.1vr (_. -~ , 1-v\J\JTV\__~ ~ An International Journal of Psychology in Africa
Vol. 24 No. 2, 2016
Published by the lfe Centre for Psychological Studies/Services ASSOCIATE EDITORS AKINNAWO TOPE Redeemer's University, Mowe, Ogun State, Nigeria AKUAMOAH-BOATENG R University of Ghana, Legon ALADE EUNICE Kenyatta University, Nairobi AYANNIYI B. ALHASSAN Osun State Univesity (Okuku Campus) BOJUWOYE NIYI University of the Norh Owa Qwa campus Phuthadithaba 9866 R.S.A BOSKI PAWEL Academy of Sciences, Podlesna 62, Warsaw CANGEMI JOSEPH University of Western Kentucky CASTRO JOSE LUIS Universidad de Burgos, Spain EZEILO BERNICE University of Nigeria, Nsukka GINSBERG PAULINE Utica College, Syracuse University, New York 13502 Half R.E Michigan State University, USA IKEOTUONYE ALPHONSO University of Abuja, Abuja KOLO IBRAHIM Bayero University, Kane MBOYA MZOBANZI Research Institute of Southern Africa 480, Essenhout Lane, Lynnwood, Pretoria. 0081 Myambo kathleen American university cairo OKATCHA FREDERICK Kenyatta University, Nairobi OLADIMEJI BENEDICTA Obafemi Awofowo University, ffe-ffe PFEFFER KAREN Lincoln University, Lincolnshire, England PELTZER KARL Human Sciences Research Council. Private Bag X9182 Cape Town 8000 S. Africa SEFA-DEDEH ARABA University of Ghana Medical Schoof SHINDI JOSIAH Benue State University, Markurdi TIAMIYU MOJI University ofToledo, Ohio 43606-3390 UDEGBE BOLA University of fbadan, lbadan UMEH CHARLES lagos University Teaching Hospital (Staff Clinic), ldi-Araba, Lagos WATKINS DAVID University of Hong Kong, Pokfulan Road, Hong Kong ZAMAN I ANDREW Nasa rawa State University, Keffi
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iii EDITORIAL
Over the years, the various editions of our Ite PsychologiA Journal have garnered remarkable ·ial nts contributions from seasoned professionals and researchers. This edition is no exception as more Name of Authors ·I Terzungwe Anhange, in-depth research into the various aspects of psychology in Africa and its related construct has ur Jgbende, Joyce Mcivir T been combined into another enlightening issue. This compilation of carefully selected articles 'erkumbur Philip further illuminate various issues in our society and proffer constructive recommendations that emi A.E. & Dombo D.O. could become core elements in the development that our society so eagerly craves. These potential elixirs ranging from the attainment of industrial goals to psychological wellbeing of :~,h Obaze Agbonluae caregivers, retirees, adolescents and entrepreneurs to mention a few are really well analyzed and meticulously presented making this edition of the Journal and all its past, present and future contributions an integral part of the change that is needed to move our continent and others evba, M.E., Iruonagbe, T. Chiazor, A. l. & Suleiman, forward. This reminds me of the following popular quote by Barack Obama: 'Change will not come if we wait for some other person or some other time'. We are the ones we have been ab Parimah, Joseph Osafo l 0 waiting for. The findings and the recommendations from the research papers informs the change that we seek. To this end, we thank all stakeholders dearly for your unrelenting support through non A. Agashua your contributions and patronage and hope that you enjoy this edition of the Journal. i, Afi.1sat Olanike
Sincerely yours, nusi-Ossai Onyinyc Ch ;wo Helen 0 Professor Sola. Olowu, {PhD; FCIPM; FNPA, FlOE) Editor-in-Chief, lfe Centre forPsychologica"l-5tudies/ Services Jiae E. & Adayonfo E. 0. P.O. Box 1548, Ile-Ite, Osun State, Nigeria. Phones: +234 803 711 6382; +234 805 634 3255 lab Parimah, Courage C. email: [email protected] :wah Nk.ansah & Joseph Y: Web:www.ifepsychologia.org yemi A.E & Bamigbade A
nbola Oiuremi H., Olowu onatus Paul
.i Chris, Ashionyc Evarirw ul , Aderemilekun Samu N iv tllitittt ffl ercd remarkable ·ial nts ii-iv ;ception as more Name of Authors Page Title of Articles :1 Terzungwe Anhange, Dorothy 1 influence of Psychosocial Factors on P~ychological Wellbeing of ed construct has ur lgbende, Joyce Mcivir Terwase & Patients' Caregivers at Teaerar-Medical Centre Makurdi, selected articles ferkumbur Philip Nigeria mendations that emi A.E. & Dombo D.O. 10 Influence of Parenting Styles on Psychological Well-Being and School Adjustment of Secondary School Adolescents in r craves. These Bayelsa State, Nigeria :al wellbeing of ah Obaze Agbonluae 17 Relationship between Knowledge and Attitude towards HIV ~ II analyzed and Voluntary Counselling among Adolescents in Secondary :sent and future Schools in Edo State nent and others evba, M.E., lruonagbe, T. C., Azuh, Poverty, Inequality and Human Development in Nigeria: Appraising the Non-Attainment of the MDGs -::hange will not Chiazor, A. I. & Suleiman, B. M. . we have been ab Parimah, Joseph Osafo & Kingsley 47 Community Sentencing of Petty Offenders: An Exploration of Stakeholders' Attitudes in Accra, Ghana •rms the change .0 Aviation Psychological Practice in the Nigerian Air Force: ;upport through .... non A. Agashua 58 Challenges and Prospects at. Cognitive Training Programme in the Decrease of Stress of •i, Afusat Olanike 69 Daily Functioning Among the Retirees
Psychosocial Predictors of Quality of Life among Caregivers nusi-Ossai Onyinye Christabel & 77 of Chronically Ill Children in the University College Hospital >wo Helen 0 (UCH), Tbadan, Nigeria
jiae E. & Adayonfo E. 0. 87 Association between Characteristics of Students of a University of Education and Past Ycar Psychoactive Substance Usc
)ab Parimah, Courage Collins Kofi, 95 Personali ty and Fear of Terrorist attacks in Ghana: The cwah Nkansah & Joseph Yaw Opoku mediating role of Risk Perception
yemi A.E & Bamigbade A.K. 103 Career Commitment: Interplay of Core-Self-Evaluation and Reward System among Local Govemments Employee in Oyo State, Nigeria
nbola Oluremi II., Olowu Akinseye U. 113 Youth Unemployment and Entrepreneurship Prospects in onatus Paul Nigeria: A Developmental Perspective
ii Chris, Ashionye Evaritus, Gbadamosi 124 Attitude Measurement and Employees Productivity at the ul, Aderemilekun Samuel & Uche .N University of Lagos, Akoka, Lagos v Volume Twenty'. Fou·r Number Two
Elizabeth I. Olowookere, Oluj:de A. Adekeye, 132 Influence of Religiosity on Turnover Intention: Emare Aveez 0\uwatoyin. Gbadebo 0. Adejumo, Benedict. C. Agoha & Evidence from Selected Employees in Lagos and Ogun st Muyiwa A. Sholarin ela A. Gyasi-Gyamerah & < Badejo A.O. & Anyanwu Akudo Chioma 139 Comparative Effect of Rational Emotive Behaviour TI.tia and Token Economy on Junior Secondary School Su Performance in Basic Science in Lagos State ). Olley & A. lshola
Obisi Chris, Uche C.B.N, Gbadamosi 147 Influence of the Dimensions of Corporate Cultural Praetir Abdul Aderotimi 0 & Obiwuru Timothy Development and Performance at the Nigerian Breweri~bayo Adejumo Lagos, Nigeria ba Fan iran Benjamin Olaoyc Adetunji Abiola 156 Perspectives and Trends of Tracking among Students 'ab on Academic wu Akinseye U. & Taye-Fani Kchinde Oyesomi, Olusola Oyero, Angie 165 Rally as a Political Public Relations Strategy tor ~bowale Osarieme lgbinoba & Solarin Adeniyi Acceptance of . vlitical Party: A Focus on APC Presid Campaign in Lagos State. (ode Oguntuashe
ldowu M. Ogunkuade 173 The Perspectives of Workplace Behaviour in Nigeria ·' Adeleke Gbadebo Fatai 182 Electoral Process and Academics' Voting !3ehaviour be I 999 and 20 I 5 General Elections in Osun State, Nigeria
Oyebiyi Dele Augustine & Amaihian Philip 195 Women and Domestic Violence: Implication for Counsell ldowu
Oluwafemi Akindele & Iwayemi Ayodeji 203 Assessment and Management of Death Anxiety and Esteem among People Living with HlV/AIDS (A Case of APIN Clinic, LagQs University Teaching Hospital, LU
Adayonfo Ehigiator 0., Akanni Oluyemi 0. 216 Profile or Undergraduate Student Caffeine Users/ A bus~ & Ehimigbai Mary Benin City, Nigeria
Ajufo Beatrice Ifeoma 224 Financial Hardship and Subjective Norms as Predictors c Seeking Behaviour among Unemployed Youths in Oyo Nigeria.
