Chapter 11 Society, Religion and Culture* 500 A.D
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CHAPTER 11 SOCIETY, RELIGION AND CULTURE* 500 A.D. TO 1200 A.D. SOCIAL CONDITION. VARNA-VYAVASTHA OR THE CASTE SYSTEM CONTINUED TO BE THE SALIENT FEATURE of the Hindu society during this period as well. The usual theoretical number of the main castes is, of course, four, namely the Brahmanas, Ksatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras. It is, however, strange that Greek writers like Megasthenes and Strabo as well as Muslim writers like Ibn Khurdadba and Al Idrisi agree in mentioning the number to be seven ; although the castes enumerated by them are, by no means, identical. The Greek ambassador does not include any of the untouchables in his castes; while the Muslim writers enumerate at least two of them among the depressed classes. Alberuni, however, maintains that the number of castes was sixteen. In addition to the four well-known ones, he has included five semi-untouchables and seven untouchables. The actual number of castes and sub-castes of our age was, however, more than sixteen, as is indicated by the Smrtis of our period. The statements of these writers have to be examined, in view of the valuable evidence afforded by the Dharmasastra literature, before being completely relied on. Ibn Khurdadba, who died in 912 A.D., mentions the following seven castes : —(1) Sabkufriya (spelt differently in manuscripts as Sabakferya or Sarikufria), (2) Brahma, (3)Katariya, (4) Sudariya, (5) Baisura, (6) Sandalia and (7) Lahud1. Al Idrisi’s seven castes are almost identical with these with the exception of the seventh caste which, according to him, is Zakya and not Lahud. Both of them agree in saying that the members of this (i.e. seventh) caste were dancers, tumblers and players by profession. It has to be borne in mind that the order of enumeration of these castes is not given according to their relative status or importance. Among these, Brahma, Sudariya, Baisura and Sandalia appear to be the same as Brahmanas, Sudras, Vaisyas and Candalas. Katariyas are the same * This chapter is contributed by Dr. M. D. Paradkar, M.A., Ph.D., Sanskrit Department, University of Bombay, Bombay. 1 Elliot, History of India, Vol. I, pages 16-17. 376 MAHARASHTRA STATE GAZETTEER as Ksatriyas as is clear from the fact that they could drink three cups of wine and their daughters could be married by the Brahmanas. Sabkufriyas, very probably, are the same as Satksatriyas; because the Muslim writers tell us that kings were chosen from them and they were regarded as superior to all castes. The distinction between Katariyas and Sabkufriyas reminds one of the distinction between the Ksatriyas and the Rajanyas of the earlier period. Alberuni gives a more detailed and interesting account of the caste system. After mentioning the usual four principal castes, he mentions Antyajas divided into eight classes or guilds viz. (1) the washerman, (2) the shoemaker, (3) the juggler, (4) the basket and shield-maker, (5) the sailor, (6) the fisherman, (7) the hunter of wild animals and birds and finally (8) the weaver. The four principal castes do not live with these in one and the same place. These guilds, therefore, live near the villages and towns of four castes but outside them. Alberuni also mentions Hadi, Domba, Candala and Badhatu considered as one sole class distinguished by their occupations consisting of service and dirty work. It must be admitted that Alberunis eight-fold classes appear to be untouchables and most of these were pronounced to be so by some of the later Smrtis like Angiras, Atri, Apastamba etc. Alberuni’s statement about the weaver being regarded as untouchable is not supported by Smrti literature. Granting Alberuni’s statement would amount to the fact that the famous weaving industry in ancient India was a monopoly of the untouchables, which is highly improbable. Statements in Brhad-Yama Smrti and Apastamba Smrti, however, lead us to believe that a section among weavers dealing with manufacture of red and blue cloth was held in low estimation. Among the remaining three, namely, Hadi. Domba and Badhatu, what section is meant by Hadi is not quite clear. Dombas were untouchables as is proved by the Rajatarangini. Alberuni’s Badhatu is an apahhramsa of vadhaka or the executioner, who, according to the Dharmasastra literature is undoubtedly included among the untouchables. Although epigraphical records of our period do not give any idea of the intensity of the notion of untouchability, Kalhana’s Rajatarangini throws a flood of light on the subject during our period. And as Kalhana is supported by the Smrti literature, it can be safely assumed that similar ideas prevailed in the South as well. In the Rajatarangini V 77, a Candala or sweeper is found refraining from touching a child on the road through fear of polluting it; in fact he requests a Sudra woman to