KOREA PRESBYTERIAN JOURNAL OF THEOLOGY Vol. 52 No. 4

The Influence of Roman Catholic Mission on Comity Agreements: Development of Territorial Division in Christian Mission History

BYUN Chang-Uk, Ph.D. Professor, Mission History Presbyterian University and Theological Seminary, South Korea

I. Introduction II. Biblical and Historical References to the Territorial Division III. Line of Demarcation between the Two Catholic Powers IV. (Padroado) V. Precursors to Comity Agreements VI. Conclusion

Korea Presbyterian Journal of Theology Vol. 52 No. 4 (2020. 11), 159-186 DOI: 10.15757/kpjt.2020.52.4.006 160 KOREA PRESBYTERIAN JOURNAL OF THEOLOGY Vol. 52 No. 4

Abstract

This paper examines how the territorial division of the Roman has influenced the mission practices of the Protestant Church. and , the two Catholic maritime powers, took the lead in pioneering the New World. In 1493, the gave the two kings of the Iberian countries the right (patronato real) to colonize and Christianize the new colonies. The Pope entrusted this task to the kings of Spain and Portugal and divided the world into two regions distributed between them. The kings of Portugal and Spain performed their missions sincerely at first, but as time passed, they failed to fulfill their missions properly. To resolve this situation, the established the Propaganda Fide in 1622 and granted the jus commissionis (the right of entrustment) to the religious orders. Special authority was granted to the missionary order to carry out mission work in the designated area. Other missionary societies were not allowed to enter the field without the consent of the preoccupying missionary order. The mission policies and methods of the Roman Catholic Church had a great influence on Protestant missions, especially the division of regions and the jus commissionis. During the nineteenth and early twentieth century, the comity agreements, in which major Protestant mission societies participated, modeled after the missionary method of the Catholic Church. As such, the influence of the Holy See’s de­ limitation of mission territories and the right of entrustment should be recognized as precursors to the division of mission territories of the Protestant mission. The pioneering attitude of Roman Catholic mission serves as an admonition of encroaching on the territory of others, which may cause ‘evangelistic anarchy’ in the mission field.

Keywords

Patronato Real (Padroado), Propaganda Fide, Jus Commissionis, Bull of Demarcation, Comity Agreements The Influence of Roman Catholic Mission on Comity Agreements DOI: 10.15757/kpjt.2020.52.4.006 161

I. INTRODUCTION*

The concept of occupying territory has evolved since the conquest of the Promised Land of Canaan in the Old Testament. The division of the land among the twelve tribes of Israel is described in the Book of Joshua. This paper examines the biblical and historical references of territorial division. Specifically, the historical background of territorial division of the Roman Catholic mission during the medieval period and its influence on the practices of the division of the field among different mission boards of the Protestant Church. It is the scholarly consensus that several mission methods of the Protestant Church were modeled after those of the Catholic Church. For example, the Protestant converts were often encouraged to settle around the mission in the field, thus establishing a mission compound. This modus vivendi patterned after the medieval abbeys of the Catholic Church. An exemplary case is the jus commissionis (“right of entrustment”) principle of the Catholic mission. Usually, it entrusts a certain missionary order with the exclusive responsibility for the evangelization of vast territories. Hence, the following religious orders could not infringe in the fields which had been assigned to the entrusted missionary order. The purpose of this paper is to draw attention to some of the mission policies in the history of the Catholic Church–including jus commissionis and the territorial division of religious orders–to show how these seemingly disparate practices are interrelated to the denominational divisions of the Protestant mission. In doing so, I expound that the mission principle of jus commissionis of the Catholic Church paved the way for the comity agreements of the Protestant mission practice. This paper will begin with a broad overview of both Biblical and historical references to the territorial division of the Catholic Church and then trace the origin and influence of the comity system on the Protestant Church.