Adcwusi Adedeji Oluwaseun 231 E-Commerce Adoption among Civil Servants of Scl States in Southwestern Nigeria
Ekore R. 1., Ajuwon A. J., Abdulmalik J. 246 Developing Mental Health Peer Counselling Service. 0., Omigbodun 0.0 & Bclla-Awusah T.T Undergraduate Students of a Nigerian Uni versity: A Study
Alhassan A. 13. 259 Parents and School Proprietors Frustrating National Edw Policy: What Should Stakeholders Do?
vi rllifflffli ffl ISSN.l1J.7.! 142I~J;}.;n·,~.. ~ se tember!-2016
Turnovt:r Intention: Emare Aveez Oluwatoyin 267 Evolving Expectations for Personality Traits in Counselling oyees in Lagos and Ogun st Psychologist in Training
ela A. Gyasi-Gyamerah & Charity S. 279 Religious Commitment and Prejudicial Attitudes toward nal Emotive Behaviour 'D.t.ia Homosexuals in Ghana 11or Secondary School Su in Lagos State ). Olley & A. lshola 290 A Brief Scale for HIV Self Disclosure: Development, Validity and Reliability f Corporate Cultural Practic - c at U1c Nigerian Brewericbayo Adejumo 298 Ethical Challenges in Logotherapy Practice
. ba Faniran Benjamin 307 The Question of African Philosophy: Methodological or ackmg among Students 'at Philosophical Skepticism? ' wu Akinseye U. & Taye-Faniran 318 The Fear of Business Failure and Government's Role in Relations Strategy for ~bowale Supporting Entrepreneurs in Nigeria. y: A Focus on APC Presid 331 A Tribute to the Memory of Alastair Charles Mundy-Castle, rode Oguntuashe the Founding Professor of Psychology Dcparnncnt, University ·Behaviour in Nigeria of Lagos aics' Voting Behaviour be• ns in Osun State, Nigeria
:· Implication for Counsell
>' of Death Anxiety and Nith HJV/AI!)S (A Case: ty Teaching Hospital, LU1 ent Caffeine Users/ A bust ive Norms as Predictors c mployed Youths in Oyo
Civil Servants of Sc1
:cr Counselling Service Nigerian University: A
''rustrating National Edur - ~ Do?
vii /fe Psycholog/A 2016, 24(2), 16·46 Copyright (c) 2016 tJ /fe Centre {or Psycho/oglal Studies/ Services, 1/e-/je, Nigeria /SSN: 111 7 H21
c on AIDS (UNAID~) poverty: Inequality and Human Development in Nlgerla: Appraising the Non-Attainment m the Global AIDS oftheMDGs , Switzerland. :ion (WHO) (2009). Egharevba, M.E. (PhD), lruonagbe, T. C. (PhD). Azuh, D. E. (PhD), Chlazor, A. I. (/'hDJ & IDS. Sulelman, B. M. Department of Sociology and Department of Economics & Development Studies uon (WHO) (20 l 0). Covenant University \IDS. Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria. , M., He, N. & ·-Detels emai 1: [email protected] ·de.c attitudes and 1 ~~ HlV counselling Abstract JH.! rural migrants in The challenge of the 2 I'' century has been how to confront and reduce widespread inequalities and ;r~s!.- sectional study. poverty. This remains the core of development problems that underline the principal objective of 'ic Health, Vol. 11 (3): development policy as embodied in the Millennium Declaration. Despite significant improvements over the past 50 years in advancing human well-being, extreme poverty and inequities remain widespread in the developing world. The world today is characterized by vertiginous accumulation .1., Kimani, J. K., Oti, of wealth by a few to the exclusion of larger majority who suffer untold hardrhip and G. & Ezeh. (20ll). Impoverishment. These conditions have been exacerbated by the adoption offree market paradigm •r HTV testing and anchored on private accumulation. This has engendered an overlap of all types of injustice and 31raobi urban informal social polarization that now define the basis for social life in most countries ofthe world, including 4edical Central Public Nigeria where 70 percent of the population lives below US$ one dollar a day. As an exploratory I. 670-678. study, secondary sources ofdata were engaged to interrogate the policy ofmarket fundamentalism and the man((estations of inequities it has engendered The paper argued that the lack ofaccess to essential goods and services for a dignified human existence, the unevenness in the distribution of incomes and fruits of economic growth, as well as constraints in the access to power, self-esteem and freedom coupled with the prevalence of ethnic, religious, gender differences and orientations have generated violence, unrests, war. terrorism and deepen social conflicts- which reinforce the conditions of growing social inequality. The paper further proposed a restructuring of the present one-size-fits all model of social relations of economic globalization to one which require closer economic cooperation, where people and countries collectivezv act together to solve their common problems qf trade, capital and environment. Besides, there is need for international financial institutions such as the World Bank/IMF to respect national sovereignty, allow each country 10 make appropriate decisions that will shape and strengthen the process ofnation building and better quality of life. In all, decision-making about economic globalization must be democratic and recognize that economics is not zero-sum, .but one about transforming the lives ofpeople. Keywords: Exclusion, Human Development, Inequality, Poverty, Millennium Development Goals (Jo:fDGs)
. . Introduction human rights brings. to fore the interrogation of It is globally accepted today that improving the issues of poverty and inequalities and the quality of· life of all people is cr.itical to challenges they pose for promoting human achieving sustainable development. Thus, development. Addressing these concerns, building partnerships across the world in order therefore, provide the basis for appraising the · to create an equitable and sustainable extent to which nations around the world development that ensure respect for human particularly the developing countries seek to rights, the rights of women, ensuring universal attain the Millennium Development Goals access to education and health , including sexual (MDGs) targets particularly those of reducing and reproductive health arc critical for poverty, hunger, and inequality. transforming global relations in the world. Whether world leaders conscientiously subscribe Thus, Nigeria, Africa's nominally biggest to this vi sion of promoting human lives and economy is seen as a study in copious paradoxes
27 lf o? PsychologJA, 24{2}, 2016 Egharevbo, Jruonagbe, J
in this context. Though the country is endowed poorest 20 percent is 4.4 percent and those \\ ith rich natural and human resources, majority earned by the richest 20 percent of the regarding identifying or the citizenry li ve in poverty and mi sery, and population is 55.7 percent (C[A World Factbook, responsible for the c lac k the capacity to do things they would want to 2009). Also, the National Bureau of Statistics poverty, inequality choose to do or be in life (World Bank, 2006; (20 12) revealed that "the top 10 percent earners development in the Nigerian Economic Outlook, 20 15). The nation were responsible for about 43 percent of total specific reference to N which was one of the richest 50 countries in the consumption expenditure. ' Similarly, a look at does a country's soeio 1970s has retrogressed to become one of the the country's Human Development Index (HDl) advancing so, .a! and e 25th poorest countries at the threshold of the 21 '' ranking since 1990 has not been encouraging in exacerbating povert century. This is despite being the sixth largest too, as the country has continuously been income distribution in exporter of crude oil from which she has earned classified as a nation with low Human liberal economic over US$300 billion over the last three decades Development Index ranking (a composite fundamentalism is ir of the twentieth century (World Bank, 2010). measurement of literacy, life expectancy and what impact it has Achieving the Millennium Development Goals income) in terms of its citizens' standard of pursuit of the MDG! (MDGs) target is all the more challenging for living. incidence of povert) Nigeria as the poverty situation in the country is country since its ado· much more precarious for many Nigerians than From the foregoing, it is obvious that the Also, it is essential t< :my time in recent past (Centre for Democracy country is faced with challenges of poverty, state and govern~ and Development, 2013). Since the country was inequality and human development which attainment of th.e MD part of tht: ;;!vbal community that subscribed to ultimately undermine the nation's quest for state represents the c the setting the MDGs in 2000 to reduce global socioeconomic development. This is so because key decisions are mad extreme poverty and hunger by half in 2015, the the whole essence of development entails political issues that scorecard for the country in tenns of halving creating human freedom which involves the human life, social Cl extreme poverty and hunger, including emancipation of people from alienating material consequences associ; promoting people centred development. While conditions of life, and from social servitude to these issues will helJ: some progress has been made in some areas nature, other people, misery, oppressive the country has mad such as increasing school enrolment, marginal institutions and dogmatic beliefs, especially that target over the last l reduction in maternal and child/infant mortality, poverty is predestination. Freedom here, stalled the attainmer the overall impact,in terms of meeting the MDG involves an expanded range of choices for should constitute the targets have not been significant given the high societies and their members with a minimization whole make-up of the poverty rates that has not ahated in spite of the of external constraints in the pursuit of some cited rapid economic gro\\th rate of 7% which social goals of sustenance and self-esteem. It Poverty, lnequ: th •~ nation has exp~rienced over the last decade also encompasses various components of Developmen l World Bank, 20 13). poli~ical freedom, including, but not limited to personal security, the rule of law, freedom of "Our primary go A I most fifteen ( 15) years down the I inc, ex pression, political participation and equality of. be to reduce the tvailable data reveals that the· number of the opportunity (UNDP, 1992: 20, 26-33; Sen, within counties.. populace living below the poverty line of US$ 1999:14). As such, when the people of any given challenge of our I.L5 dollar has ri sen .from 52 percent in 2004 to society fail to meet their life-sustaining basic inclusion" (Jar tJI percent in 2010, and 69 percent in 2014, life human needs and well-being, a condition of former president expectancy is less than 52 years, over I 0 million .· · . helplessness, mi sery, poverty, inequality, and chi ldren are out of school, infant/child mortality insecurity sets in and underdevelopment become "The unfinished and maternal mortality is nne of the highest in the order of the day. Thus, human development first century i th.: world after China and India, and becomes jaundiced when people do not have the poverty" (Juan ~ un employment has reached 24 percent (NBS, material means to help them realize their full World Summit 1 :20 15). Besides, the Gini ludex for Nigeria is potentials, and address other socioeconomic 1995) ::> 0.6 percent which shows a large unequal challenges such as poor infrastructure, poor mcome distribution between the rich and the education and health conditions, inadequate Providing understa poor, ind1 cating that the b•:netits of economic housing, poor sanitation and unemployment. poverty, inequality, growth have not been equit:thle and broad based. MDGs is si!,rnifican l- or instance, the total inLOme earned by the These conditions raises the critical questions performance in tl Development Gm 28 Egharevbo, lruonagbe, Azuh, Chiazor & Suleiman.: Propefty, Inequality cind Human . .
