital Gender Activism in India Thesis submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) In Media, Culture, and Society at the University of Hull by Adrija Dey Msc in Creative System, University of Sussex BSc in Computer Science, University of Kolkata March 2016 1 I dedicate this research to my father. He reminded me every day to never give up the pursuit of knowledge. It is because of his unconditional belief and trust that I have been able to embark on this journey. It is also his passion, his activism, his politics, his feminist ideologies and his faith in knowledge that has motivated me to choose this path. He will forever be my greatest inspiration. 2 Acknowledgements I wish to thank my supervisor, Dr. Athina Karatzogianni, for her constant support and understanding. This research would not be possible without her belief in my work and her guidance. I also wish to thank my second supervisor, Dr. Bev Orton, for all her encouragement, support and care. I wish to thank Dr. Suzanne Clisby for her advice and inspiration and all my teachers who have guided me in this journey. I also wish to thank my family, my partner, my wonderful grandparents and my friends for their unconditional love and encouragement. Finally, I would like to thank my mother, the most inspirational woman in my life. She is the only reason why I am here today. I cannot thank her enough for always having faith in me and being such a magnificent role model. 3 Table of Contents Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... 6 List of Figures ........................................................................................................................... 7 List of Tables ............................................................................................................................ 8 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 9 The Story of Nirbhaya: The Fearless One ................................................................... 13 Chapter 1: The Cyberconflict Framework and Conceptual Considerations ................... 20 1.1 Social Movements and ICTs ................................................................................. 21 1.2 Social Movement Theory ...................................................................................... 26 1.2.1 Mobilisation Structure .................................................................................... 26 1.2.2 Political Opportunity Structures ..................................................................... 39 1.2.3 Framing Process .............................................................................................. 42 1.3 Media Framework: Media, ICTs and Social Movements ..................................... 46 1.4 Gender, ICTs and Social Movements .................................................................... 54 1.4.1 Gender Component to the Cyberconflict Framework..................................... 55 1.4.2 Gender and ICTs ............................................................................................. 65 1.5 Research Question ................................................................................................. 74 1.6 Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 75 Chapter 2: Methodology and Empirical Analysis ............................................................... 77 2.1 Understanding Research Philosophy and Paradigm .............................................. 77 2.1.1 Ontology ......................................................................................................... 77 2.1.2 Epistemology .................................................................................................. 78 2.1.3 Inductive and Deductive Theory..................................................................... 80 2.2 Research Method: Case Study ............................................................................... 81 2.3 Data Collection ...................................................................................................... 83 2.3.1 Phase 1: Online Data Collection- A Netnographic Approach ........................ 84 2.3.2 Phase 2: Pilot Study ........................................................................................ 88 2.3.3 Phase 3: Qualitative Interviews ...................................................................... 90 2.4 Researching from a Feminist Perspective ........................................................... 100 2.5 Ethics ................................................................................................................... 102 2.6 Data Analysis ...................................................................................................... 104 2.7 Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 107 Chapter 3: Brief History of the Indian Women’s Movement and Tracing out the Sociopolitical and Media Environment .............................................................................. 109 3.1 The IWM: Historical Context and Sociopolitical Landscape.............................. 111 3.1.1 Pre-Independence vs. Post-Independence Feminism.................................... 112 4 3.1.2 The Sociopolitical Movements in the 1970s and Rise of Women’s Organisations ................................................................................................................................... 114 3.1.3 The Anti-Rape and Anti-Dowry Movement ................................................. 117 3.1.4 Personal Law and Communal Identities ....................................................... 123 3.1.5 Sexual Harassment Law................................................................................ 125 3.1.6 ICTs and Social Media: The Start of a New Phase in IWM ......................... 128 3.2 Mainstream Media and Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) in India ........................................................................................................................... 129 3.3 Digital Divide, Gender and ICTs ........................................................................ 135 3.4 Censorship ........................................................................................................... 141 3.5 Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 145 Chapter 4: Analysing the Nirbhaya Case through the Lens of the Social-Movement Framework............................................................................................................................ 148 4.1 The Nirbhaya Protests: Mobilisation Structure and Collective Action ............... 148 4.2 Political Opportunity Structure ........................................................................... 164 4.3 Framing Process .................................................................................................. 171 4.4 Government Action and Change in Law ............................................................. 176 4.5 Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 185 Chapter 5: Nirbhaya and Beyond- Role of Social Media and ICTs in Gender Activism in India .................................................................................................................. 189 5.1 Use of Media and ICTs in the Nirbhaya Protests ................................................ 190 5.2 Personalisation of Sexual Violence ..................................................................... 197 5.3 The Continuation of the Movement and Participation of Indian Immigrants in the Gender Movement in India ........................................................................................ 207 5.4 Changing Nature of Activism .............................................................................. 217 5.5 Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 229 Chapter 6: The Intersection of Gender, Caste and Class in the Indian Context ........... 233 6.1 Caste and Class in India ...................................................................................... 233 6.2 Intersectionality in the Indian Context ................................................................ 237 6.3 Intersectionality of Gender and Class in the Nirbhaya Case ............................... 246 6.4 Intersectionality in the Digital Space .................................................................. 251 6.5 Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 253 Conclusion: The Beginning of the New Phase of the Indian Women’s Movement ........ 255 Key Research Findings .............................................................................................. 271 Further Research ........................................................................................................ 277 Bibliography ........................................................................................................................
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