* This work was supported by the Research Fund of PUTS, 2020. 162 KOREA PRESBYTERIAN JOURNAL OF THEOLOGY Vol. 52 No. 4

II. BIBLICAL AND HISTORICAL REFERENCES TO THE TERRITORIAL DIVISION

The concept of territorial division has evolved since the conquest of the promised land of Canaan. The conquered land of Canaan was allocated among the twelve tribes of Israel (Josh 13:8-17:18). The right of occupation of certain domestic premises was thus guaranteed. Therefore, each tribe was not to interfere with the other tribes’ use or occupation of its land. In the history of the Christian mission, agents and mission agencies have tried to overcome denominationalism in spite of denominational conflicts, competition, and rivalries. The most frequent biblical reference to the cooperation and unity would be the ‘high-priestly’ prayer in John 17 when Jesus prayed that his disciples might all be one. Following this line in the New Testament, the letter of Paul to the Galatians, written at a critical moment in the early Christian movement, showed that Paul strenuously endeavored to secure his own field without overlapping with others. As the gospel for the circumcised had been entrusted to Peter, Paul thought that the gospel for the uncircumcised was entrusted to him (Galatian 2:7-10). Moreover, Paul tried not to infringe on provinces where others were already entrusted with the good work. He stated, “Thus I make it my ambition to proclaim the good news, not where Christ has already been named, so that I do not build on someone else’s foundation” (Rom 15:20). Therefore, Paul could preach to those “who have never been told of him [Christ] shall see, and those who never heard of him shall understand” (Rom 15:21). This key reference has frequently been referred to at several mission conferences held both in the mission field (, China, etc.) and at home (England, America) during the nineteenth century.1 For example, in the 1877 General Conference of the Protestant Missionaries of China, Carstairs Douglas (1830-1877) of the English Presbyterian Mission argued that “Let no one covet the

1 R. G. Tiedemann, “Comity Agreements and Sheep Stealers: The Elusive Search for Christian Unity Among Protestants in China,” International Bulletin of Missionary Research 36 (January 2012), 3. The Influence of Roman Catholic Mission on Comity Agreements 163 easy but injurious work of building on the foundations laid by others, especially where the field is comparatively limited.”2 A similar practice of work can be found in the Venerable Bede (ca. 673-735)’s writing where Pope Gregory (ca. 540-604) gave instructions to Augustine, a missionary monk, not to encroach on areas where others were responsible for:

We give you no authority over the bishop of Gaul… the Bishop of Arles has received the pallium from my predecessors, and his authority is to be in no way infringed. If, therefore, you have occasion to cross over into the province of Gaul, you are to consult with the Bishop of Arles… you may not use the sickle of authority in the field entrusted to another man… no official action is to be taken without the authority of the Bishop of Arles, so that the long-established institutions of our fathers may not fall into disuse.3

Later, the division of jurisdiction based upon a ‘territorial basis’ had become a common practice of the Catholic Church dioceses and in the mission field.

III. LINE OF DEMARCATION BETWEEN THE TWO CATHOLIC POWERS

The Line of Demarcation came into existence in the fifteenth century as a result of political and religious circumstances. It refers to “an imaginary line” in the separating the zones of exploration, colonization, and missionizing of the Spanish and Portuguese. This demarcation line was originally drawn up by the Holy See to resolve the contingent needs of the two Catholic maritime

2 Records of the General Conference of the Protestant Missionaries of China Held at Shanghai, May 10-24, 1877 (Shanghai: Presbyterian Mission Press, 1877), 447. 3 Bede, A History of the English Church and People, trans. Leo Sherley-Price (Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1965), 75-76. 164 KOREA PRESBYTERIAN JOURNAL OF THEOLOGY Vol. 52 No. 4 powers, Spain and Portugal. It prescribed territorial division between these two countries and sanctioned their legal and religious justification for exploration, conquest, and propaganda or mission. This line was shifted and modified several times in subsequent years depending on the surrounding socio-political situation.4

1. Treaty of Alcáçovas (September 4, 1479)

In the fifteenth century, the Portuguese and Spanish were geographically well positioned and technically equipped for explo­ ration. While the Portuguese were exploring the west coast of and beginning to settle in and the islands, Portugal and Spain were disputing control over the .5 The conflicting interests of Spain and Portugal in the eastern Atlantic were resolved with the Treaty of Alcáçovas6 on September 4, 1479. As a result of the treaty, Spain recognized the Portuguese rights to the west coast of Africa, Madeira, the Azores, and the Islands while Portugal recognized the Castilian claim to the Canary Islands.7 The Spanish,