~nt and those rcent of the regarding identifying what factors are elimination of poverty, crel\ting employment orld Factbook, responsible for the continuous incidence of opportunities and lessening income inequalities u of Statistics poverty, inequality and poor human constitute the necessary conditions for )ercent earners development in the developing world with development. Development, therefore, is about ercent of total specific reference to Nigeria. Also, what impact the sustained elevation of an entire society and trly, a look at does a country's socioeconomic policy play in social system toward a better life. Therefore, nt Index (HDI) advancing so... al and economic development or meeting the fundamental human needs of :n encouraging in exacerbating poverty, inequities and unequal sustenance, self-esteem and freedom represents inuously been income distribution in Nigeria? Here, the neo the common goals sought by all individuals and low Human Jiberal economic policy of market societies (Goulet, 1971 :23). Development is (a composite fundamentalism is interrogated to determine both a physical reality and a state of mind in :xpectancy and what impact it has played in the country's which society has, through some combination of 1s' standard of pursuit of the MDGs, and in addressing the social, economic, and institutional processes, incidence of poverty and inequities in the secured the means for obtaining a better life. To country since its adoption in the early 1980s. secure this better life, development in all vious that the Also, it is essential to examine the role of the societies must have at least attained the ~es of poverty, state and governance/leadership in the following three basic objectives: ~pment which attainment of the MDGs. This is vital since the l. To increase the availability and widen the on's quest for state represents the custodian of power where distribution of basic life-sustaining goods is is so because key decisions are made on economic, social and such as food, shelter, health, and opment entails political issues that influence the quality of protection. :h involves the human life, social equality, and the attendant 2. To raise the levels of living, including in enating material consequences associated with it. Addressing addition to higher incomes, the provision cia! servitude to these issues will help us to gauge the progress of more jobs, better education, and greater !fY, oppressive the country has made in attaining the MDGs attention to cultural and human values s, especially that target over the last 15 years, what factors has which not only enhance material well Freedom here, stalled the attainment of the goals and what being but also generate individual and of choices for should constitute the most critical issues in the national self-esteem, and h a minimization , whole make-up of the MDGs for Nigeria. 3. To expand the range of economic and pursuit of some social choices available to individuals and d self-esteem. It Poverty, Inequality and Millennium nations by freeing them from servitude components of Development Goals in Nigeria and dependence not only in relation to ut not limited to other people and nation-states but also to law, freedom of "Our primary goal in development must the forces of ignorance and misery m and equality.of . be to reduce the disparities across and (Todaro and Smith, 2009: 22; 2015: 24). 20, 26-33; Sen, within counties .... The key development :ople of any given challenge of our time is the challenge of Be that as it may, a key message fully :-sustaining basic inclusion" (James D. Wolfensohn, ac;knowledged by scholars and development a condition of former president, World Bank). experts in interrogating poverty, inequality and ·: inequality, and human devdopment issues and its associated •elopment become "The unfinished business of the twenty-. challenges today is that economic growth does man development first century is ..the eradication of not automatically translate to human 1c do not have the poverty" (Juan Somavia, United Nations development progress. Pro-poor policies and realize their full World Summit for Social Development, significant investments in people's capabilities-. ~ r socioeconomic 1995) through a detailed focus on education, nutrition frastructure, poor and health, and employment skills-can expand 1tions, inadequate Providing understanding on the subject of access to decent work and provide for sustained nemploymcnt. poverty, inequality, human development and the progress (UNDP Human Development Report, MDGs is significant in apprqising the Nigeria's 2013). Furthermore, as the global development critica I questions performance in the pursuit of Millennium challenges becomes much more complex and Development Goals initiative. Thus, the transboundary in nature through globalization
29 Egharevbo, /ruonogl lfe PsychologiA, 24(2}, 2016
(CBN) ( 1999: I) sums up the detinition of being as the ultima! which has engender the interconnectedness of poverty as: Human centred c countries through trade, migration, and A state where an individual is not able to emerged in the I~ infonnation communication technologies, the cater adequately cater for his or her becoming the agen1 need for coordinated action on the most pressing basic needs of food, clothing, and its means and its challenges of our era, whether they be poverty shelter; is unable to meet social and responsible for de1 eradication, climate change, or peace and economic obligations, lacks gainful and what' ,lues it i security is essential. The crises of recent years employment, skills, assets, and self control of public food, financial, climate- which have blighted the esteem; and has limited access to social proceed with soL i< lives of so many points to the reality that policy and economic infrastructure such as other major comm decisions in one place have substantial impact education, health, portable water, . the means of deve elsewhere, and thus emphasize the importance of sanitation and consequently has limited and resourcefulncs nations collectively working to reduce people's chances of advancing his or her welfare development such vulnerability to socioeconomic shocks and to the limit of his or her capabilities. reliance become• disasters. responsibilities o · a From the foregoing, it is clear that poverty refers of development .v In the light of this, poverty is a serious issue in to the inability of people to meet economic, being is the measu Nigeria as many people are struggling daily for social and other standard of well-being. Human law of developrn·.:r survival. It has been recognized as a social well-being, here, means being well in the basic and Chiazor, 2013) problem that commands the attention of sense of being healthy, well nourished. or highly detined human ' scholars, governments, civil society literate and more broadly, as having freedom of capabilities and e organizations and international development choice in what one can become and can do (Sen, have to Jive fulfi lliJ institutions. Poverty is a multidimensional 1985; 1999). Also a broader interrogation of the entails conditions problem, embedded in a complex and nature of poverty and _inequality problem goes flourish, meet thl!i interconnected political, economic, cultural and beyond just economic poverty and inequalities about their lives ar ecological system which is ·apparent in the in the distribution of income and assets to development free Nigeria's context. This fact clearly underlines include inequalities in power, prestige, status, constraints. Humar the various defmition of poverty. Poverty, gender, job satisfaction, degree of participation, a focus on the p• therefore, entails a condition characterized by and freedom of c.hoice. This is significant in the capability enhanc severe · deprivation of basic human needs sense that like most social relationships, we security, educatio1 including food, safe drinking water, sanitation cannot really separate the economic from the multidimensional facilities, health, shelter, education and non economic manifestations of inequality well-being and po infonnation (World Social Summit, 1995; World (Watts, 2003). Each reinforces the other in a the above, it is < Bank, 2005). The UNDP human development complex and often interrelated process of cause centred approach report (1998) sees poverty as inadequacy and and effect. From the economic perspective, they serious challenge deprivation of choices that would enable people both imply material deprivation due to low poor quality of to enjoy decent living conditions. Yunus ( 1994) income, lack of basic necessities of life. From Nigeria may bo <.~'> t conceived poverty as the denial of human rights :· the social context, poverty and inequality over the last deca1 relating to the fulfillment of basic human needs. manifest in terms of social inferiority, low status, is not expres.sivel The Organization for Economic cooperation and lack of dignity, insanity, .vulnerability and social conditions as mill Development (OECD) (200 1) described poverty marginalization. Politically, · poverty and iJ:t conditions of as an unacceptable human deprivation in tenns inequality is manifested in lack of political high inequality as of economic opportunity, education, health and power, exclusion from decision making and nutrition, lack of empowerment and security. denial of basic natural, human and political input Furthermore, s·n, The World Development Report (WDR) ( 1999) (ldakwoji, 2002). human developm< and the World Bank (2007) opined that emphasis on conditions could be expressed as poor if people Human Development issues and Millennium institutions as we live on per capita income lower than USS 370 Development Goals in Nigeria rights based app1 dollar at any given time, or as been extremely The concept of human development currently discrimination, poor by Jiving on less than US$ 1.25 dollar per encap.sulates the very essence of contemporarY accountability, tr day, and moderately poor by living on less than development which centres on people's well· social inclus1on US$ 2 dollar daily. The Central Bank of Nigeria ~~ -----~-----·
Egharevba, /ruonagbe, Azuh, Chiazor & Suleiman.: Property, Inequality and Human
! defmition of being as the ultimate of all that is development. achieving sustainable human development Human centred definitions of development (UNDP, 2010). While human development is .s not able to emerged in the 1990 and focused on people measured using the UNDP Human Development his or her becoming the agents of development as well as Index (a combined measure of life expectancy, othing, and its means and its end. Here, people must be literacy and income), sustainability indicators t social and responsible for deciding what development is uses indices such as organic water pollution, cks gainful and what' ~ lues it is to maximize, have ultimate emission, fossil fuel energy consumption, C02 s. and self control of public policy and decide how to emission, ecological footprint (consumption, ;ess to social proceed with social transformation and every production and bio capacity and calorie intake ure such as other major common concern. People become (total and animal calorie intake per year). The able water, the means of development when their energies strategies promoting- human development have , has limited and resourcefulness is the engine that drives traditionally emphasized investing in education ;r her welfare development such that the pursuit of self and health and promoting equitable growth. Jabilities. reliance becomes the core value and onerous These are two pillars of development that responsibilities of all. Finally, people are the end mobilize individual agency by strengthening that poverty refers of development when their interest and well productive capabilities. The third pillar is to , meet economic, being is the measure of all things, the supreme promote participation through democratic ,c\1-being. Human law of development (Ake, 2003:87; Egharevba governance. A cursory look at the attainment of , well in the basic and Chiazor, 2013). Similarly, the UNDP (2010) these three pillars in Nigeria clearly depict why ;urished, or highly defined human development as expanding we have failed to successfully meet up with the having freedom of capabilities and enlarging the choices people MDGs target) IC and can do (Sen, have to live fulfilling lives. Human development nterrogation of the entails conditions under which individuals can Democratic governance, therefore, means that :ll ity problem ~~s flourish, meet their basic needs, make choices people have a say 'in the socioeconomic and tv and inequahues about their lives and make progress in their own political decisions that affect their lives and that 1~e and assets to development free from structural or other they can hold decision makers accountable. It !r, prestige, sta~us, constraints. Human development has encouraged further entails that the rules, institutions and ·ee of participat!Ofl, a focus on the poor and