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Mediating the Numbered Treaties: Eyewitness Accounts of Treaties

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Mediating the Numbered Treaties: Eyewitness Accounts of Treaties Mediating the Numbered Treaties: Eyewitness Accounts of Treaties Between the Crown and Indigenous Peoples, 1871-1876 A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements For the Degree of Special Case Doctor of Philosophy in History University of Regina by Sheldon Kirk Krasowski Regina, Saskatchewan June 2011 Copyright 2011: Sheldon Krasowski Abstract This thesis looks at the historical period of treaty-making in Western Canada when six numbered treaties were negotiated between Canada and the Anishnabeg, Cree, Saulteaux, and Assiniboine Nations between 1871 and 1876. The main interpretation of treaty-making during this period is that the treaty commissioners and Indigenous leadership experienced “cultural misunderstandings” and that Euro-Canadian witnesses to treaty did not understand the treaty relationship. As a result, most of the eyewitness accounts by Euro-Canadian fur traders, missionaries, journalists, settlers and government representatives have been ignored by historians. This thesis argues against cultural misunderstandings and shows that Euro-Canadian negotiators and eyewitnesses clearly understood the roles and responsibilities in the treaty relationship. Violations of treaty did occur as new settlers moved into treaty territory and government representatives became more concerned about financial restrictions than the promises made during the negotiations. However, during the treaty-making period, Euro-Canadians understood their obligations under the treaty relationship. This thesis analyzes previously under- utilized primary documents and re-evaluates standard sources on the numbered treaties to show that during the treaty-making period, Euro-Canadians understood the expectations of Indigenous peoples in the treaty relationship. i Acknowledgements First and foremost I would like to thank my supervisor and committee members. Dr. Winona Wheeler rescued this project from collapse on numerous occasions and though she almost ruined my eyesight by recommending the records of the Church Missionary Society, this thesis could not have been completed without her support. Dr. William Brennan‟s support was also essential and his exacting comments on this thesis were very welcome. Dr. James Pitsula also provided insightful comments and his support was appreciated. Dr. Blair Stonechild‟s expertise on treaty history was also much appreciated. I must also thank Dr. Robin Fisher, who set me on the path of this project while he was Dean of Arts at the University of Regina. A debt is also owed to Dr. Frank Tough, who inadvertently kick-started my interest in treaty history by hiring me as a research assistant with the Office of the Treaty Commissioner in Saskatoon. I owe a debt of thanks to Marilyn Bickford from the Department of History, who helped format the final thesis and always made sure I was registered in the correct courses. Mary Catherine Litalien also rescued me from poor course choices and helped with the navigation through graduate studies at the University of Regina. I am grateful for all the help and support I received from various archivists and librarians throughout Central and Western Canada. I owe a debt of thanks to the friendly reference librarians at Athabasca University, especially Robin Mountford for her deft ability to track down rare books and microfilm. Finally, I would like to thank my parents, Eileen and Jerry, as well as my sister Jaeleen for their patient support of my academic goals. I owe the greatest debt of thanks to my partner Robin Smith. Without her unfailing encouragement and support, as well as the example she set in her own PhD program, this thesis would not have been completed. ii Table of Contents Chapter One: Introduction ...............................................................................................1 Methodology ..................................................................................................................3 Note on Terminology ....................................................................................................6 Prospectus ...................................................................................................................10 Chapter Two: Literature Review ..................................................................................13 Nation Building and the Numbered Treaties .............................................................14 Social History and the Numbered Treaties .................................................................17 Indigenous and Euro-Canadian Relations . .................................................................23 Indigenous Centred Histories ......................................................................................31 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................45 Chapter Three: Treaties One and Two and the Outside Promises ............................47 The Fort Frances Negotiations, 1871 ..........................................................................48 The Right-Of-Way Negotiations .................................................................................55 Early Non-Indigenous Views of the Numbered Treaties ............................................59 Treaty One: The Stone Fort Treaty, 1871 ...................................................................63 The Treaty One Negotiations ......................................................................................70 The Original Manuscript of Treaty One .....................................................................77 Treaty Two: The Manitoba Post Treaty ......................................................................84 The Outside Promises of Treaties One and Two ........................................................89 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................97 Chapter Four: Treaty Three, The North-West Angle Treaty ..................................100 The Treaty Three Commissioners, 1873 ...................................................................102 The Treaty Three Chiefs, 1873 .................................................................................105 Anishnabeg and Euro-Canadian Relations after 1872 ..............................................110 The Treaty Three Negotiations, 1873 .......................................................................118 The Original Manuscript of Treaty Three .................................................................135 Conclusion ................................................................................................................148 iii Chapter Five: Treaty Four and Treaty Five The Fort Qu’Appelle and Lake Winnipeg Treaties .............................................................................................151 Indigenous and Euro-Canadian Relations in the North-West ...................................153 Preparing for Treaty Four .........................................................................................155 The Treaty Four Commissioners ..............................................................................159 The Treaty Four Chiefs .............................................................................................164 The Treaty Four Negotiations ...................................................................................168 Treaty Four Oral Histories ........................................................................................179 The Original Manuscript of Treaty Four ..................................................................189 Treaty Five: The Lake Winnipeg Treaty ..................................................................193 Preparations for Treaty Five .....................................................................................195 The Treaty Five Negotiations ...................................................................................197 Conclusion ................................................................................................................203 Chapter Six: Treaty Six, The Treaty of Forts Carlton and Pitt ...............................205 The Treaty Six Eyewitnesses ....................................................................................207 The Treaty Six Chiefs ...............................................................................................218 Preparing for Treaty Six ............................................................................................225 The Treaty Six Negotiations at Fort Carlton .............................................................239 Treaty Six Oral Histories ..........................................................................................247 The Original Manuscript of Treaty Six .....................................................................260 The Treaty Six Negotiations at Duck Lake ...............................................................265 The Treaty Six Negotiations at Fort Pitt ...................................................................267 Conclusion ................................................................................................................271 Chapter Seven: Conclusion ..........................................................................................273 Summary ...................................................................................................................273
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