4 Joseph F O’Callaghan, and the Age of Exploration: An Encyclopedia (New York: Da Capo Press, 1998), ed. Silvio A. Bedini (item “The Line of Demarcation”), 423; Peter Bakewell, A History of Latin America: and Sequels 1450-1930 (Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd., 1997), 39-48. 5 Later, the possession of the Canary Islands by the Spanish proved to be a great boon. The Islands provided a base in the “trade winds zone” by which they could sail westward with little difficulty. Thomas A. Brady Jr., Heiko A. Oberman, and James D. Tracy, eds., Handbook of European History, 1400-1600: Late Middle Ages, Renaissance, and , Vol. I Structures and Assertions (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1994), 643. 6 The treaty was made between Afonso V of Portugal (r. 1438-1481) and Isabel of Castile (r. 1474-1504). The large concessions in the Atlantic that Castile made to Portugal were political. Isabel made these concessions as a reward to the Portuguese King who supported her claim to the Castilian throne. Bakewell, A History of Latin America, 42-48. 7 All of these islands (Madeira, the Azores, and the Cape Verde) were found and settled by the Portuguese early in the 1440s and . The Portuguese and Castile competed for the Canaries. There was native resistance in the Canary Islands and Castile was consistently and strongly competing to claim to the Islands. Bakewell, A History of Latin America, 42-47; O’Callaghan, Christopher Columbus and the Age of Exploration, 423. The Influence of Roman Catholic Mission on Comity Agreements 165 however, considered the western Atlantic open to anyone. Furthermore, the Spanish monarch interpreted the Treaty of Alcáçovas as stipulating that the Portuguese exploration and evangelization were limited only to the waters adjacent to . On the other hand, the Portuguese did not have the same under­ standing. Because the newly discovered islands and lands lay south of the line of demarcation set up by the Treaty of Alcáçovas, those areas discovered south of the Canary Islands, they believed, should belong to Portugal. For example, on March 9, 1493, when Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) was forced to dock in because of bad weather while returning from his first voyage, he was brought to King John II of Portugal. The King asserted exclusive rights and was ready to lay claim to the new found territories as falling under his jurisdiction on the basis of the 1479 Alcáçovas Treaty.8 The conflicting claims were caused by the different interpretation of the preceding treaties between the two monarchs. Columbus’ discoveries and the contingent claims of Spain to new areas instigated a renewed conflict with Portugal. While Columbus’ discoveries were a great boon to Spain and gave Spain a claim to the vast reaches of the New World, they brought about an unforeseen circumstance when the Treaty of Alcáçovas was drawn up. Subsequently, there remained a need for additional treaties. In many ways, the Treaty of Alcáçovas (1479) paved the way for the subsequent division of the New World and became an example of territorial division in the following era.

This [Treaty of Alcáçovas of 1479] was a rehearsal for the division of the hemisphere into eastern and western zones of interest, exploration,

8 In 1484, Columbus presented his exploration plan to reach India by sailing westward before King John II of Portugal, but it was rejected by the King’s scientific advisors. See also Luis N. Rivera, A Violent Evangelism: The Political and Religious Conquest of the Americas (Louisville: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1992), 12; Frances G. Davenport, European Treaties Bearing on the History of the United States and Its Dependencies to 1648, Vol. 1 (Washington: Carnegie Institution, 1917), 36-41; Johannes Maier, “The Organization of the Church” inThe Church in Latin America, 1492-1992, ed. Enrique Dussel (Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1992), 55. 166 KOREA PRESBYTERIAN JOURNAL OF THEOLOGY Vol. 52 No. 4

and conquest that was set up in the more famous Treaty of [in 1494] negotiated between Castile and Portugal fifteen years later.9

This kind of territorial division in the Iberian Peninsula was not a new idea. As early as 1291, “the two great Spanish kingdoms of Iberia, Castile and Aragon, made a treaty allocating rights to conquer and explore in northwest Africa: Castile in Morocco; Aragon in Algeria and Tunis.”10

2. (May 3 and 4, 1493)