the prioritization of practices that govern social interactions are is significant in the capability enhancing services (such as food, inclusive and fair; that women are equal partners 1 relationships, we security, education and health). It justifies a with men in private and public spheres of life, Dconomic from the multidimensional conceptualization of human that people are free from discrimination based ~ms of inequality well-being and poverty (Qizilbash, 2006). From on race, ethnicity, class, gender or any other :ces the other in a the above, it is obvious that a more people attribute, and that the needs of future generations .t:d process of cause centred approach to development still remain a are reflected in current policies. It also mean that 1ic perspective, they serious challenge in Nigeria as reflected in the economic and social policies are responsive to , ·ation due to tow poor quality of life of the citizenry. While people's needs, and aspirations, eradicate ssities of life. Fr~m Nigeria may boast of high economic growth rate poverty and expand the choices that all people rty and inequality over the last decade, the benefits of this growth have in their lives, and that human rights and nfcriority, low stat~s, is not expres.sively seen in the people's living fundamental freedoms are respected. The tncrability and soctal conditions as millions of Nigerians are trapped foregoing discourse help Lo properly situate the ly. poverty and in conditions of poverty, unemployment· and emergence of the MDGs initiative as a global in lack of political high inequality as earlier presented. development agenda set by the United Nations ccision making and in 2000 and the politics that underlie its . · 1 ·nput 1<111 and poI ttlCa t Furthermore, since its formulation in 1990, formulation including its attendant challenges human development report has consistently laid for developing countries. The MDGs eight (8) emphasis on democratic processes and goals emerged from the Millennium Summit in ucs and Millcnniulll ir.lstitutions as well as the promotion of human New York where 189 member states adopted the a\<; in Nigeria nghts based approaches such as equality, non Millennium Declaration, including pledging Lvelopmcnt currentlY discrimination, public participation, their commitments to poverty eradication, :nee of contcmpora( accountability, transparency, ru4e of law and development and protecting the environment. cs on people's wei· social inclusion as critical elements for The MDGs focus the efforts of the world
31 lfe Psych alogiA, 24(2), 2016 bo /ruonoghe, Eghare V '
community on achieving significant. measurable increase opportunities for evidence-based poJ" internationally" a improvements in people's lives by the year th e . 2 making. The M DGs . ~as ~I so in.creased ~ (United Natto~s, 2015, both for the developing and developed number of opportumttes for pohticians ~ contribution of 0.7 countries. ln 2007, the monitoring framework activists to publicly address the issue of global ODP in developmen used to measure progress towards the MDGs poverty, increased the awareness of people MOOs in developrne 10 was revised to include four new targets which rich countries about global poverty and he!~ n.c h countries. The. replaced the previous version which had been raise political profile of global poverty and commits rich countrl effective since 2003 . The eight MDGs impact on public opinion and political pany access, reduce debts a commonly accepted framework for measuring policies. rich countries have ! development efforts and progress include: disposed to de~el~pt t I . Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger On the other hand, studies have also shown respect to thetr tnt' 2. Achieve universal primary education reasons why the MDGs will not be met markets. 3. Promote gender equality and empower particularly for the developing world by women outlining their drawbacks. White and Black In many other "'a) 4. Reduce child mortality (2004: 16) point out that the goals suffer from outcome of a frag me 5. Improve maternal health diminished effectiveness because accountability critics of nco- l ibcr al i ~ 6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other for meeting them is diffuse. The build-up to the the idea of 'humur di seases Millennium summit created a once in a lifetime, fund amentalist nco-1 7. Ensure environmental sustainability perhaps once in a century opportunity to post-Washington C 8. Develop a Global Partnership tor engineer a transformation in the relative emerged at a time Development. prioritization that the international community in dominant model for all its guises (G7/8, G20, OECD, UN etc) liberal capitalism wa As with all social policies, the MDGs initiative allocates to reducing poverty. ·Regrettably, this as failing to deliver c is also characterized with its benefits · and potential, but unlikely transformation did not the benefits of econo challenges, including those who support its occur and so the pursuit of global povert) the poor, and 2) the formulation and those who oppose it. As reduction returned to a long-term strategy of particularly those "' described by Bill Gates (cited in Sachs, 2012), gradualist progressive change. A critical liberal policies and the MDGs have become a type of global report drawback of the MDGs is the failure of rich generate a vision of card in the fight against poverty for 15 years. As countries to live up to their end of the MDG di fferent and better wi th most report cards, they generate incentives bargain of providing financial assistance/aid (Hulme, 2009). A to improve performance, even if not quite towards the pursuit of the goals by developing associated with the enough incentive for both rich and poor countries. It is regrettable to note that holding of social inclusion-or P' countries to produce a global class of straight-A meetings by key leaders of developed nations the world's economi students. The MDGs were targets mainly for under the auspices of G7, G8 in New York stumbling througl' poor countries, to which rich countries were to (2000, 2005 and 2008), Gleneagles (2005), · globalization since tl add their solidarity and assistance through Monterrey (2007), and other venues till date advent of the digital fi nances imd technology. The MDGs formed the have not been matched by budgets and policy have generally soare' fulcrum on whjch development policy is based changes to progressively advance the lot of workers with hi gha ' hy creating public awareness, mobili7.ation, · countries in the developing world. The MDGs have widened sh;.~rr adn>cacy and continuity ·On what national and began as a review of development policy by the educated and well tr global development should be based. They Development Assistance of the OECD ( 1996). substantially, whcn::a represent the means to a producti ve life and a From the beginning, the MDGs were linked to workers with fC\\ cr · linchpin to the quest for a more secure and the need· for greater donor financing. In ea rly tended to dccrca ~c. peaceful world. Meeting the goals for hunger, documents the major aid agencies stated bluntly: employment for largt education, gender equality, environment and "Development costs money .... the high income force, in both ri ch health is vital for overall economic growth and countries need to supply more aid"' (OECD. contributed to incre:J deveiopmcnt. Some or the benefits whtch the United Nations, World Bank and IMF, 2000: toppling of gO\cn MDGs has engendered is that it has increased 23). The Monterrey Consensus of the United turbulent years, \viti· pressure on national governments p:.ttticularly in Nations (2002 ) proclaimed that '·a substantial course, the increa! poor countries to generate quality and reliable increase in ODA and other resources \\ill be dillcrcnccs in cduc data on human development which helps to required if developing countries are to achie\·e longstanding inequa
t Egharevba, lruonagbe, Azuh, Cl!iazor & Suleiman.: Property, Inequality and Human
the internationally af,rreed dcvelopmcnt goals The goal or gender eyu:illt)' bet\\ II n I 1111 :tnd .:--h~'>t:d policy (United Nations, 2002). For instance, th~.: wom~.:n. boy!o and g.irb (i'vll)(,'i) 11.•·· "'" .. ,., [,, •I 1:•creased the contribution of 0.7 pcreent of rich countncs met worldwide. e\en lhcllt):il ~.olltL I'" .,,.,:- ,,. , ,,)\itiCI311S and UDP in development aid to help !inane\! the been made on gu·ls' school cnro\ttll'lll :111ti ISSUe of g\oba\ MDGs in development were never met by the women's particip:~tinn in pnlilicc; :\nd htl·.tn•''' s or people in rich countries. The 8111 development goal Minority groups (ethillL h I• oo o· , ••. ,,,_ rt\ and helped commits rich countries to allow grl.!ater trad~.: ' contintl\! to endure h anl:-h tp ~ 111 11 \1 .•;t L, t., ~ ~ . .' · po-.crty and access, reduce debts and mcrcasc aids. However, particularly in Afrtca. Lllf·•· a, 1.• · political party rich countries have not being more favourably discrimination again ~t nodltJCillJLts po,,ul< 1'"" , disposed to developing countries, notably with stark and in m:tny plan·•, tnt..:n•o~i'·itl' ' . • respect to their interventions in agricultural scramble for jobs, \\:Her ;wd oll:llllc- I o:ol· , c also shown increases. Youth al so fm.! :1 L':"•.t:h ,·~; , • •ri \t 1 markets. ,\ not be met as technological advann". i·: thr,·al• '""'' tl · in!.!. world by In muny other ways, the MDGs were the access of' many people to good rob~: 1: 1lh•·· th<: hi~c and Black o~o~tcome of a fragmented conversation bct\vecn enhancing it. .oals suffer from critics of nco-liberalism, loosely grouped around ._,._: accountabi I ity the idea of 'human development' and non It is also essential to IIIli !' lh:tl 111::tt\ ill Ut·· e build-up to the fundamentalist nco-liberals moving toward a world's poorest countn(' ~ ktvt nfl•.·n ~~~' ' ' · 1 lad once in a lifetime, post-Washington Consensus. The M DGs of interest in the M ()(j tormulat io11 ;!nr: opportunity to emerged at a time when; I) the previously implementation procesw~ A "I 'It ltllli1hL·r nl the relative 10 dominant model for world development, nco leaders in the dcvcloplllt' countries lad.L'd tht .nal community in liberal capitalism was being heavily questioned political commitment to m< ·: ttll' t, 1[)( , oECD. UN etc) as failing to deliver on its promise on spreading Developing countries l.td;L;d t!w '-'il'"' :•y , Regrettably. this the benefits of economic growth and reforms to spend clfectively the sum t!'
"-'·' 1ft' p . )' • ' . .'tJ16 Egharevba, truonagoe
While the idea of human development provided poverty and misery particularly in develOp,· decade with a recoJ general support for UN conference and countries with serious consequences on the growth of real Gross [ associated declarations it promoted two specific quality of life .. Whil~ development is a complt 2013, up from 6.~ theoretical strands that became underpinnings of phenomenon, tts ulttmate success requires Jon• 2014). In spite of t~ts the MDGs. First, it advanced the case that term thinking and planning with regard : the challenge of development strategies needed to directly pursue promoting robust growth marked with afforda!i sustained growth mor the goals of development, and not just the better healthcare, accessible qualitati1; of economic growt means. Human development provided an education and less inequality (Stiglitz, 2007:15; trickled down to overarching conceptual framework for arguing Since the essence of economics is choice • unemployment, ineq\. that education and health improvements and presupposes that there are altematives, som~ ~' distribution between gender equality were not only good in their own which benefits some groups (such as foretg! remain prominent arr right but essential components of the pursuit of a capitalists) at the expense of others; some 01 facing the country. fl dynamic vision of development. As such, five which imposes risks on some groups (such 11 hampered by an infra~ and a half of the eight MDGs are about workers, the poor, and vulnerable persons tt in the energy supol: enhancing human capabilities. Secondly, a list of society especially women and children) to tt( underinvestment in multiple goals was essential for any serious advantage of others. And where there art ranking according to 1 development effort based on rigorous thinking. altematives and choices in life issues, t has not improved ~ i! While the process behind the placing of items on presumes that democratic processes should be~ With 0.471 in 2012, 1' such lists involved complex interactions the centre of decision-making which take 0.475 average for Sut involving ideas, empirical evidence, political serious cognizance of the issues of social justice interests and personal values-human income inequalities, poverty, and humar HJwever, the country development provided a well reasoned case for deprivations amongst others whe the Millennium 0 multi-dimensional lists that promotes socioeconomic policies of government are bein, however yielded onl capabilities. However, interests operating adopted and implemented. Thus, in protTerin1 the nation's huge r through the power of material capabilities and the way forward in addressing the challenges o' infant mortality rate 1 institutions moderated the influence of human development in most developing countri~ 1000 live births in 1 development on the MDGs. For instance, while particularly Africa, it is critical to find the rigi'l maternal mortality rat the JMF actively participated in activities that balance between the government and the marke: I 00,000 live births finalized the 8 goals and has renamed its key rather than the one-size-fits-all measures craftet1 proportion of delivet products to align with the MDGs (i.e. poverty by most International Financial Institutions sucl rose from 38.9 percer reduction and growth facility), there is little as the World Bank/IMF and others. 