Mukt Shabd Journal ISSN NO : 2347-3150

Catholicism and its Impact on the Life and Conditions of the People of

Nengneivah Eva Haokip,

Ph.D Research Scholar in the Department of History, Manipur University and also Assistant Professor in Churachandpur Govt. College (Department of History), Manipur.

Abstract. The mission of the is the continuation and an unfolding of the Mission of Christ. The Church prompted and guided by the Spirit of Christ, must proceed along the way that Christ followed, the way of poverty, obedience, service and self-, even unto death. The church in Manipur, cannot stand aloof from the society but be at the service of the human family, sharing “the joys and hopes, grieves and anxieties” of the people. Mission and Evangelization cannot be seen merely as a Church expansion but is to be seen as “a pilgrimage with other believers in the task of building up the Kingdom of on earth, making it a place hospitable to all God’s children. Christians believe that Jesus Christ, true God and true man, is the one saviour, who alone accomplished the Father’s universal plan of salvation. He is the definitive manifestation of God’s love for all. He is indeed unique and “it is precisely this uniqueness of Christ which gives him an absolute and universal significance, whereby, while belonging to history, remains history’s centre and goal”. Indeed, we must proclaim the radical newness of the persons and sisters of other “to be followers of Jesus Christ with us or in their own way, without the pre- occupation with baptizing, when we let our genuine love be manifested in our concern for people, in our service without ulterior motives, then there will be a chance for the Spirit of God to work true conversion, true change of heart and outlook, to enable all to work together for the coming of his Kingdom”. As his grace Rev. Dominic Lumon asserts “May the Church in Manipur be a true and faithful servant of her master and Lord who came for all humankind that we may have life and have it abundantly”.

Keywords: Catholicism, Meiteis, Kukis, Nagas, Beliefs, Omen, Ceremonies

Introduction

It is apparent that the Catholic Church is determined to touch the lives of Manipuri without any discrimination. The word of the God should be spread to every nook and corner of the world. They are motivated by the several verses in the Scriptures that tell us that God’s word should be spread to everyone in the world. The Catholic consider it their duty to reach to, as many people as possible to share the word of God. Mark 16:15-16 NKJV states that “Go into the world and preach the Gospel to every creature”. Psalms 96: 3 NKJV “Declare His glory among the nations, His wonders among all peoples”. And towards accomplishment of these goals, establishment of hospitals, schools, colleges and many such

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other institutions became an extension of their charity work. The Catholic missionaries also tried to guide the students and also uplift those who are under their guardianship, both spiritually and intellectually. Students are given guidance on almost all aspects of life. Various training centres have also been opened for the not so intellectually gifted ones, to enhance their scope of employment.

The traditional religious rites and offering and their national to and for the welfare were almost the same for the hills (Kukisi and Nagasii) and the plain people (Meitei)iii. The Meitei used to four supreme Gods viz, ‘Sidaba Mapu’, ‘Ema Leimalel’, ‘Lainingthou Sanamahi’, and ‘Eputhou Pakhangba’. The first three are worshipped daily at their houses but ‘Eputhou Pakhangba’ is worshipped occasionally and specially at sacred place known as ‘Kangla’ altars. Besides, there are 364 ‘Umanglai’ (demi-gods and ) worshipped as household . These ‘Umanglai’ gods and goddess consists of ancestors of each tribe and also spirits of the mountain passes, spirits of the lakes, rivers, vampires, etc. The creator is identified both with the chiefs of the gods and the snake ancestor of the royal family. Traditionally, the Meiteis practice ancestor worship, head- hunting and buried their dead. They also believed that all human suffering and illness are sent by the evil spirits of Demi-Gods and Goddess. The Maiba (Priest) and Maibi (Priestess) practise occultism and made sacrifice and offering for healing the patient. Moreover, there is a that by worshipping the four supreme gods with Lainingthou will protect them from the evil spirit.

It is compelling to mention here that there was little socio-cultural interaction between the people living in the valley and in the Hills as neither nor the indigenous Meitei was not followed and practised in the Hills. All the hill tribes of Manipur believed in the existence of a Supreme Being or God, who is in control of all events, a divine power who is the maker of the world though their idea about him was faint and confused. The name of this Supreme Being varied from tribe to tribe. The Kuki-Chin-Mizo call it ‘Pathian’iv, the Mao call it ‘Oramai’, the Kabuis call it ‘Ragung’. They believed that a good person after death goes to but the bad ones are punished by God through rebirth in a lower position in life. Thus, they worship him to find a place in heaven after death. They consider him to be a beneficent being who, dwell high above in heaven, loving and kind who bless people and punished wrong doer.

Tribals: Kukis and Nagas

Beliefs in Spirits and Demons

The Tribal earlier belief in the existence of friendly and evil spirits who are proficient in bringing them either bad or good luck as has been challenged with the advancement of their intellectual level and the progression of the socio-economic level. The spirits, demons and ghosts were known by different names among different tribes. Their belief in the plethora of Gods and evil spirits directed their offering and prayers accordingly. Offering and

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are made in the house, on the road, under the tree, upon a rock, by the riverside, at the paddy field and other places where spirits are expected to have their abode. They also believe in the existence of individual house deities who help the welfare of the families and individual paddy field deities who protect and bless the crops. They, therefore, offer sacrifices very often to these deities to appease them, especially during the time of sowing seeds, harvesting and festival times. This has undergone a trsansformation and now at present times, it is mostly directed towards offering ‘tithe’v, going to Church every Sunday, helping the needy and the sickly. A notable example would be that, the coming of Catholicism had strengthened their communitarian feelings as all are consider as equal members in the same Christian fellowship and Catholicism united tribal and plain people, who became Catholics under one banner –there was no discrimination between the tribal and Meitei or different groups of people.