On January 2nd of 1492, Granada, the last stronghold of Muslim domination on the Iberian Peninsula, surrendered to the combined armies of the Catholic monarchs, Ferdinand II of Aragón (1452-1516, ruled 1479-1516) and (1451-1504, ruled 1474- 1504). Pope Alexander VI (1431-1503, Pope 1492-1503) later bestowed upon them the title of the “Catholic Sovereigns”11 in honor of their “crusading mind.”12 This campaign of Reconquista against Granada provided the foundation to launch the Spanish overseas expansion for

9 Joseph F. O’Callaghan, A History of Medieval Spain (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1975), 397. 10 Bakewell, A History of Latin America, 41. 11 In 1496, after five years of conquest, this title was conferred on them by the Spanish Pope Alexander VI. John A. Crow, The Root and the Flower: An Interpretation of Spain and the Spanish People (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), 150; Benjamin Keen, A History of Latin America (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1992), 43. 12 The Iberian mind of the Reconquest, or collectively known now asReconquista , was in itself a kind of Crusade. Crow, The Root and the Flower, 150. “The crusade was a long-delayed Christian response to the jihad.” Bernard Lewis, Cultures in Conflict: Christians, Muslims, and Jews in the (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 20; Bakewell, A History of Latin America, 41-42. Christopher Columbus was also obsessed by an apocalyptic vision for launching a final crusade to go and recover the Holy Sepulchre. See Roger A. Johnson, “To Conquer and to Convert: The Theological Tasks of the Voyages of Columbus,” Soundings: An Interdisciplinary Journal 76 (Spring 1993), 22; Pauline Moffitt Watts, “Prophecy and Discovery: On the Spiritual Origins of Christopher Columbus’s Enterprise to the Indies,” American Historical Review 90 (February 1985), 73-102. The Influence of Roman Catholic Mission on Comity Agreements 167 the first time beyond her own territory to the New World.13 The two papal bulls of Alexandra VI entitled Inter Caetera (May 3 and 4, 1493) had many similar cases14 earlier in the century that granted the Portuguese monopoly over territories they had explored on the western coast of Africa. These papal bulls, however, did not establish a precedent for jurisdiction over the lands later discovered by Columbus. The Portuguese monarchy cited these preceding bulls to claim jurisdiction over the newly found lands. In order to resolve this jurisdictional dispute, Pope Alexander VI of Spanish origin issued a series of bulls in 1493 — Inter Caetera — that granted to Castile all lands discovered, or to be discovered, provided they had never been in the possession of any Christian prince according to a new line of demarcation. The Pope drew a new line from north to south that was a hundred leagues west of the original line which delimited the Spanish sphere of exploration.15 Pope Alexander VI’s three bulls16 of 1493 were promulgated at the critical moment of the maritime expansion of Spain. They were against the backdrop of the subsequent geographical spreading and religious propaganda of Spain. In his two bulls, Inter Caetera I and Inter Caetera II, issued on May 3 and 4, 1493 respectively, Pope Alexander VI divided the world between Spain and Portugal for both trade and mission. The bulls also required the Catholic monarchs to bring the people of the newly discovered lands to the Catholic faith.17 These two bulls were issued shortly after

13 Lewis, Cultures in Conflict,8, 52-53. 14 Rivera, A Violent Evangelism, 28. Among those were “Dudum cum ad nos (1436) and Rex Regum (1443) of Eugene IV, Divino amore community (1452) and (1455) of Nicholas V, Inter caetera quae (1456) of Calixtus III, and (1481) of Sixtus IV.” See also W. Eugene Shiels, SJ, King and Church: The Rise and Fall of the Patronato Real (Chicago: Loyola University Press, 1961); Charles Martel de Witte, “Les bulles pontificales et 1’ expansion portugaise au Xve siècle,” inRevue d’histoire ecclesiastique 48 (1953), 683-718; 49 (1954), 438-61; 51 (1956), 413-53, 809-36 and 53 (1958), 5-46, 443-71. 15 Rivera, A Violent Evangelism, 26-28. For more details, see Davenport, European Treaties Bearing, 9-55. 16 Inter Caetera on May 3, 1493; Eximiae devotionis on May 3, 1493; and Inter Caetera II on May 4, 1493. For the original Latin version and its translation, see Shiels, King and Church: The Rise and Fall of the Patronato Real, 85-87, 290-91. 17 William Richey Hogg, “The Rise of Protestant Missionary Concern 1517-1914,” 168 KOREA PRESBYTERIAN JOURNAL OF THEOLOGY Vol. 52 No. 4