2012. The govemm1 evidence that it actively advanced the MDGs or Universal Basic that its actions or culture have been impacted by The de~:,>ree to which countries worldwide are introduced in 1999 the MDGs. This ambivalence was also concemed about issues of poverty and inequalil. enrolment in prim::.!') manifested when Nigeria negotiated her debt as well as the enormous cost of not dealing wid' is important, the rat1 relief in 2005, where the country's finance the problem; the social consequences, includin, concern and somc'.vh minister, Dr. Okonjo-lweala remembered K'ofi alienation, violence and social confli< UNESCO's · Educat Annan saying that the country could only be associated with it is critical for our examination. Report 2012, Niger considered sustainable if it could finance the This goes to tell a lot about who to entrust wtl:. .million children sti MDGs; . ·: we were told not to mention the word key ·aspccls of economic decision-making an• percent of those em 'MDGs', that it was not the conccm of the Paris policies which most times renect their politica primary cycle. Nevel club (Okonjo-Iweala, 2006: 5-57). interests and cultural values and tit population falling w consequential impact these decisions all< years is literate. Func Nco-Liberalism and Human Development in policies may have on people's wcll-bcin, remains low. The sha Nigeria (Egharevba, lruonagbc and lmhonopi, 20 15). I education fc11 !'rom What is economic growth if it is not 2014 Nigeria rehascd its Gross Domes! pcrctntin 20 13 , 17. translated into the lives of people? - Product (GOP) from 1990 to 2010 and becan the UNESCO-rccr,m UNDP, Human Development Report, the largest economy in Africa with an cstimat< This contradict the 1 1995 nominal GOP of USD 510 billion, surpass i~ (2013) African Cun South Africa's USD 352 billion. Nigeria h., observed that cd uc; In a world of plenty, so many people live m maintained an impressive growth over the p:l! most powerful instn
34 Egharevba, lruonagbe, Azuh, Chiazor & Suleiman.: Property, Inequality and Humaf1
rly in developing decade with a record estimated 7.4 percent and inequality, including laying the foundation :4uences on their growth of real Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in for sustained economic growth. Although the ment is a complex 2013, up from 6.5 percent in 2012 (UNDP, Gini Coefficient improved from 0.488 in 2010 to cess requires long 2014). In spite of this feat, the country still faces 0.397 in 2011, there is still a broad gap between ~ "vi th regard to the challenge of making its decade-long the rich and the poor, owing amongst others to ked with affordable sustained growth more inclusive as the benefitr differential access to infrastructure and ;s ible qualitative of economic growth have not sufficiently amenities. (Stiglitz, 2007:15). trickled down to the poor. Poverty, )mics is choice, it unemployment, inequality and uneven income The burgeoning size of the poor and its attendant ltematives, some of distribution between the rich and the poor still social ills on society calls for serious attention to 15 (such as foreign remain prominent among the major challenges be focused on the group. This is critically so as of others; some of facing the country. The country continues to be inequality among the poor represent a critical me groups (such as hampered by an infrastructural deficit, especially factor for understanding the depth of poverty lnerable persons in in the energy supply and transportation, and and the impact of market economic policies on :md children) to the underinvestment in human capital. Nigeria's the poor. For instance, extreme income
1d where there are ranking according to Human Development Index inequality leads to economic inefficiency. With in life issues, it has not improved significantly over the years. high inequality, the smaller the fraction of the rocesses should be at With 0.471 in 2012, Nigeria's score is below the population that qualifies for a loan or other laking which takes 0.475 average for Sub-Saharan Africa. credit and this invariably affect their overall rate :sues of social justice, of savings as well as their capacity to adequately ,verty, and human However, the country's efforts toward achieving educate their children or start and expand a others when the Millennium Development Goals have business, and the overall rate of savings in the government are be~ng however yielded only marginal results despite economy tend to be lower (Todaro and Smith, . Thus, in proffenng the nation's huge resource endowment. The 2009: 222-223 ). Besides, income disparities sing the challenges _of infant mortality rate reduced from 126 to 78 per undermine social stability and solidarity; developing countnes I 000 live births in 1990 and 2012 respectively, facilitate rent seeking, including actions such as ·!tical to find the ~ght maternal mortality rate fell from 1100 to 630 per excessive lobbying, large political donations, rrunent and the market I 00,000 live births in the same period. The bribery and cronyism. When resources are t<;-all measures crafted proportion of deliveries with skilled attendants allocated to such rent seeking behaviours, they ancial lnstitutions such rose from 38.9 percent in 2008 to 53.6 percent in are diverted from productive purposes that could 1d others. 2012. The government implementation of the lead to faster growth. Similarly, high inequality Universal Basic Education Programme makes poor institutions very difficult to ,untries worldwide are introduced in 1999 has led to an increase in improve, because those with few money and t' poverty and in_equa~~1Y enrolment in primary schools. While enrolment power are likely to view themselves as worse off cost of not deahng ".lth is important, the rate of completion is of great from socially efficient reform; and so they have :on sequences, me· I udi n . :' concern and somewhat worrisome. According to the motive and means to resist it. High and social con ~Jct UNESCO's · Education for All Monitoring inequality may also lead the poor to support cal-for our examinati~O.. ·.Report 2012, Nigeria has an estimated 10.5 populist policies that can be self-defeating. For lOUt w~~ to cntr ~st ':~ .million children still out of school and· 26 instance, countries with. extreme inequality have ic decJsJon-makmg_ . , pe:cent of those enrolled do not complete the undergone upheavals or extended civil strife that I~S reflect their pohtlcha pnmary cycle. Nevertheless, 72.1 percent of the have cost countless lives and set back ·al values an d t ' population falling within the ages of 15 to 24 development progress by decades (i.e. Iran, Iraq, . . s an. these deciSIOn . years is literate. Funding f~r the education sector Syria, the Arab Spring, and Nigeria in the North I ' weH-beliJ:. remains low. The share of the nation's budget for East). And with high inequality, the focus of m pcop e s . 1 and lmhonopl, 2015\ education fell from 12.2 percent in 1985 to 8.5 politics often tends to be on the redistribution of 1 d its Gross oorne.o: percent in 2013, 17.5 percent points lower than the existing pie rather than on policies to ogo to 2010 and bcca. ~~- UNESC~-recommcnded share of 26 percent. increase its size. , . ·( 111att 15 A. frica wJth an es I . ( contradJct the position of the World Bank 2 ) 5 10 billion, ~urp_as~: 013) African Competitiveness Report which This condition calls for tl1c urgency to .:;2 billion. Nlgena observed that education remained one of the ~_,_ the p; interrogate the link between nco-liberalism and ave growth over most powerful instruments for reducing poverty development m determining incidence of
35 o truonogbe, J. Eghorev b '
poverty, inequality and human development for the attainment of this goal. As such r". challenges with speci tic reference to Nigeria. per capita incomes, the elimination of ab~~~~ correspondingly appr?P Development entails a condition in \vhi ch people poverty, greater employment opportunities •. It constructs ways m uired to assume tt· can meet their basic needs for existence and live lessening income inequalities ther~~ re q h . I an improved quality of life. Development can be constitute the necessary but not the sut1Jci subject of t elr ohv:ln viewed from political, economic and social conditions of development (Sen, 1983). Jn t~ self. Neoliberal P I ~sc dimensions. Accordingly, Sen ( 1999:3) provided context, development can be driven throu critique of the state m , a useful theoretical and empirical formulation of conscious, consistent, progressive and endun; the roinimintion of th development ·•as an imegrated process of pol icies of government. ' restrUcturing throug? expansion of substantive freedoms that connect privatization. The n~ohb . . . a progress1ve t with one another'·. He identified five distinctive With respect to exammmg the concept 0• types of freedom, seen in an instrumental ncoliberalism as a global economic ordl'! territory of the the perspective as ·'(I) political freedoms, (2) contemporary scholars continue to pay mur redefinitions of its from the neo-clas economic facilities, (3) social opportunities. (4) attention to studyi ng vari ous aspect Ill transparency guarantees, and (5) protective globalization phenomenon, including its origini economics concern security; concluding that, freedoms arc not the Although explanations which favour sine' behaviours invoh in primary ends of development, they are also seemi ngly evident factors, such as the growth'Ci scarce resources to among its principal means.'" He further opined international trade or technologic_ economics becom that, focusing on human freedoms contrasts with dc,clopment, still remain popular, there is th\ capable of explc: behaviour (Gordon, narrower views of dc\elopmcnt, such as growing recognition that globalization has 1 identifying development with the growth of complex multi-causal nature "ith socio-politic:.. Paradoxically, under Gross National Product (GNP). or \\ ith the rise set of factors possibly playing more importar western nations have in personal incomes, or with industnalization or role than many bel ieve (Quiggin, 1999). Qr.. government intervent with technological ad\ ance, or with social popular view or globalization stresses the rolett explanation for the in modernization. While growth of GNP or of policy choices associated with a broad prograrr refonn locates it in tl individual incomes can, of course, be very of neoliberal reforms. This explanation implie! nation's competivenes: important means to expanding the freedoms that globalization must be perceived as tL efliciency of all sect enj oyed by members of the society, freedom international manifestation of the general shin Through neoliberal phi depends on other determinants such as social towards market-oriented neoliberalism. The ne~ environment is desig and economic arrangements (for instance, tendency has brought about the growth ~ development of the facilities for education and health care as well as unre!:,'lllated international capital markets, \lhir paradoxically been est accessibility to them), polnical and civil rights occurs in parallel with ..... the shift to fret intervention. Consequt (which includes the liberty to participate tn market domestic policies such as privatizatior neoliberal reformation i~ public di scussion and ~crutiny (Sen, 1999:3). capital market deregulation and It education and health ca abandonment of Keynesian macroeconol!ll for sale rather than a pt This fact was also corroborated by Guolet and management (Ibid, 248). FurthermO!e the nation's resources. l others that argued that at least three basic neoliberalism which is also known as econom;. today illustrated by components or core values should serve as a liberalism or economic rationalism provide spending cuts, dismal conceptual basis and the practical guidclim:s tor reason to limit government in rclation to W downsizing, declini1 understanding the mncr meaning of market (Gordon: 1991, Eleanor, Tbl. :wo7). competitiveness, inefT development. These core values include: paradigm re~ts ·on the " ... belie Is 111 the cflicac user-pay fees, choppi1 sustenance, self cst~.:cm and frecdom. Hcrc, of the !i-cc market and the adoption of policl• costs, and free markets. freedom · should Jlso encompass various that pnont1zc deregulation, foreign de-. moment of its emerge components of political frcedom inlluding. but reduction, privatization of thc public sector. 1980s has been pcrcci v< not limitcd to. pLrsonal fr~.:cdom. thc ruk of law. and a new orthodoxy of indi\ idual responsibili to the philosophy underr freedom of e\pre'>~lnn. political part1cipauon and the emergency safety net- thus rcplacu Production and distribut and equality ol opportunity ((iuokt. 1971 :23. eollecti\e provision through a more residuah free market docs nc UNDP, l'1lJ2 : \\all Sl!cLL Journal. 1997). \\clfarc state (llancock, 1999). 1\co!Jbcrali> ordinary consumer gooc Therefore, \\ h1 k de' clnpm~.:nt 1~ Jhout sec!..s its O\\ n wa:s to integratc self conduct' as health care and cduc improlcmcnt 111 II·~ qu;liil~ ol" lil"c or people. the go\ crncd Into the practices of till \\clfare state, social ju economic de\ clop11'-.:n: ~~ a n~ccssa ry eoml!tion go\ ernmcnt and through the promouon inefficient and unjust Egharevba, lruonagbe, Azu"h, Chiazar & Suleiman.: Property, Inequality and Human