Worship of Ancestors, Beliefs and Omens

According to Naga religion omens are consulted in various ways. Naga consider that certain dreams are portentious. Among the Zeliangrongvi; a common omen is the cutting of a piece of ginger, the auguries being indicated from the fallen pieces. Omens are also consulted from the crossing of fowl’s legs after it is killed by strangulation. By means of such divination, the evil spirit’s influence is found and accordingly the rites are performed to ward it off. In Naga religion the dead were generally buried. The obsequies were elaborate the were connected with funeral feasts. Sacrifice of animals, ceremonial, ceremonial offerings of food to the deceased and keeping of effigies at a graveyard. These omen and ancestors worship has been curbed down with the coming of in general and Catholicism in particular and brought about upliftment of their way of life. It is hard to deny the modernising influence into the daily tribal life. Their new has brought about a new awakening and remoulding of their standard behaviour. By and large the educated tribal have abandoned superstition and have recourse to the power of logic and have forged ahead in all spheres of life.

Head Hunting

The Kuki-Chin and the Naga were known to the outside world for their head hunting. Commenting on it T.C. Hodson said the simplest and most obvious form of head hunting was associated with blood feud, where the duty of vengeance remains un-sated until the tally of heads is numerically equal. According to Hodson’s observation on head hunting he found it connected with simple blood feud, with agrarian rites, and with funerary rites and eschatological belief. R.R. Shimray equates head hunting to a Naga war. He asserted that the practice of head hunting in Naga society was basically done for the following reasons:

1. The god-fearing warriors were prompted to kill for they believed that after death those captured and killed would carry his luggage to the land of the dead. The warriors wanted to be happy and famous while alive and also after death. This is the

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reason why there stood several stone monuments over the tombs of the warrior representing the number of human heads he had taken while alive. 2. Another important factor for head hunting was the fact that the warrior who scored a number of heads over his rival had the better chance to win favour and love of the fairest girl of the village for marriage.

Shimray further says that ‘head hunting’ prevalent in the past had religious sanction, economic utility, political considerations and most of all social value and justice.

Dr. Verrier Elwin on head hunting writes: “It stimulated the crop to grow better, especially when the head was that of a woman with long hair. Moreover the Nagas have always been a warlike race and the warrior, especially the young warrior, who had taken a head held a great advantage over his fellows in attracting the most beautiful girl of his village for marriage. Indeed, it is said that youth who had not taken a head found considerable difficulty in obtaining a wife at all.”

Among the Kuki-Chin-Mizo, human heads were valued more as a trophies and house decorations than a . In Kuki-Chin-Mizo tradition, a man after bringing a few heads, one was entitled to wear a special type of shawl called ‘Thangsuo’ which the commoners were not permitted to wear. The Kuki-Chin-Mizo believed that those killed would become their slave in the next world. Therefore, they used to place the heads on the grave of relatives in order that the souls of the hunted human being might accompany the dead relatives in the next world. Head hunting practised among the hill tribe were for acquiring social status.

The tradition of head hunting practised by the tribals had been given up in entirety with the spread of Christianity. As in Christianity committing a murder goes against the teachings of the Lord Jesus Christ, which formed the basic principle of Christianity. The sense of brotherhood has crept in into their minds and they don’t believe in shedding bloods to uplift their social status or appease the ancient minds. This does not mean that feuds in the political arena have stopped but head-hunting has become extinct and one of the Ten Commandments clearly states: Do not kill!

Community Life

The community life of the Tribals is also undergoing drastic transformation. Earlier they not only go or come together to and from the agricultural plots but also work together in the field. Even collection of firewood, wild fruits, tubers, leaves, drinking water etc. is/are done in groups. As stated elsewhere village is a social unit composed of khel as sub-unit and family is the smallest unit. In case of any calamity, need or emergency within a family, the members of khel come forward for assistance. Now this practise is not relevant to the present circumstances. Their new way of life consists of going to schools, colleges to gain educational degrees. And when these educational degrees are attained the population

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would go to work in offices or other institutions resulting in the restriction of their earlier way of life. This does not mean that the tribal have given up the essence of a community. As stated before, Catholicism is a community oriented religion.

The inventions of various machines and equipments have also contributed greatly. Earlier to work the field, the villages would usually go in groups and helped out each other in tilling the fields and continue to do so till all the field are done. However, now with the introduction of machines and equipments labour had been cut down and with the machines help (tractors etc.), the farmers and others can till and work on their respective fields individually. The practice of ‘Lom’vii and ‘Morung’viii (working in group) is not very popular as earlier.

The traditional games and sports usually played by the tribal are also gradually replaced by football, basketball, volleyball, carom, cricket etc. The games have been taught in catholic schools but the incentive to excel in such sports comes basically from the social media, the film industry, sporting fraternities across the world. Many national and international players in many disciplines are residents of Manipur-take the example of Rajya Sabha MP, Mary Kom. From a humble beginning, she rose to the heights and her Christian faith was certainly a facilitating factor.

At present the reason behind the feast of merit that was given often by the tribal has also evolved. Prior to the coming of Christianity in general and Catholicism in particular ‘when a man accumulates some wealth, in order to establish a higher social status, he arranges a feast for the villagers. By giving such feast of merit he assumes a higher status within the community. Moreover, to reach to a particular stage of high social status he may repeat such feast thrice in his lifetime’. Nowadays, the feasts are not to raise the social standing but actually are a feast of felicitation, thanksgiving for the blessings bestowed upon the particular family providing the feast. Catholicism emphasises on offering thanks to God for listening to one’s supplications.