Columbus’ return from his first voyage in 1493, when he discovered lands beyond the lines stipulated in the former treaties. Amid the threat of rivalry between the two Iberian powers, the bulls were issued to clarify and extend the peaceful division of new territories. Evidently, the Pope tried to intervene as a mediator to clarify the ambiguous territorial lines and to prevent further conflicts between the crowns.18 In other words, the practice of jus commissionis was clarified by the Pope, which entrusts a new region to a particular religious order or missionary society in order to carry out mission work in that territory. The second bull issued on May 4, 1493 consigned to Spain the islands and continental lands discovered or to be discovered in the west, in the south and in the direction of India, as well as all other regions. It also forbade anyone to enter these lands without the king’s permission. Here again the bull clearly confirms the principle of thejus commissionis. It proclaimed that:

This certainly is the most important, that the Catholic faith and Christian religion may in all places be exalted, amplified, and enlarged whereby the health of souls may be procured, and the barbarous nations subdued and brought to the faith… And understanding you to be true Catholic Sovereigns and Princes… as your expeditions restoring the kingdom of Granada from the tyranny of the Saracens… We are informed that lately you were determined to seek and find certain isles and mainlands remote and unknown (and not heretofore found by any other) with the intention of bringing their inhabitants to honor our Redeemer and to profess the Catholic faith… Furthermore, we recommend you… to send to said lands and islands honest, virtuous, and learned men [missionaries] who fear God and are able to instruct the inhabitants in the Catholic faith.19 in The Theology of the Christian Mission, ed. Gerald H. Anderson (Nashville and New York: Abingdon Press, 1961), 96. 18 J. Hebert Kane, A Concise History of the Christian Mission: A Panoramic View of Missions from Pentecost to the Present (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1982), 58. 19 Rivera, A Violent Evangelism, 29. Quoted in John Fiske, The Discovery of America: With Some Account of Ancient American and the Spanish Conquest 2 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1892), 580-92. The Influence of Roman Catholic Mission on Comity Agreements 169

The Demarcation Bulls are often interpreted as establishing the “line of demarcation,” which, in addition to clarifying the line of division, are understood as part of the maritime expansion of Spain. Thus, this line of territorial division followed the example of the prior treaties.

3. (June 7, 1494)

Pope Alexander VI supplemented the former bulls by issuing the Dudem siquidem (September 23, 1493), which ceded to Spain more jurisdiction over all lands and islands to be discovered by sailing westward in the Atlantic and southward in the Orient.20 King John II (1455-1495, ruled 1481-1495) of Portugal became extremely concerned with this development. To the Portuguese, the demarcation line prescribed by Inter caetera and by Dudem siquidem threatened Portuguese interests in the south Atlantic and the promising sea route around Africa to the East Indies, India, China, and Japan. The Portuguese King saw that it was useless to try to do business with the pro-Spanish Pope, so he appealed directly to Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. Yielding to Portuguese pressure, Ferdinand and Isabella signed the Treaty of Tordesillas on June 7, 1494, which established an imaginary line 100 leagues (555 kilometers or 345 miles) west of the Cape Verde Islands in the Atlantic or 46°37’W (46 degrees, 37 minutes) longitude.21 The line shifted farther west from the former line of demarcation, drawn just one year earlier at 38°W. Thus, Spain obtained the exclusive rights of discovery, exploration, conquest and Christianizing west of this line of demarcation. Portugal gained the same exclusive rights to the east. All lands discovered, even by Spaniards, east of this line would belong to Portugal, while those to the west would be assigned to Spain. Portugal was to retain all of these advantages in Africa and the East Indies, while Spain was to enjoy similar privileges in the New World.22