\., ,.uch. nsing correspondingly appropriate techniques of self. paradigm. Under the neoliberal approach. , ~1n of absolute It constructs ways in which individuals are ctttzens are viewed primarily as ratiOnal consumers of public goods with educatton. ,,1,JrtUI11lleS. and required to assume the status of being the health care and social infrastructure bemg one of i: 1es therefore subject of their own lives- the entrepreneurial l't the su!Ticiem self. Neoliberal philosophy has been used as a these goods. In other words, thts phtlosophy . J9t\3). In this critique of the state in an attempt to legitimate places emphasis on the individual and mutual · dri,en through the minimintion of the state in terms of its responsibilities rather than on rights and ;:\ c and enduring restructuring through corporatization and therefore, fails to distinguish between our roles privatization. The neoliberal thought relies on: as a consumers and citizens. . . . a progressive enlargement of the the concept of territory of the theory by a series of A Critical Appraisal of the l\1 DGs in Nigeria _-cnnomic order, redefinitions of its object, starting out ''Wherever we ltft one soul from a life ' ,,.: to pay much from the neo-classical formula that of poverty, we are defending human , rights. And whenever we fail in this 1nu<; aspect of economics concerns the study of all ,, ludtng its origins. behaviours involving the allocation of mission, we are failing humar. rights." - i-:h favour single scarce resources to altemati ve ends ... Kofi Annan (2000). h as the growth of economics becomes an approach It is essential to stress that promoting human : technological capable of explaining all human rights based development which underline the ,,pular, there is the behaviour (Gordon, 1991 :43) MDGs requires that people enjoy economic, , \nhali;ation has a social and political rights to welfare. Hmvever, in exammmg the relationship between ~ ,, 11h ~0c 1 o-po\itical Paradoxically, under neolibemilsm, many : 111\!. more important western nations have been refom1ed through neoliberalism and the attainment or human ,ui~uin. \999). One government intervention. The neoliberal development, reduction of poverty and ~n ;t;csscs the role o! explanation for the impetus for state sector inequality in Nigeria, questions have been raised , tth a broad program reform locates it in the need to improve a about the unevenness of the global economtc , .:,planation implies nation's competiveness by increasing the order of neoliberalism generating both winners ··e perceived as the efficiency of all sectors of the economy. and losers in spite of the pace with which global ', of the general shifi Through neoliberal philosophy the regulatory integration of countries have increased over the ,·olibcralism. The ne~ environment is designed to facilitate the past three decades. Critics of the neoliberal (Trowth o[ policy have conceived of the process as an I''Ollt t h e = . development of the market that has '·ets ''hid exploitative phenomenon that sharpens ,1pna I mar" · paradoxically been established through state .. . . the shift to f~ee· intervention. Consequently, the essence of inequality within and between states, mcrease -uch as privatizattOC neoliberal reformation is cost cutting and setting poverty and attack the social welfare capacity of :, d till "'u\at·,on an education and health care up as a private good states (Cox, 1998:452). This is fundamentally so ::sian macroeconont'' for sale rather than a public good paid for with given the high social and human costs with which the free market reforms have been carried 24R). Furtherm~ the nation 's resources. Neoliberal philosophy is ., econo!11 i.:;o k nO\\ n .. 5 .de today illustrated by terminologies such as out to the detriment of the majority of the rational ism proVI~ spending cuts, dismantling, deficit cu~ting , populace. While many of the developed nat1ons ~1ent in relation toT~ downsizing, declining welfare · . stale, particularly tpose with influence over the global kannr. 2007). . competitiveness, inefficiencies. inevitability, political economy have gained as openness has r. . t1ica•1 · heltch tn the c • •. user-pay fees, chopping servi ces, esca·lating grown, the benefits of nco-liberal economic . . f o\IC• the Jlloptlnn (~ P d< costs, and free markets. Neoliberalism from the globalization have not beep evenly spread as tb\1011. rorctgn moment of its emergence and spread in the free market enterprise has been associated with - . sector of the pub1 IC '\ 1980s has been perceived as a radical challenge growing uncqualization between the rich and tndi' idua\ rcspons;b~l ~the philosophy underpi nnin ~r the \Vel fare stale. poor countries, and in many cases, resulted in ·t' net- thus rep a~ fro duction and distribution o(goods through the exacerbating the incidence or global poverty 1'-' - , rc~idUa' uuuh a mor<.: .. ah· rc~ market docs not distinguish between particularly in the global south which include -, l)<)ll ). ~co\lbcr O~tnuY consumer goods and public- goods such Nigeria. A major feature or thi s process is the '-''· .. nducl as healtl ~ ' tntcgratc ~ell co f ~~ We\~ 1 care and education. Concepts such as growing concentration and monopolization of . - 0 the: pr~Kt tCC~ . \1 ine~r~ state, social justice arc condemned as economic re source~ and power by transnational ,., \)romouo corporations and the pri,·atizauon of social o u~h ll •~ ICtent and unjust within the neoliberal Jfe P5ycholog/A, 2~(2), 2016 o Jruonogbe, Azuh Egharev b ' .
security which ultimately undennine the World countries still have to borrow fi n . the MDGs were people's welfare .conditions (Cox, Ibid). capital and purchase advanced techno l ogya~. Sirndarly, · of a bro; be creauon the developed world, thereby making ~ for ~ development beyo Consequently, most developing countries like dependent on external economic forces ~be~ hurtl d f invoking a tt Nigeria over the years have seen their their control and weakening Ule quest k instea _o owth paradig economiC gr , independent policy making capacity in the areas development. development P• of economic, social, political, cultu ral and ~urn~eted c-ar too liter technological issues eroded. This has come to Thus, interrogating the MDGs from ll mterp. Thus Vanden fore as the country has had to implement perspective, it is obvious that the formulation PrOVISIOn. ' , . dec lare d bluntly: while. policies that are in line with the decisions and the MDGs lacked global inclusiveness (II'" Millennium Declarati on rules of international financial institutions such inputs coming from both from the Develo; ·succe Ssfu l• the searcl as U1e World Bank/TMF which on balance arc and developing nations) in its making. The kt interpretation of develo~ detrimental to the country and the people's well targets that formed th e foundation for the MoG such, before we can ta being. Furthennore, in line with Wallerstein's was ilie product of a so-called Inter-agency ar.; agenda, it is impo~nt to postulation, a nation's development status can be Expert Group (IA EG) on the Millennitr development narrative 1 understood by its placement within the overall Development Goal Indicators, consisting lessons learned from u,, world economic system. He conceived of personnel from the DAC, World Bank, lMF ilt were targeted mainly f capitalism as 'production for sale in a market to UNDP (Manning, 2009; Hulme, 2009; Hultr.; which ri ch countries wt.:n reali ze th e maximum profit' (Wallerstein, 1979: 2010). Besides, the Millennium Declaration· and assistance through fi 15 ; 2004). For him, as the worl d economy 2000 which eventua ll y led to Ule adoption oftt However, it is important develops, so does the division of labour with MDGs targets was just a pledge by woo. development should not di llcrent regions specializing in di ffcrcnt aspects leaders to show their commitment to pover rich countries should do of production and consumption. The core eradication. development and protecting th: all countries should do f< countries consist of strong states that enforce environment. without first reviewing I!> of this generation and both unequal trade and political relationships in outcomes of previous partnership in terms t framers of the MDG such a way as to benefit them (the developed those who gained from it and those who ~~~ cognizance the state of countries) at the expense or the periphery losers (i.e. the SAP po licy framework). Th developing nations par (developing nations). Core states appropriate MDGs were not a legally binding set ' Africa and what was surplus value from the periphery, which consists commitment and as such they were ofir conditions, including ho of areas Ulat engage in mono-agriculture and ignored in practice due to absence of effectil challenges before push export commodities Ulat are produced using enforcement mechanisms. The M DGs relied It down their throat. A crit labour Ulat is paid a low wage. Moreover, long much on vol untary financial mechanisr initial conditions have c after Third World countries have attained notably the foreign aid outlays voted by ea. the pace of countrie political independence, developed countries parliament in the developed world. Availab development. Yet, hi sto have continued to use thei r economic power to ev idence showed that only a handful of the\ are not insurmountable t create international division of labour between countries had abided by the promises to give: nations. That division meant that production and percent of Uleir Gross Domestic Product (GOf: To begin, the MDGs f export of manu factured goods- the mo s.t as official development assistance (Sachs, 200' emphasize that the sue< profitabie economic activities-were or i ~:,rin a ll y Al so. many Afr-ican countries did !"a ll short' agenda will require 1: con_centrated in the core, industrialized west. the 7 percent annual economi c growth tr. levels. Giving· primae) Given ihis economic relations, TI1ird World needed to be sustained to make substantial · people's capabilities-e countries were forced to trade for industrial road~ into poverty reduction (Clemens, Kcnr education and nutrition imports on unfavourable terms. Today, however, and Moss, 2007). As such, the MDGs have ill.\ development · divi dend~ many developing nations, including the new critici.1.cd for discouraging investment societal transformatio1 industrializing countries such as Malaysia, productive sectors and promoting wei rare :!1' developmental statL: Singa pore, South Korea, Taiwan and the BRICS aid dependence over gro'' th and scl f-rell ar· Report, 20 13). The sta countries ( Bra;-il , Russia, India. China and South (Manning, 20 I 0: 8). This top-down-approach that pragmaticall y adJU Africa) must compete with the well established which the MDGs were developed remains on< in line with new re~ industrial giants as the United States. Japan, the weaknesses of the current framework tr global markets. Dev1 Britain and Germany to benefit from these undcnnined ownership or and commitment happen automatically uneven economic relations. Besides, many Third the goals in de,·eloping countries (Rippin. 201: cannot be left to mark
38 Egharevba, lruonagbe, Azuh, Chiazor & Suleiman.: Property, Inequality and Human
,-,orrow financial Similarly, the MDGs were to provide an impulse ·case of the current neoliberal economic order. I technology from for the creation of a broader interpretation of State needs to mobilize society through policies b-., making them human development beyond growth. However, and institutions that advance economic and 1; 1c forces beyond instead of invoking a turn from the narrow social development. As such, the way policies