pick it up and rear it. The untouchables could not enter the audience hall. This makes the King Candravarman hear the shoemaker’s complaint in the outer courtyard (IV-62). Even conversation with untouchables led to pollution according to some sections of society. This is the reason of the agitation of King Candrapida when he began to talk to a shoemaker (IV-67). In short, the notion of untouchability was very deep-rooted. HISTORY – ANCIENT PERIOD 377 Coming to the position of the higher castes, all castes including the Brahmanas paid homage to the members of Sabkufriya caste, from whom rulers were chosen. This should not be interpreted as giving support to the contention of the Buddhists and the Jainas, that the Ksatriyas, as a whole, were superior to the Brahmanas. The average Ksatriya did not enjoy a social status to that of an average Brahmana. On the contrary, the Brahmanas were regarded as superior to the rest of the population. Respect for actual rulers and their descendents shown by the Brahmanas irrespective of the caste to which they belonged, is, by no means, unnatural. The Brahmana community of our period followed a number of professions. Al Idrisi describes Brahmanas dressed in tiger-skins addressing the public about God and his nature. These are called istins by Alberuni. Epigraphical records also confirm this. Many of the Brahmanas were engaged in carrying on their Scriptural duty namely teaching and conducting schools and colleges. Abu Zahid informs us that mostly jurists, astrologers, mathematicians, poets and philosophers were members of this class.1 Administrative civil posts were also largely filled by Brahmanas. Ministers and officers of the Rastrakuta Kings were chosen from this class. There are reasons to assume that Brahmanas were largely seen in Government service. It is true the Smrti writers do say that Brahmanas should not serve; but their statements should be applied to non-government service only. Manu lays down that Brahmanas alone should be appointed as a rule to the ministerial and judicial posts.2 Sankaracarya’s (788-820 A.D.) statement that the castes were no longer following their prescribed duties and functions is corroborated by historical evidence. Some of the Brahmanas were enlisting their names in the army. Bettegiri inscription of Krsna II3 offers a handsome tribute to the memory of a Brahmana named Ganaramma who laid down his life with bravery defending his village. The Kalas inscription of Govinda IV4 speaks of the glorious career and achievements of two Brahmana generals Reva-dasa Diksita and Visottara Diksita who were really Somayajins. Alberuni informs us that in the 11th century some of the Brahmanas directly dealt in clothes and betel nuts; while some others indirectly entered into trade by employing a Vaisya to carry on the actual dealings in business. The Gautama Dharmasutra allows Brahmanas to live on agriculture, trade etc. on the condition of appointing agents to carry on business. Although Smrti writers never held the medical profession in esteem, it appears that in society doctors were honoured equally with learned men. Thus a Brahmana physician is found among the donees of an agrahara village given by a Pallava King in the 8th century5. The ban placed by Manu and others on the feeding of a doctor 1 Elliot, History of India, Vol. I, p. 6. 2 Manusmrti, VII—37, 58 ; VIII—20. 3 E.,I., XIII, p. 189 4 Ibid, XIII. p. 33. 5 I. A., VIII, p. 277. 378 MAHARASHTRA STATE GAZETTEER at a Sraddha dinner appears to be partly a result of their puritanic ideas and partly a consequence of their theory that the medical profession belonged to a mixed caste known as Ambastha. This theory also does not appear to be borne out by facts. Thus trade, agriculture, banking etc. became the normal vocations of the Brahmanas of our period. Naturally Smrtis belonging to the age have boldly withdrawn the ban on these professions placed by earlier Dharmasastra writers. Brhaspati holds banking (kusida) to be an ideal profession of the Brahmanas ; while Harita and Parasara boldly declare that agriculture can be followed by them. The Apastamba Smrti also mentions that agriculture, cattle-breeding etc. were the necessary and normal vocations of the Brahmanas; there is no reason to consider them as Apaddharmas. The Smrtis and Puranas uniformly declare that Brahmanas ought to be free from taxation and capital punishment. There is no epigraphical evidence of our period to support a general claim of exemption from taxation for all Brahmanas. It is true that the Srotriyas or learned Brahmanas in the Rastrakuta regime, really donees of Brahmandeya grants, used to receive all taxes payable to the King and that they were required to pay nothing to the King. This is reflected in the Dharmasastra literature which exempts a Srotriya from all taxation; but on this basis, it cannot be assumed that ordinary Brahmanas of our period enjoyed this privilege.