Ceremonies:

Child Birth

Birth is always a pleasant happening. A family get-together on this occasion is followed with a feast, but this is not a compulsion anymore. The Christian section does not observe the traditional genna (taboo) and may attend to her routine work after two to three days rest or as per the advice of the attending medical personnel if she seeks assistance from a maternity hospital. The after birth is generally buried under the ground inside a secluded corner of the house if delivery takes place at home. However, in present time, with the realisation of the new faith, education, hygiene, cleanliness and sanitization sinking in, the tribal mothers consult medical doctors from the time they don’t get their monthly periods. And take medications to avoid miscarriages, precautions against activities that may

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harm the foetus. The ultrasound machines also inspect the growth and health of the foetus, which is consoling for the to-be mothers. Hence, the need to consult the traditional doctors and priests recedes. Even in the villages, the community health centres plays important role in slackening the role of the local doctors and priests. The practise of ‘Nao-Lai-Tan’ (cutting of the umbilical cord) by uttering words, “I will cut the cord and no one else” are also practised no more as the umbilical cord are now being cut off by the medical personnel during the delivery of the baby in a hygiene and sanitized manner. The various other practices such as, ‘Thing Sasuh’, priests sacrificing a cock and a hen, and other rites have also been given up. Likewise earlier, the child’s earlobes were pierced with a ‘Sakuling’ (the spine of Porcupine) and a black thread is tied. Now, the piercing is done with sanitized needle and less painful instruments. However, a feast called ‘Naopui an” (birth feast) is still provided by the maternal family. Most of these traditions and conventions have been given up by the tribals. Even if practised, there has been modification to suit the present way of life. In short, priorities have changed and as per that, the old established ways of life is and still undergoing changes. The customs of the child naming system, prohibitive activities after child birth has all been refashioned and refined. The observation of genna or the offering of ‘Zu’, prescribed by the priests are by replaced by the Pastor or Catechist or Father’s blessing the child or initiation of the child into the Church.

Burial

The customs of burial practices amongst the Kuki and the Nagas vary in certain ways but general uniformity is noticed in natural death and unnatural death. Those who died a natural death were buried inside the village while those who died an unnatural death due to war, suicide, accidents etc. were buried outside the village. Most of the tribe did not even take in the dead body of unnatural death inside the village. The general practise among the tribal when an infant died was entirely different. The Kuki-Chin buried it beneath the house without much ceremony.

Among the Kukis the ‘Thempu’ (Priest) examines the body and proclaim the death by incanting the appropriate magical spells. It is followed by a lamentation ritual known as ‘Kitom’ or a furious defiant expression of the male relatives. “Kitom” is performed to challenge the ‘Thilha’ or whoever is responsible for the death. In grief the performer recites family pedigree down to his own name and exclaims the meritorious achievements of the dead person. Then, he fires his gun and snatches up a Dao (Chempong) and hacks the nearby post to show his temper and determination of what he would do to the Thilha. In the meantime the women relatives weep and wail over the dead body.

In the case of the Naga as well not all the dead are buried inside the village or in the usual burying place. The following are the death ceremonies observed by T.C. Hodson in his book, “Naga Tribes of Manipur”. In the first place the children of tender years who die before they are weaned are often not buried in the ordinary grave but close to the house. In the second place, those that die outside the village must as a general rule be buried outside

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the village, though there is either a ceremonial burial in the usual place or the burial of some part of the remains or belongings of the deceased. Mr. Pettigrew of the American Baptist Union, who has for many years enjoyed remarkable facilities for studying the customs of the Tangkhuls states that “in any case where the person dies away from home and where there is a difficulty in getting back-crossing a river, for instance- the person is buried near the place of death but the skull is brought to the village…on burying the skull they cover it with a black cloth, and in place of the trunk left behind a piece of wood, generally the wooden pillow of the deceased, is attached to the skull, and covered also with a piece of cloth, to represent the whole person”. In the third place, under the influence of eschatological belief, the dead who die by violence, who are killed in war, whose death might, as we should say, argue a visitation of God, such as death by snake-bite, by drowning, by a fall from a tree, by a tiger in the jungle, or women who die in childbirth, are buried apart from the generality of the village.

Burial practices are also experiencing changes like all other aspect of life. When a catholic man, woman, child, old or young is about to die, a special sacrament is administered by the catholic priests, who also listens to the dying person’s confession and absolves him from all his/her sins, if he is penitent and sorry for the sins committed in his/her lifetime. Presently, paramount importance is given to the funeral services conducted by Priests and missionaries whether the death is natural or unnatural. However, it is important to note that our forefathers were enlightened enough to bury their dead honourably. Similarly today their grandchildren having become Christian continue to bury their dead in a grave either in the Christian cemetery or in their home courtyard, with a departure that they no longer exhume the grave of their kinsmen to bury another dead body. Also they continue cleaning grave yards in the same way their ancestors did, just before the observance of Good Friday. Today, All Souls Day, 2nd November is the day set apart to pray for the dead at the cemetery and to clean the graves. However, because of the paucity of plots for burial in the cemetery, the old indigenous practise of burying the dead in the compound of the deceased has grown in popularity. In addition, there is no proper approach to the Christian cemetery in , and it becomes hazardous to the mourners especially in the rainy season. Another reason for burying a loved one within the house compound is that whenever one sees the grave, one prays for the deceased to enjoy eternal rest. The cemetery is usually visited only at the time of burial and on ‘All Souls Day’.