20 O’Callaghan, Christopher Columbus and the Age of Exploration, 425. 21 In 1506, the line of demarcation moves about 1500 kilometers further west, resulting in Portugal claiming what is now Brazil. 22 This bull of demarcation proved to be beneficial to Portugal because it 170 KOREA PRESBYTERIAN JOURNAL OF THEOLOGY Vol. 52 No. 4

Line of Demarcation (1493, 1494)23

The Line of Demarcation between Spanish and Portuguese territory was first defined by Pope Alexander VI (1493) and was later modified by the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494). Spain gained authority over lands discovered west of the line, while Portugal claimed rights to new lands to the east.

subsequently guaranteed its rights to Brazil when the Portuguese explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral “discovered” Brazil in 1500. This demarcation line functioned as a geo-linguistic boundary between Brazil and the rest of the countries in South America. 23 “Line of Demarcation,” Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., https://kids.britannica. com/students/assembly/view/150937 (accessed August 21, 2020). The Influence of Roman Catholic Mission on Comity Agreements 171

Thus, Pope Alexander VI, for all practical purposes, divided the non- between the kings of Spain and Portugal on the condition that they would Christianize the inhabitants of the countries they colonized. It is also noteworthy that the series of papal bulls issued beginning in the 1450s were in fact mostly instigated by the Spanish monarchy and should be understood against the backdrop of the socio- political situation of the Iberian Peninsula. At the time, all of the factors involved created a very favorable environment for the Spanish expansion in the New World. The presence of a pro-Spanish Pope, the Reconquista of Granada from Muslim domination, and the highly developed seafaring skills of the Spanish sailors all contributed to the maritime expansion of Spain.

IV. PATRONATO REAL (PADROADO)

When Europeans began to explore new lands in the fifteenth century, was the religion of Europe, and they carried this religion to the newly claimed territories and peoples. The Europeans were imbued with the legacy inherited from the Emperor Theodosius and the late that “the single true religion is axiomatic for political unity” and “the sole basis for social order and ethical conduct.”24 In the midst of the European expansion, the Holy See and the Iberian Crowns developed a unique system of relations. This system, called “royal patronage,”25 intimately bound Church and Crown in the West Indies into a single entity. This arrangement extended back into the Middle Ages, but scholars generally agree that the Hispanic version gradually began with the Portuguese and Spanish conquests

24 John M. Headley, “Campanella, America, and World Evangelization,” in America in European Consciousness, 1493-1750, ed. Karen Ordahl Kupperman (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1995), 244. For the concept of Landerkirche and eius regio, eius religio, see page 30 (footnote 85) of this chapter. 25 Patonato in Spain; Padroado in Portuguese. David Bosch, “The Vulnerability of Mission,” Zeitschrift fur Missionswissenschaft und Religionswissenschaft 76 (Jahrgang 1992), 211. 172 KOREA PRESBYTERIAN JOURNAL OF THEOLOGY Vol. 52 No. 4 of the fifteenth century. By the middle of this century, Portugal and Spain were undeniably the two principal powers whose international aspirations and rivalry could not be matched by any other power. In conjunction with the Iberian expansion, Pope Innocent VIII (1432-1492, Pope 1484-1492), in 1486, defined the sacred duty of the Catholic church to propagate the orthodox faith, which is also known as Orthodoxe fidei propagationem: “Our chief concern and commission from heaven is the propagation of the orthodox faith, the increase of the Christian religion, the salvation of the barbarian nations, and the repression of the and their conversion to the faith.”26 Spain was the earthen vessel elected by God to save the world. As Enrique Dussel writes, “This consciousness of being elected… was the basis of the religious politics [and the political religion] of Isabel, Carlos, and Fe l ip e .” 27 Thus, the crusading drive of Spain was sanctioned by a series of papal bulls. As previously mentioned, Pope Alexander VI, the successor to Innocent VIII, issued several bulls in 1493 and 1494 shortly after Columbus’ return from his first voyage. These papal bulls explicitly imposed an obligation on the Catholic monarchs to convert the native inhabitants to the Christian faith. By doing so, the Pope confirmed the aforementioned missionary mandate. He further stated that the most pleasing work to God was that “the Catholic faith and Christian religion be particularly exalted in our day and everywhere spread and enlarged, so that souls be saved and barbaric peoples be subdued and brought to the faith.”28 By 1508, through the patronato real or the royal patronage system,