10 the quest for economic growth paradigm towards a broader are transplanted should be context-specific, human development paradigm they were depending on country characteristics, interpreted "ar too literal as social service government capabilities and relationships with 11DGs from this provision. Thus, Vandemoortele (20 II a: 13) the rest of the world. A common feature of the formulation of declared bluntly: 'while the rescue of the countries that have brought about such nc\usiveness (with Millennium Declaration has been quite transformations has had a strong, proactive state ·(•m the Developed successful, the search for a broader referred to as a "developmental state". This h making. The key interpretation of development has failed. As refers to a state with an activist government and ation for the MDGs such, before we can talk of any post 2015 often apolitical elite that sees rapid economic cd lntcr-agcncy and agenda, it is important to provide a convincing development as their primary aim. r the Millennium development narrative that draws upon the tors, consisting of lessons learned from the MDGs. The MDGs Secondly, the continued implementation of the 1orld Bank, I M F and were targeted mainly for poor countries, to neoliberal economic policies by many African Li me, 2009; Hulme, which rich countries were to add their solidarity countries as emphasized by the "Washington nium Declaration in and assistance through finance and technology. Consensus", which focused on getting economic 0 the adoption ofthe However, it is important to stress that issues of fundamentalism right as a precondition for ~ pledge by world development should not be based on what the economic growth, believing that the benefits of lmitment to poverty rich countries should do for the poor, but what growth would trickle down to the people and and protecting the all countries should do for the global well-being thereby engender human development ·lrst reviewing the of this generation and those to come. The improvements has not worked (Stiglitz, 2007). -~ ·1ership in terms of framers of lh!! MDGs did not take into Rather, it is investing in people's capabilities and those who were cognizance the state of development of most through health, education and other public
1 ·v framework). The developing nations particularly Sub Saharan services that constitute an integral part of "'lly binding set oi Africa and what was responsible for those economic growth process and not an appendage ch they were o~eD conditions, including how to first resolve those of it. For human development to thrive in the , absence of effecuw challenges before pushing the MDGs targets Third World, countries must supplement fast -The MDGs relied toe down their throat. A critical factor to note is that economic growth with social policies that ~:Ja n c i a l m echanis~ initial conditions have considerable influence on benefit society more broadly, especially the ~ J tl ays voted by eac the pace of countries' current and future poor. Consequently, market-driven policies ~ped world. Availabk development. Yet, history and initial conditions avoid analysis of power relations, which 1ty a handful o~ the~ are not insurmountable barriers. ultimately determines inequality and poverty. he promises to gtve 0· The unequal access to resources explains Jmestic Product (GOP To begin, the MDGs framers failed to clearly pqverty and deprivation. The 1993 and 1996 ~si stan ce (Sachs, 2008 _emphasize that the success of any development Human .. Development . Reports clearly .ntrics did fa 11 short e agenda will require. good governance at all ... emphasized that the link between growth and conomic growth th. levels. Giving· primacy to· state investment . in human development needs to be forged through l . II~ to make substantta . . people's capabi lilies-especially their health, . pro-poor policies by concurrently investing in ctt. on ( Cl.c mcn. s , Ken~ education and nutrition engenders better human health and education, expanding decent jobs, :'1. the MDGs have bo.'C development ·dividends. On'e of the drivers of preventing the depletion andoverexploitation of ra~r in l! in\'cstmcnt societal transformation requires a proactive natural resources, ensuring gender balance and -ro mot- in I! w e 11·ar c. ~ developmental state (Human Development equitable income distribution and avoiding P - 11·-re\larr , owth and sc Report, 2013). The state is a necessary catalyst unnecessary displacement of communities. In ·· ch ., t o p -d o wn - appro~ ~hat pragmatically adjusts its policies and actions fact, the 1996 Human Development Report have '· . sOil~ '.'vel oped rcmatn J In hne with new realities· and challenges of 1 argued that the link between economic growth -·urrcnt f ramc\v ork global markets. Development does not just '- · cnt and human development have snapped several of and COI~ln1~tln '1QI. happen automaticallv and that transformation times and as such identified six (6) unwelcome 111 ..-ount ri es ( RtPP · - cannot be left to ma;kets alone as it is with the types of growth: jobless growth, which does not fje Psycholog/A, 24(2), 2016 ·- Egharevba, /rue
increase employment opportunities; ruthless fail to reap the benefits of globalization. W been the outcorr growth, which is accompanied by rising poverty; poor infrastructure and human car,tll countr. leadership is a voiceless growth, which denies the participation are condemned to export narro'' r. ,. :, or~' the experience < of the most vulnerable communities; rootless margin primary commodities based , nat· renowned nov el growth, which use inappropriate models (physical) endowments, rather than a dtl~rsi&.· the root caus transplanted from elsewhere; and futureless set of exports. In this circum~t.mc~ predicament sil~ growth, which is based on unbridled exploitation globalization do have significant adverse ct!t\~ of bad le• ders!lt of environmental resources. including brain drain, environn-..:n11. trouble with Ntg degradation, biodiversity, capital flight a-. The trouble A third factor that has consistently undermine terms of trade declines-rather than bring bcnefi>, squarely a fG the promotion of human development, through increased foreign direct investmer; nothing ba exacerbate poverty and inequality in the global inflows and technological advances. Th~o: Nigerian cb south is the issue of corruption. Why the investing in core infrastructure, human capi~ wrong with attainment of the MDGs requires huge sums of and good governance can accomplish sever: or anythi n):. funds to be invested for the targets to be things: it converts subsistence fanning t is the unwi ' It attained, most developing countries, especially market-oriented farming; it enables a country t leaders to ri: Sub-Saharan Africa do not have the financial j oin the global division of labour in a product~· the challen: capacity to finance the MDGs due to massive way, and it sets the stage for technologia which is th.: misappropnatton and looting of the advance and eventually for an innovation-bas~ (Achebe, I'll commonwealth of their various countries by the economy. political leaders with the active collaboration Thus, the sta from financial institutions in the developed Bringing this to the Nigeria context, it ! socioeconomic d societies who provide 'safe' haven for the funds. regrettable that with more than two decades im. been a direct c' This condition has impacted negatively on the the implementation of the neoliberal econorru; inactions of the required investment needed to finance the reforms in Nigeria, the country is siL managed the arT provtston of infrastructure', healthcare, encumbered with the growing incidence country since ind educatiOn, and create job opportunities. Most massive inequality between the rich and tl. most poor men governments in the developing world with poor, uneven income distribution, massi~ China; I 0 perc• specific reference to Nigeria lacked the corruption, human deprivation, wea. maternal deaths transparency, accountability and focus required infrastructure amongst others. For instance, ovc malaria cases. 8 in the financing of the MDGs. They are the last two decades, Nigeria has consistent! die due to compl oblivious of the fact that the MDGs are ends in occupied the low ranking position in the UND. 2,300 children l themselves and also capital inputs- the means to Human Development lnde~ reports. Budgetar malnutrition or a protluctive life, to economic growth and to allocation in the key sectors such as educatic: million children ' future development. Most of them fail to and healthcare has never gone beyond t. any country in recognize that they are responsibie to their percent ~nd 5 percent. Unemployment rate hz crude oil, Ni&< cittzens to ,., hom they must secure their basic skyrocketed to 23 percent in 20 II while heal: twentieth · the matenJI needs and as such do not promote the indicators in. the area )f child/infant mortali~ .economy, with rr notwn of subsidiarity-where governance should ~~der-fiv~ monalny and maternal mortalit Aid Review, 201 be close to the people as functionally · as remain one of the highest in the world. Th. over 68 percent posstblc, gtvmg individuals and families country today is fa r from n.. 3lizing th over 167 ·milhot maximum freedom of action, exchange ideas development targets enunciated n tl unemployment h with and share information in good faith. Millcnnium Development Goals (MDGs) whic · percent in 2015, emphasized the goal of countries deli1'erin 5.6 percent in 2 Furthermore, when individuals and whole human rights based development. Furthcnnor: out of school ir cconomtes lack even the most basic history has shown that no nation of the wor, deaths in sub-Sa infrastructure, health services and educati on, grew and enjoyed steady transformation ' under fi ve morta there ts very little market forces can accomplish virtually all aspects of its national life v.i tho~ 1000 live births and ulltmatcly not much will be achieved in experiencing good and sctncss lcadcrsh·' bitths in 20 II m attamtng the M DGs. As such, households and (Gambari. 2008). This is largely becau~ age die daily ar whole economies remain trapped in poverty and qualitative growth and development has alwa) (UNDPHDR 20
.tO Egharevba, lruonagbe, Azuh, Chiazor & Su/eiman.: Property, Inequality and Human
glob3 lization. With been the outcome of good governance, of which 14, 2013; NBS, 2013). Although Nigeria's 3~ car·• 11 countries leadership is a critical factor. Commenting on economic potential is enormous due to the size laf fl) \\ 1 ..; Of 10\\f the experience of Nigeria as a nation-state, the of its domestic market, geographical position es based natural . renowned novelist, Chinua Achebe, insisted that and its human and natural resources, the nation's ler than a d I\ .:rsi fied the root cause of Nigeria's development wealth creation is skewed to the already well-off his circum:-t.ln ces. predicament should be laid squarely at the foot in spite of the non-oil sectors of the economy icant adverse c I ~~: ~· ts of bad l e~ dership. In his renowned book, "The growing fast in recent years (over I 0% a year). n, environm..: nta\ trouble with Nigeria," Achebe argued: The country's oil revenues is consistently being capital flight and The trouble with Nigeria is simply and frittered away by self serving political leadership er than bring benefits squarely a failure of leadership. There is class whose interests are mired in the pursuit of
1 direct investment nothing basically wrong with the primitive accumulation of wealth at the expense a\ advances. Thus, Nigerian character. There is nothing of broader national interests. cture, human capital wrong with the land, climate, water, air