Marriages:

Traditionally, in Kuki society there were two forms of marriage that were socially recognised and are based on arrangement or negotiation by parents. They were:

i) Chong-Mou Hailam Marriage:- “Chong-Mou” means a bride from the family who had performed ‘Chonpi’ (i.e. victor’s grand feast/ceremony on prosperity), and “Hailam” is a wine container made of gourd for the specific purpose of forcasting the couple’s future known as ‘Hailam-Phun-San’. This form of marriage is the

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most coveted and the most expensive marriage. It thus, required social status and great wealth. ii) Sahap-Sat Marriage:- it is a less expensive marriage. This form of marriage is the most commonly observed form of marriage amidst the Kukis as it could be performed with ease. The entire proceedings of Kuki marriage in general can be broadly divided into three stages:

(i)”Moulhen-Mudoh” (Selection of bride and marriage negotiation.

(ii)”Moupui-Golvah” (fetching the bride and marriage ceremony)

(iii)”Sulle”(Post-marriage ceremony)

Marriage among the Nagas is more a process than an event. The youths are at liberty to select their partners after prolonged courtship and then obtain permission of their respective partners for the formal marriage, refusal in such cases are not heard of. The marriage by negotiation is not common. The girls generally marry between 20-25 years of age while man considers between 25 to 30 years as the right age for himself. The parity between ages of spouses is generally five to seven years. Marriages between the clan are forbidden. According to customary laws consanguineous marriage of specified categories are generally avoided. Consanguineous marriages within certain degrees are also not allowed by the Catholic Church, neither is polygamy or divorce. In each Naga group marriages law vary and sometimes a young man was limited by so many circumstances and rules while selecting a bride that it was decided upon relaxation of the customs connected with the choice of mate between numbers of certain groups of village community. Moreover, certain conditions of life compel a man to marry a girl of his own or at most of the neighbouring village. The girl’s parent also feel happy when their daughter marries a man of their own village because thus they will not have to part from her, but chiefly for the specific reason that she can continue to help them in the household and look after them in times of illness Further, another difficulty is payment of bride price either in cash or in kind. According to established norm the money part of bride price is paid in instalments. Therefore, every father-in-law likes to have his son-in-law comfortably near, to avoid any delay in payment of instalments.

Most of the Kukis still follow their old customs but replacing the “Zu” (rice Beer) with “Chabel-Dop”(tea). And most marriages be it the Naga or the Kuki, it takes place in the Church presided by the Priest/Father/catechists etc. Changes have taken place mostly in the materialistic aspect when it comes to marriages for the tribal. Most tribal brides opt for white wedding gown which symbolically represents the purity instead of the old ways of wearing a wrap around. Then there is the cake cutting ceremony which was unknown earlier as it was never a part of the diet even on special occasion. The invitation cards for the wedding which was not practised prior to conversion, as it was usually through word of mouth that people were invited to weddings. The decor of the wedding hall/churches are

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also being sourced out to event planners, something unheard of until very recently and was absent earlier.

It can be put concisely that the economic activities which was practised earlier by the tribal mainly agriculture, hunting and food gathering etc have been replaced by commercial activities, entrepreneurship, working government jobs etc. and this has impacted the lives of the tribal tremendously. It can be noted here, that there is an emergence of a middle educated class amongst the tribal. No doubt, by creating a middle class, the opportunities for diverse, new kinds of employment increased and there can be no doubt that, the Catholic education facilitated in great measure this change. But the Catholic missionaries were not trying to usher in modernity and make material pursuits predominant in an individual’s life. That has been the effect of globalisation and consumerism. Although consumerism has infected everyone Pope Francis has appealed to all to cut down on it by referring to the opinion of economist Mariana Mazzuruto in her book, ‘ The Value of Everything: Making and Taking in the Global Economy’. Her book explores the need to rethink value, rather than the price will help make the world a better place. ‘I think it helps to think about the future’, says the pope. This is the attitude which catholic missionaries in Manipur are trying to popularise especially as there is so much consumerism associated with the Passage of Rites of all communities in Manipur.

The contact between the tribal and the outside world has grown in dimensions leading to higher standard of living along with more material needs. Modernity is the new name sweeping the tribal society. They have mostly given up their old custom and traditions and even if practiced, it is retained with remoulding the old ones. Development plan of the government also opened enormous opportunities for government service, construction works, supply works etc. these avenues brought in money in an unprecedented manner. Road and building construction work was of such magnitude that not only on an average almost one person from each family became a contractor or contract labourer but also the school going children who besides pursuing studies also work as contract labourers as far as records are concerned. On the other hand almost every third family has one member serving the government on some post. This change affected agriculture in general and weaving in particular. The latter is still the only major cottage industry but required support of people who not only adopted synthetic fibres in their clothing but also discarded use of their indigenously processed cloth. With the decrease in demand for Naga cloth the family loom had fallen into total disuse in those areas where youth use tailored or ready-made ultra modern fashionable clothes. Many young urban Naga girls do not hesitate to confess that they do not know how to weave. But such tradition like weaving is being maintained by rural women who are improvising on designs. There is the general appreciation of the original designs of hand woven shawls and skirts but among a very small section of population. And the same is applicable with the Kukis. The catholic missionaries also encouraged and revived the traditional cottage industries especially through their Grihni schools. It can be noted here that, the catholic missions also cater for the survival of the

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population, who are intellectually not gifted or are illiterate, but are capable of absorbing other skills. The Grihni schools run by the Catholic missions impart training to the people such as tailoring. One such example would be the Grihni School in Little Flower School, Sangaiprou. Thus, it is not only education that the Catholic mission focussed upon, but also to impart and mould skills to the deprived population to earn their own livelihood without depending on others.