26 Luca Codignola, “The Holy See and the Conversion of the Indians in French and British North America, 1486-1760,” in America in European Consciousness, 1493- 1750, ed. Karen Ordahl Kupperman (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995), 195. Several years before the 1492 voyage of Christopher Columbus, this bull was pronounced on December 13, 1486. The extant Latin version is in Shiels, King and Church: The Rise and Fall of the Patronato Real, 277-82. 27 Enrique Dussel, A History of the Church in Latin America: to Liberation, 1492-1979 (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1981), 80. 28 Quoted in Codignola, “The Holy See and the Conversion of the Indians in French and British North America, 1486-1760,” 195. See also Shiels, King and Church: The Rise and Fall of the Patronato Real, 283. The Influence of Roman Catholic Mission on Comity Agreements 173 the Spanish crown assumed responsibility to promote and convert the indigenous people and to support the Spanish American church. It also controlled all financial matters relating to the church and ecclesiastical appointments and payments. For example, as early as 1501, Pope Alexander VI granted the Iberian Crowns the right to levy church tithes from the New World on the condition that the tithe revenue was to be used for the propagation of Christianity in America. In 1508, Pope Julius II (1443-1513, Pope 1503-1513) granted Ferdinand and his successors the rights to establish dioceses and to present or proffer to the Holy See candidates for the bishops in the Indies.29 Finally, the Patronage developed into what was called the “Supreme Council of the Indies.” With the establishment of the Council of the Indies in 1524, this royal patronage over the church was consolidated, thus allowing the Council to wield unchallengeable authority in all matters relating to the Spanish and Portuguese colonies in the Americas. At last, in 1538, the Crowns even procured the power to veto all papal dispatches to America. The prime reason for this new system of relations was that the Pope did not have adequate human and financial resources to undertake the mission work in the New World.30 The Roman Curia had no alternative but to rely on the means of the ever-expanding Iberian maritime powers. The monarchs, in return, needed religious legitimacy for their conquests,31 and thus, the Papacy and Spanish Crown were brought together by their complementary needs. Accordingly, several papal bulls ensued to entrust the Iberian Catholic monarchs with the right of “spiritual oversight.” These included

29 Originally the Crown was to present candidates from archbishops and below for church posts, but it became the de facto right or authority of the Crown to appoint bishops in the Indies. (Johannes Meier, “The Organization of the Church,” inThe Church in Latin America, 1492-1992, ed. Enrique Dussel (Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1992), 56-57; Bakewell, A History of Latin America, 130). Likewise, by 1514, through the Padroado, the Portuguese Crown had the same rights in evangelizing their colonies. 30 Codignola, “The Holy See and the Conversion of the Indians in French and British North America, 1486-1760,” 199. 31 Rivera, A Violent Evangelism, 25. For the theological legitimation of the occupation of the New World, see also Rivera, A Violent Evangelism (“Requerimiento”), 32-41. 174 KOREA PRESBYTERIAN JOURNAL OF THEOLOGY Vol. 52 No. 4 the transfer of most of the Pope’s spiritual and administrative privileges and duties in the West Indies to the Catholic kings. As a result, the Iberian powers were commissioned with the task of evangelization and the foundation and organization of the Church in the Indies. As it developed, neither the Pope nor the Spanish monarch observed faithfully the original evangelistic terms of the agreement. As time passed, the “oversight” became dominion, “spiritual” became political and economic, and “responsibility” became authority and control. The “discovery” led to conquest, colonization, and exploitation. In this way, a new missionary model came into existence in Catholicism through the patronato real between the Iberian Crowns and the Holy See. However, Spain began to have more power over the Holy See. This pontifical system of royal patronage wasde facto a hybrid kind of entity designed out of temporal and eternal, political and ecclesiastical, economic and religious concerns, but the patronage system made the Church subordinate to the Crown by means of the Crown’s ability to appoint bishops in colonial America.32