1 accomplish several or anything else. The Nigerian problem Thus, of all the problems that undermined ;istence fanning to is the unwillingness or inability of the its Nigeria's national development, corruption l enables a country to leaders to rise to their responsibility, to arising from bad leadership is cited as the labour in a productive the challenge of personal example, greatest impediment that stifles human ue for technological which is the hallmark of true leadership development, produces poverty and reinforces ; an innovation-based ( Achebe, 1984: I) inequality in the country (Smith, 2007: 55). The political elites plunder the country's wealth for Thus, the state of Nigeria's dwindling their personal self-aggrandizement and to reward igeria context, it. is socioeconomic development over the years has their personal allies and external foreign than two decades mto been a direct consequence of the actions and collaborators at the expense of the welfare of the , neoliberal economic inactions of the leadership class/elites that have people. For instance, since independence, ~' e country is sti~ managed the affairs and commonwealth of the Nigeria has made over US$ I trillion dollars; of ·rowing incidence of country since independence. The country has the this amount US$600 billion has been stolen by .~en the rich and ~~ most poor men and women after India and the leaders (military and civilian alike) (Save distribution, mass!\~ China; I 0 percent of the world's child and Nigeria Group, 2012). In the same vein, the deprivation, weak maternal deaths, and 25 percent of global governance process has been mired with lack of 1ers. For instance, ovl!! malaria cases. Besides, every day 136 women inclusive participation, the consent of the igeria has consistent\) die due to complications during pregnancy, over governed, non discrimination, transparency, rule .-pos ition in the UNDf 2,300 children under five die every day from of law and effective utilization of resources with Jex reports. Budget~~ malnutrition or preventable diseases, and I 0.5 the goal of enhancing the quality of life of the •ors such as educatt~ miUion children do not go to ·school, the most of people (UNDP 20 I 0; Sen, 1999; Todaro and \ er gone beyond . any country in the world. Despite producing Smith, 2011). Instead, what we have happening nemployment rate ~ crude oil, Ni'geria's total economy is one .is the . democratization of disempowerment Jt in 2011 while he~!! twentieth· the size of United ·Kingdom's characterized by executive indiscipline and chi\ dlinfant mortah~ .economy, with many more people (UK Bilateral recklessness, impunity, weak political j maternal mortah · Aid Review, 20 I 0). Availabte data 'indicates that institutions;· lack' of commitment to democratic J..:st in the world. Tl> over 68 percent of the Nigerian population of ideals ·and values, poor democratic culture, from n:alizing th. ~>Ver 167 ·million live below the poverty line, suppression of opposmg views against cnunc1at. e d in ..tr. unemployment has hit an all time high of 24 government policies, amongst others which are n Goals (MDGs) w~ c · percent in 2015, from'23.90 percent in 2011 and inimical· to development. This is evidently so ,f· countries dell venr· 5.6 percent in 2005; 10.5 million children are because the prosperity of nations has • Of' :.: lopmcnt. Furthernl out of school in Nigeria, 20 percent of child correlations to its kind of leadership which no nauon. o f the . wor deaths in sub-Saharan Africa occur in Nigeria, ultimately shapes the fortune or fate of the ·ady transfonnat!On under live mortality has increased from 138 per society. Underlying the issue of bad leadership is ·' · ithr 11s national 11 fc w rsl: 1000 live births in 2007 to 158 per 1000 live the nature in which politics is played that nd selfless \eade births in 20 II and 145 women of childbearing tendentially negates the essence and quality of - . largely beca~> governance. A people-centred approach to I ~ IS \W3' age die daily and life expectancy is 52 years development bas a (UNDPHDR 2013, Punch Newspaper, August development still remains a dilemma. While •. lje Psycholog/A, 24(2), 2016 Egharevba, /r JC
Nigeria may boast of hjgh ·economic growth poverty and inequality in developing societies malnutrition .1 n rates, human development still lags behind. requires that the top-down-approach to the will not be ahJ, Thus, governance for human dcvdopment formulation of the MDGs, induding previous other extreme. t entails protecting human rights, promoting wider economic development programme for sub especially as ~ participation in the institutions and rules that Saharan African countries be revised urgently as result in so<- i~ affect people's lives and achieving equitable it has never advanced the well-being of the kidnapping and economic and social outcomes. It expresses the people and the continent at large. Instead, future unattr:r:ive tl idea that people's welfare comes first; development strategies must allow for all development. governance must conform to the needs of the inclusiveness where the inputs (in terms of people and not vice-versa. Here, public challenges peculiar to each nation or continent) On the issue <. · l participation has become central to of both developed and developing countries are government rr•J! contemporary development thinking. Blackburn harnessed to come up with broader interpretation that the whol..: and Jeremy (1998:2) defined participation as the of development that shifts major focus from about people ; commitment to help create conditions which can economic growth to pay attention to human agents, means a lead to a significant empowerment of those who development issues that clearly promote such their i nL -( at present have little control over forces that unambiguously signi fie ant investments in measure of all :1 condition their lives. The World Bank (2001 :3) people's capabilities through a determined focus policies must I see participation as process through which stake on education, nutrition and health and skill needs and asp1 r holders influence and share control over acquisition. The dearth or non-existence of these governance aq, development initiatives, decisions and resources basic needs amount to denial of human rights. democratic in ., that affect them. Thus, dealing with issues of infrastructural and human rights ba institutional deficits are necessary ingredients non-discrimin-.ti Thus, it is obvious from the above discourse that required for promoting growth. Likewise, any public partici ~ ~ the country is intrinsically characterized by future development agenda should set in place inclusion. Furt.H economic quagmire resulting in high youth enforceable mec!1anisms that demand gathering of ·e unemployment, hunger and poverty among the compliance from all countries that have signed necessity upoP ctttzenry. The cnsts of governance and up to a development declaration to act and not in people's fi, e development in Nigeria result from the glaring just engage the rhetorics of promissory note that long way to in f disconnection of Nigeria's political institutions was the case with the MDGs. policy making. from moral and cultural impulses that sees Regrettably, in governance and development as a public interest Similarly, the tenets of economic globalization including N igL ri project rather than a private enclave for minority must be made much more democratic and open development ir.c elite who find themselves in power. Tied to this for the mutual benefits of all countries. available thev is the structural character of the Nigerian state Therefore, economic policies that further manipulations. which serves as the site for booty capitalism. exacerbate the already precarious state of Politics and invariably governance in Nigeria poverty and inequality in African societies On the issue < has turned into a huge business enterprise where should be jettisoned out rightly and resisted by agreed by :~I I competition rules and institutional processes are African peoples and governments. Furthermore, development, •h• openly and crassly violated with impunity, and for the issues of poverty and inequality to be will set up spcci where regulators in government institutions have adequately tackled, the government has a large Nigerians or rc: p become active collaborators in the grand larceny role to play in terms of \vhat it does. ~aundering ca\ cs of democratic politics as a public interest Governments must design policies to make sure important to r<. v project. With all these in operation, it becomes that the poor share in the benefits of economic office holders at difficult to promote the welfare of the people growth. If the fruits of growth is not shared they can he l' e and invariably the attainment of the MDGs. throughout society but appropriated by a few. mJsconduct '' h• then development has failed. In the same vein, Instructive ao1 n Conclusion and recommendations government policies must discourage begm to h~ ld In the light of the above, it is evident that the conspicuous consumption and mitigate the large o!Ticials re s p< · n~ onc-sizc-lits all or single minded focus on wage disparities that exist in the society. If and money ial economic policy order of nco-liberalism needs people. who are the nation's most important otlice holder siJ to be urgently reviewed. Eliminating v. idespread resource lack access to education, sutler transfeiTed thro
42 Egharevba, lruanagbe, Azuh, Chiazar & 5uleimon I• ,.., • •• Inequality and Human
_ ::,u-. I~tics malnutrition and poor sanitation, the country this is the time for the developed nations to pia: ~ 11 to the ''ill not be able to li'e to its potential. At the their acti\ e role in the so-called global o.! preVIOUS other extreme, high level poYerty and inequality, partnership for development by enacting laws ~ for suh- especially as a result of unemployment can that prohibit their banking institutions from Ll rt!ently as result in social unrest, increase in crimes, providing sate haven for mone1 stolen b: :!n~ of the kidnappmg and terrorism, thus creating a climate political office holders in the developing nations. :;,e~d. future unanrz. · ive to businesses and overall national In all , promoting human development represents ;w for all development . the linchpin in the quest for a more secure and ., tenns of peaceful world. Effective tackling of poverty )r continent) On the is::.ue of goo,.emance, the political elites in and inequality is poss1ble when a nation's :ountries are government must come to tenns with th e reality resources are channeled towards massive ·tt•rpn:tation that the whole essence of development is all investment in education. healthcarc and focus from about people's welfare. The people are the equitable gro\\1h coupled with efficient '' to human agents, means and end of development, and as governance processes. -•y promote such their interests and we ll-being must be the btmcnts in measure of all things. Thus, economic and social References • mined focus policies must become responsive to people's Ache be, C. ( 1984) The Trouble with Nigeria, ·lth and skill needs and aspirations. AI so, the in stitutions of Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publishers .tcncc of these governance and processes should be truly African Economic Outlook (20 15) Nigeria, human rights. democratic in nature and taFgeted at promoting www.africaneconomicoutlook.org t--tructural and human rights based approaches such as equality, Ake, C. (2003) The Feasibility of Democracy in T\ im..rredients non-discrimination, accountability, transparency, Africa, Dakar, Senegal: CODESRIA ~ ike,;.ise, any public participation, rule of law and social Blackburn, J. and Jeremy, H. (1998) (Eds.) Who \J set in place inclusion. Furthermore, government must see the Changes? Institutionizing PaJ1icipation "'at demand gathering or relevant demographic data as a in Development. London: Intermediate .tt have signed necessity upon which measurable improvement Technology Publication. 10 act and not in people's liYes can be based. Thi s will go a Bi 11 and Melinda Gates Foundation (2003) I ssory note that long way to influence eflective evidence based Annual Report, Seattle, Washington policy making, implementation and evaluation. Central Bank of Nigeria ( 1999) Strategies for Regrettably, in many developing countries, Improving Poverty Alleviation .:c globalization including Nigeria, availability of reliable human Programme in Nigeria, Publication of -rauc and open development indicators is inadequate. and where the Central Bank of Nigeria. all countries. available they are susceptible to poi nical Central Bank of Nigeria, Research Department , that further manipulations. ( 1999) Nigeria ·s Development ; rious state of Prospects: Poverty Asses smen~ and .frican societi es On the issue of corruption which has been Alleviation Study, Abuja: CBN. and resisted by agreed by all ·as the bane of our national Ceritre for Democracy and Development (20 13) nts. Furthermore, development, there is the need to enact laws that The Millef!nium Development Goals mequalily to be will set up special court headed by incorruptible · and Povc.rty Reduction in Nigeria: ment has a large Nigerians of repute to try corruption and money Progress, Prospects and Pol icy '"hat it docs. laundering cases without fear or favour. It is also Implications F.inal Report, March 2013. el l'S tO make sw:c important to review the immunity la\v for public Central Intelligence Agency (2009) The World .: -1ts of economic oflice holders at all levels of uovcrnance so that Fact Book. Washmgton D.C. .th is not shared they can be held accountabl~ for any offici al Clemens. M. A., Kenn y. C. J., and Moss. T. 1. It I ·iated hy a few.. misconduct "hi lc in oflice. is also very (2007) The Trouble with the M DGs: •1 the same 'cJn. mstructl\C going forward. that the State must Conrronting E:-.pectation of aid and a st discourage begin to hold central and commercial bank Dc\elopment Success. World mi ti e.atc the large ollicials responsible for any case of coiTuption Development. 35 (5): 735-751. ~ ·ctv If i .l t I1L soc I J. I an~ money laundering invoh ing any public Cox, M. ( 1998) Rehd ~ \\ithout a cause? Rad1cal . ~ most m1porHl~ 0 fl1 ce holder ~ mce most or the funds stolen arc theorists and the World System after the .:duc::mon.. sufler transferred through these channels. Similarly. Cold \\ ar. New Political Lconomy. 3 ( 3 ):
43 1/e Psycho/og/A, 24(2}, 2016 ••arevbo, I ,u
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