Meiteis

The Meitei transformation under the influence of Catholicism is meagre as compared to that of the tribal. The Meitei population that has converted to Christianity and Catholicism is still scarce although there is no denying that very often Meitei parents clamour to send their wards to Catholic institution for their studies. The fact that they are brought up in Catholic educational institutions does influence their attitude and perception of life. Their mindsets are broadened and are more open to the way of life of the tribal and other cultures. They are less conservative for instance, Hinduism practised the Caste system and in olden times, the Meitei had constantly looked down upon the tribal and there has been not much interaction between them. Regardless of this past, things are changing as even the tribal especially because of the introduction of education and their conversion to Christianity/Catholicism they (tribal) have experienced upliftment in their ways of life, employment, thinking, , intellectually and materialistically.

In the Meitei pantheon Taibangpanba Mapu occupies the highest place of all ancestors. This ‘Immortal Lord of the Universe’, is also known as Taibang Mapu Sidaba, Atinga Sidaba, Ipung Loinapa Apakpa, Lainingthou Asuppa, Hei Ha Mapu Sidaba, etc. he is omnipresent, omnipotent and omniscient. The majority of the Puyas begin with an obeisance to this Immortal Lord. The royal chronicle also begins with an obeisance to Taibangpanba Mapu. Taibangpanba Mapu is believed to manifest in the forms of Atingkok as air, Atiya as the Guru and Atinga as the father. Leithak Leikharon adds that Amamba or the Infinite Darkness is another immortal manifestation of the Supreme One. The idea of one Father and one Supreme Being exists in Catholicism as in most religions.

There was indeed a customisation (modification) with the coming of Vaishnavite Hinduism. Traditionally Manipuri culture is inter-woven with that of Bengal. Bengal with Calcutta as its capital took the leading role in propagating the new culture and enlightenment in the Nineteenth century. But as compared to the tribals, as mentioned earlier, the level of modification taking place with the Meitei culture is not that significant, of course, the outer appearances in regard to the clothes they wear, the house they build, their lifestyles, their attitude there has been drastic changes. And the credit for most of these changes would go to education obtained from the educational institution established by the Catholic missionaries. They have been greatly impacted by the education provided by the schools and colleges established by the missionaries which directly influenced their social attitudes.

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Their personal development; mentally, physically, emotionally as well as spiritually has been promoted to a higher level. It is acknowledgeable that it is the discipline and moral values of catholic schools that the Meitei appreciate.

Beliefs in Spirits, Demons, Omens and Superstition

The Meitei belief in spirits, demons, omens and superstition are still relevant today as there are still Maibis and Maibas formally initiated and registered with the Pandit Loisang (College of Priests), attached to the royal palace. The Loisang has been a strong institution and had three divisions viz; Maiba Loisang, Maibi Loisang and Pena Loisang (Pena: a stringed fiddle). The Pandit Loisang was responsible for supervision of worship of Lais in general and the annual Lai Haraoba in particular that takes place all over Manipur. It was this institution which assigned to the Maibis their duty of officiating in Lai Haraoba festival (celebrated in honour of Umanglai and other Sanamahi deities) in different localities. Although majority of the Meitei population still go to the Priest and Priestesses when it comes to conducting various rituals and ceremonies. Nonetheless at the present time, when it comes to treating diseases and sickness, even the Meitei, especially the educated ones consult doctors who are specialists for treatment instead of going to the Maibas and Maibis. And there are lots of Meitei doctors who specialised in different fields of healthcare. The dichotomy is that even educated Meitei continue to wear religious rings and amulets, which signifies their credibility or perseverance in superstition. But they have no hesitation to remove these during surgical procedures, X-rays, MRIs etc. Catholics had always focussed on healthcare and taught its students the basic remedies for common ailments like cough, cold, fever, diarrhoea, etc. and importance of hygiene and sanitation.

The Maibas and Maibis still hold exalted position and are indispensable as the performance of rites are not possible without their intervention as this Maibas and Maibis are considered the mediator between the people and God. Each clan in Manipur regards some objects as namungba (genna or taboo), and that if by inadvertence some member of the clan touches one of these objects he will die a mysterious death, or suffer from some incurable, incomprehensible disease, pine away and die.

Ancestor worship among the Meiteis finds its place in every aspect of life. The rites of passage- birth, marriage and death all take place in accordance with the wishes and blessings of the ancestral lais. All activities associated with these ceremonies distinguish three major phases: separation, transition and incorporation. Right from the conception of a child the ancestors are venerated so that smooth delivery is ensured. When the child is to be delivered, a special house is constructed for the purpose known as ‘Chaboksang’. In case of the royal family it was called ‘wangongsang’. At the time of delivery, the maibi (mid-wife) cuts the umbilical cord with a bamboo knife. Before doing this she invokes the five souls and the shadow to take up their place in the child: “O five souls- The Shadow also a sixth- O

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come” therefore acts such as delivery of a child which are considered impure are prohibited within the premise of the sacred household.

According to T.C.Hodson, “The Meitheis follow the ordinary rules of modern Vaishnavites in the matter of birth ceremonies, but have, in addition, a small puja in honour of the Imung Lai or the Household God, which is performed by the head of the household. This latter ceremony is, of course, non-Hindu”.

As Meitei as also the tribal offer offerings at sacred groves, hills, trees, rivers, etc. so also the present Pope whose mandate is followed by Catholics all over the world believes that a dialogical approach for the sustenance of the ecosystem is the need of the hour. It can deal with social problems and promote social development and encourage political activities at the local level. Pope Francis challenges the hierarchical kind of philosophy of the Aristotelian thought and draws us towards a mystical perspective of unity of all in God (Advaita- this concept will be known to the Vaishnavite Meitei). The sense of interconnectedness and cosmic solidarity with nature brings forth the spirit of compassion (Karuna) and of non-violence (ahimsa). The Pope’s statements are to be emulated by the Catholics in Manipur too, and many of these concepts are intrinsic both to Hinduism and to primeval religion of the tribal.

Another significant ritual is the “Ipanthaba” or “Yupanthaba” ritual which is carried out on the morning of the sixth day of the birth of a child. Along with this ritual, the whole house is also sanctified which is known as “Yumsengba” (Yum-house; sengba-clean or purify). Although, this ceremony now known as ‘Swasthi Puja’ (after conversion to Hinduism) continues, more emphasis is given to the social dimension. In lieu of invited guests being served traditional sweetmeats at the ceremony, an elaborate lunch is held. The ‘Poyang’ (gift of money), which was earlier quite nominal has increased tenfold, as are the dress and the gold ornaments of the new born baby and mother. The guests especially the women dress in splendid attire dressed in the latest phanek, inaphi, sari blouse and gold ornaments. Catholicism has not been able to sensitise people on this over-emphasis on the material aspects of the above ceremony. Once the child is three months old, the Chakumba or first feeding ceremony take place. Timing is different for girls and boys. The Chakhumba of the child can also be performed on the first month for a female child and sixth month for a male child. The feast prepared should have seven items of fish, meat or vegetables. Fruits and flowers are offered to the lais. The child is fed the cooked food five times by the father. Usually three dishes are prepared for Ibudhou (grandfather) Pakhangba, the salai ancestor and the grandfather of the child descended from the salai ancestor. The food from the three dishes will be offered to the lais and fed to the child. The final stage of the ritual is prediction of the child’s future. Five items viz; earth, gold, silver, paddy and a book are kept in front of the child. The first item the child touches determines the course of the life of the child. Usually on this occasion, the baby is fed a delicious rice kheer (pudding). This ceremony has now changed from a simple family ritual to an elaborate convention, where

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consumerism is again conspicuous. Here too, Catholicism has not been successful in checking the consumerist tendency even among the Christian tribal whether it be marriage or any other ceremony.

Mr. H.A. Colquhoun, I.C.S., gives gives an account of the Marriage rites in vogue among the Meitheis as, “The usual marriage ceremony is that known as Prajapati or Brahma”. Others forms of marriage practised according to T.C. Hodson include:- Sampati Rajbibaha, Rakshasha and Gandharva, the latter being, of course, constituted by simple cohabitation. Colonel McCulloch states that “Although to become man and wife it is not necessary that the marriage ceremony should be performed, still it is usually performed, but as often after as before cohabitation.” Colonel Johnstone also states that “they have a curious custom by which a man of low caste, marrying a high caste woman, can be adopted into her tribe (salei, or clan), the exact reverse of what prevails in India, where a woman of high caste marrying a low caste man is hopelessly degraded, and her children outcasts. Sanabam Raghumani has listed four forms of Marriage viz; Hainaba or engagement, Chenba or elopement based on love and consent, Chingba or capture and Loukhatpa or recognition or unsolemnized elopement. Hainaba is the purest form of marriage, whereas Chenba is commonly practiced. Marriage rituals of the Meitei society are conducted with the veneration of the Salai and Sagei Apokpas of the two parties concerned. While all the preliminaries of marriage with or without rites have been performed in pre Meitei traditional form, the wedding ceremony as it is now performed is an admixture of both Hindu and non Hindu elements. After their conversion into Hinduism in the 18th century Meitei marriage has been performed in basic Hindu pattern while at the same time retaining most of their pre Hindu elements. In spite of the introduction of Hindu codes of conduct, religious rituals etc., Hinduisation did not submerge the , rather it had to accommodate itself within the strongly established Meitei religious and social framework. Although the Meitei women met with some attempts to curb their freedom by the process of Brahmanisation, they had in general maintained their potential autonomy both socially and economically as Manjushri Chaki Sirca observes, “Meitei women’s economic role has proved to be too valuable and pervasive to be replaced through any of the processes of historical change that the society experienced.” At every stage, ancestral lais play a very important role in the maintenance of the social bond whether it is between the bride and groom, the parents of the two parties, the sageis or the salais. Though the Meitei marriages still follow most of the practices earlier, conforming with the old ways, the same way as the tribal, they have the cake-cutting session, their wedding dresses are often designer wear, the application of make-up on the faces are all new. The fast pace of life demanded by today’s existence has indeed taken a toll in each ceremonies and rituals. Today the Meitei bride and groom emulate many wedding practices of Christians especially Catholics but which possess no religious significance. Eg. at the Heijingpot ceremony (Engagement which usually precedes the wedding by a couple of days ) it is now almost mandatory especially among the middle class for the groom to order a designer wedding cake quite often covered

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with a veil and the figures of the bride and groom in western attire. The designer chef is often asked to decorate the main wedding cake with miniature cakes in the same flavour and design and to arrange it, together with other accompaniments ordered from a designer bakery like chicken patties, brownies, apple crumble tarts, home-made chocolates etc. traditional sweetmeats are also presented to the bride’s family, and special items including the cake are set aside for family and close friends, who enjoy the delicacies in an uninhibited environment in the evening at the bride’s house- sometimes song and dance are part of the event- most of it in western style.

Death is an event which marks the passage of an individual from the world of man to the world of spirit. The Meiteis believed that there is a cycle of birth and death. They attach great importance to leaving an issue before departing from this world. The issueless couples are considered bad omens. When they die they shall always be a special rite of Chupsaba (a ritual associated with the special kind of death in Meitei cosmology) performed at the time of cremation. The belief is that such people die thrice. According to Sakok Lamlen Ahanba Puya, the early Meiteis practiced four forms of the dead viz; air, water, earth and fire. It is written that “Meeoiba! Poklabadi poklaga si-o, siraga amuk pok-o’ (O man! If you are born, you are born to die, and you die to be reborn again) there is no definite evidence recorded in the puyas about the form of disposal of the dead practiced in pre-Hindu Meitei society.

The disposal of dead by burial was introduced by King Moriya Phambalcha in Haya Chak or second human age. The Cheitharol Kumbaba records that from the time of King Garibniwaz the Meiteis started the practice of cremation of dead by fire. This is also corroborated by T.C. Hodson who writes “Garibniwas ordered the Manipuris to exhume the bodies of their ancestors, which they formerly used to bury inside their compounds”. Subsequently at the later date of his reign, he exhumed the bones of his ancestors and cremated them on the banks of the Engthe (Ningthee) river, and from that time ordered his subjects to burn their dead. He further says that “it is well know that up to the advent of Hinduism, the dead were buried, and the chronicles mention the enactment by Khagemba of a rule that the dead were to be buried outside the enclosures of the house. According to tradition, no individual should be allowed to die inside a house since death is taken as an impure event. A tairen (tulsi) leaf is placed in the kai (coffin) near the head of the death body, symbolizing sanctification of the body. After the bath and other rituals for the death body, the Maiba offers flowers to Taibangpanba Mapu asking him to accept the departed soul in his abode. Finally, the Maiba offers the departed soul to the ultimate father. This suggests that it is through these elements that the body returns after the soul departs from the body. Here again, it can be emphasised that the Catholics had no influence on the Passage of Rites, even though the Meitei at one time followed the practise of burial and even burying within the homestead. The Catholic believed that their dead one live in eternal life with God and that no ritual or spell or ceremonies are necessary for the dead ones to reach God, if they had lived a sincere, honest and fruitful life of giving and helping. However, according to the Meitei belief: ‘it is believed that if no ceremony is perform after death, the

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soul of the deceased would not be able to reach Heaven and will go to Hell instead’. Hence it is basically because of this different outlook on life after death, that Catholicism has no impact on the Passages of Rites of the Meitei.

It is again the food habit that makes out a Manipuri Vaishnava from other counterparts with the utmost distinctiveness. Fish holds a pride of place in his list of food, unless he is a confirmed Vairagi (), in which case he will take vegetarian diet prepared himself or by a Brahman. It is worth noting that the Manipuri Vaishnavas are fish eaters. This is also corroborated by T.C. Hodson who writes, ‘fish is eaten, and is a common article of diet, so much so, that, special care had to be taken to prevent any monopoly of fishery rights from unduly raising the price of this commodity’. The Chronicles contain ample evidence of the change in the diet of the Meitei section of the population which is due to the introduction of Hinduism at the beginning of the eighteenth century.

The earlier reigns seems to have been one long feast with hecatombs of fat cattle and oceans of spirituous drinks, even culminating on more than one instance in fatalities due to an excessive appreciation of the good cheer. However, the official adoption of Hinduism not only removed the ban against milk but created many prohibitions to which the new converts eagerly submitted. Animal flesh is forbidden and all spirituous liquor or intoxicants are accursed. Rice forms the staple of food, and is boiled in the open air in earthenware pots, and, connoisseurs often have the rice cooked inside a hollow bamboo, and declare that the ‘utong chak’ (u=wood, tong/thong= to cook, chak=rice) or ‘wood cooked food’, possesses a very delicate flavour. In childhood the strict rules of Hinduism are not enforced, and old-age has relaxations, a fact which was also noticed by Colonel McCulloch, who remarks, “Children up to ten or twelve years of age eat every sort of food without regard to the Hindu notions of purity or impurity. And it is a common practice for old people to abandon altogether Hindu observances.” But the food items offered to Hindu deities are vegetables and agricultural crops prepared by the Hindu Brahmans to suit local taste. There are as many as 108 items of curry, out of which some are to be prepared by cooking without salt, some with salt, some to be flavoured with chillies to make them hot etc. Laphu Iromba (banana chutney)- the art of flavouring the inner barks of the plaintain tree with chilly and salt is an invariable of dish for the service of Sri Govindaji and other Hindu deities. So is the dish of Sagol Hawai.

There has not been much change in the food habits there but one can definitely observe, that the items usually consume by the Manipuri has increased. Variety of foods consumable has been expanded specially the palate of the younger generation. The hesitancy of consuming the ‘Khong Mari Panba’ (four legged animals) is also on the downturn. In recent years, the introduction of cigarette smoking has aroused vehement protests from the stricter kind of the orthodox, who elicited a formal condemnation of the habit from the wise men of the chirap. Today the Meitei including the Brahmins partake of varieties of meat as also alcohol but this does not have any connection with Catholicism.

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It is claimed that some of the reasons for conversion to Christianity by the Meitei Hindus is mostly due to the fact that Christianity is more liberal. The earlier community life of the Meitei has also undergone changes. Now the reason for it is hard to determine as the fine line between Christianity and modernisation is blurred. It is hard to pinpoint at a single factor as both modernisation and Christianity are both inter-related in some manner synonymous but not with regard to religious faith. But the Meitei were transformed through education imparted by the catholic institution. A revolutionary change occurred in their worldview. To be modernise one needs to understand its concept, and to understand that concept and to make it applicable, one need education vice versa. When one is educated, opinion and attitudes changes as transformation and upliftment take place and people usually end up accepting at least some aspects of modernisation thereby giving up the old rigid traditions and customs. The fact that it is, a huge number of the younger generation also consumed meat and other edibles that was earlier considered taboo, this stand to testify that change is taking place amongst the Meitei

M. Kirti. Singh opines that ‘However, in consequence of urbanisation, rapid social changes, the dress food habits, handloom economy and modern outlook, the traditions are frequently honoured more in the breach than in observance. The people including Maibas, Maibis (priests and priestesses) and the Manipuri Bamons (Brahman priests for Hindu rites) are content themselves with service when they conduct the concerned rites and rituals. Some of the charms and spells lost their significance in everyday life as the soothsayers disappeared from our society. In urban situations, witchcraft, magical practices, folk system of curing diseases tend to disappear from the lives of those who live in modern style’. He further states that thus, ‘we can say that it is not modern scientific society and its accompanying lifestyles which inhibit religious activities and beliefs, for here we find that religious attitudes are maintained in modern urban industrial environments of Imphal and other cities of Manipur’. Amid such changing trends and ordeals through which Manipur is passing we believe that religion and culture of State on account of its inherent vitality can withstand the onslaughts from any quarter and survive in its pristine purity. It will be endowed with a new lease of life and infused with new vigour after the successful ordeals. Manipur has its own inner dynamism to incarnate herself in her culture and society with all its potentialities. The intellectual powers and spiritual insight of the people are capable of sociological and cultural investigations. But society is not static especially in a globalised world. And in some subtle manner, Catholicism has influenced the Meitei, as converted Meitei are some of the most ardent followers of Jesus Christ and very particular in adhering to catholic practices and rituals.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it is apparent that Catholicism had a much greater impact on the tribal which was inevitable as most had not only converted to Christianity in the last decade of the century and the opening of the 20th century, but had also imbibed western education from

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the Christian missionaries who preceded the catholic mission. It was comparatively much easier to be amenable to catholic education, traditions, customs and beliefs. The Meitei were more influenced by Catholicism in the field of education. It used to be said that the church has been sent into the world in a mission to proclaim the coming of the kingdom of God in and through Jesus Christ. This view of mission however, has been changing after the Second Vatican Council, particularly in two important ways. The goal of mission is no longer saving of souls, but building up the kingdom as human communities of freedom, fellowships and justice for all. The second change is that not only the church but all the religions are journeying towards this kingdom and are therefore called to collaborate in the task of building it up. The Spirit of God is present and active in individuals, their cultures and religions. The people therefore are called to collaborate with each other towards the building up of the kingdom. Such collaboration can take place at two levels. Culture and religions are meaning systems. Religion deals with ultimate value. As such they have to dialogue with the culture and enable them to promote the kingdom values in society. Culture and societies are animated by different religious systems. But religion, do claim to promote ultimate values. Their vision and places tend to clash. Inter- is not rare today. In an era of globalization, religion, too feel that they need to dialogue and collaborate in the promotion of common human spiritual values in society.

Perhaps Catholicism has definitely impacted life and condition of the people of Manipur. The hills of Manipur were most definitely impacted by education and social works, practices of the Catholics of Manipur; the valley people by education, healthcare, healing ministry etc. The impact differed primarily because the hill people became long before the Catholics mission was established in Manipur and the Meitei had converted two centuries prior to that to Vaishnavite Hinduism. ‘Catholicism has brought in the feeling of oneness and also introduced western education at an affordable rate in the hills. In the valley, people seek only education.’ However, education was the greatest force that impacted the life in the hills and the valley. That is why the Pope reiterates- ‘When certain categories of reason and the sciences are used in the proclaimation of the Gospel, they become tools of Evangelization’. Universities are outstanding environments for articulating and developing the evangelizing commitment in an interdisciplinary and integrated way. The Catholic Church has always been involved in education. It runs and sponsors thousands of primary, secondary schools and colleges throughout the state, which brings growth and development. Catholic schools in the valley also provide co-curricular activities but in the hills life skill education is more relevant. Hill children do not fare so well academically as of want, they work part-time in paddy fields, have no money to attend remedial or coaching classes and have no library or inadequate library facilities. There can be no doubt that Catholicism in most definite ways affected the life and condition of the people of Manipur.

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Notes

i Kukis are an indigenous people inhabiting the hills of Manipur. Kuki is a generic term which includes Chin, Mizo and Zo. ii Nagas are also an indigenous people settling in the hills of Manipur. iii Meiteis are an indigenous people occupying the valley of Manipur. Manipur has two distinct physiographic divisions i.e. the hills and the plains/valley. iv Pathien is a Kuki term which means Supreme Being. v Tithe is 1/10 of an earning to be given to the Church. vi Zeliangrong is a conglomeration of three Nagas sub-tribes Zeme, Liangmei and Rongmei. vii Lom is a Kuki Youth or Bachelors’ Dormitory. viii Morung is a Naga Youth Dormitory.

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