V. PRECUSORS TO COMITY AGREEMENTS

1. Catholic system: Jus Commissionis and Propaganda Fide

1) Jus Commissionis

The jus commissionis, or the right of entrustment approach to foreign missions, was conceived to assign a certain territory to a specific religious order of the Catholic Church. In actuality, this mission policy should have been in effect since 1493, but was strongly implemented after the establishment of Propaganda Fide in 1622. Before that time, the missionary work of the Catholic church in the newly discovered regions of the world had been the responsibility of the kings of Spain

32 Codignola, “The Holy See and the Conversion of the Indians in French and British North America, 1486-1760,” 199. The Influence of Roman Catholic Mission on Comity Agreements 175 and Portugal. The first bull of Pope Alexander VI,Inter Caetera, granted the exclusive right to the Spanish king and his successors over the islands and lands “already discovered” and “to be discovered” by Spanish explorers, provided they were “not held by another Christian ruler.” It prohibited other Christian nations from approaching these lands without the authorization of the Spanish sovereign.33 This decree confirms the principle of jus commissionis and the line of demarcation. The Pope’s second bull also explicitly confirms the two principles of dividing up land and entrusting it to a specific entity. Through thejus commissionis, the Vatican delimited the mission territories and then entrusted them exclusively to respective missionary orders of the Catholic Church. The papal bulls explicitly prohibited other Christian nations from encroaching another Christian country’s land and vested interests without that country’s permission or agreement. The jus commissionis has always been associated with the “line of demarcation” between Spain and Portugal. And the papal bulls established a line of demarcation which made a territorial division necessary.34 As such, it is not hard to recognize that these papal bulls of 1493 became the foundation for the patronato system. Under the so-called ‘patronato’ system, these kings were responsible for the propagation of the faith and the organization of the Church in their respective territories. But it was not long before this system started to show its limitations when other countries joined the conquest for territorial expansion. France took back territories that were under Spanish and Portuguese domains in the West Indies. Great Britain, Holland, and Denmark, the Protestant counterparts in colonizing territories, did not abide by the right of the patronage prescribed by the papal bulls.35 The papacy, however, could neither amend the abuses of the patronage system, nor alleviate the limits.

33 Ibid. 34 H. Vender Linden, “Alexander VI. and the Demarcation of the Maritime and Colonial Domains of Spain and Portugal, 1493-1494,” American Historical Review 22 (October 1916), 9. 35 Jean-François Zorn, “ Les espaces de la Mission,” Autres Temps. Cahiers d’éthique sociale et politique 43 (1994), 49. 176 KOREA PRESBYTERIAN JOURNAL OF THEOLOGY Vol. 52 No. 4

2) Propaganda Fide

On January 6, 1622, Pope Gregory XV (1554-1623, Pope 1621- 1623) established “the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith,” or Propaganda Fide. This institution was founded to spread the “true faith” among the infidels, and to protect Catholics from the non- Catholics of the Protestant and Orthodox churches.36 The establishment of this missionary congregation can be attributed to the “lack of unity in mission methodology among the various religious orders”37 and the malfunction of the existing system of the patronato real. With the establishment of the Propaganda Fide, however, the Holy See precisely defined territories and then entrusted them to religious orders. The missionary work had been the primarily the responsibility of religious orders assigned to them by the Propaganda Fide. Furthermore, its purpose included regaining the territories lost to Protestants. Propaganda Fide assiduously pursued these goals by coordinating and centralizing all missionary activities and sharing information on foreign lands.38 Propaganda Fide purported to remedy the decaying state of mission and to gain effective control of the mission field that was dominated by Spain and Portugal under the patronage system until this point in time. It further intended to expedite the mission work by replacing the mission paradigm of the royal patronage.39 With central supervision

36 Codignola, “The Holy See and the Conversion of the Indians in French and British North America, 1486-1760,” 196. In the early seventeenth century, a Catholic Chilean lawyer, Juan Luis Arias, warned his countrymen against “English and Dutch heretics, instigated by the devil… sowing the infernal poison of their heresy, infesting thus those millions and millions of good people.” 37 Ibid., 195. The idea of a special congregation in the Roman Curia had a long history before the foundation of the Propaganda Fide, going back to Raymond Lull of the thirteenth century. See R. Hoffman, “Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith,” in New Catholic Encyclopedia 11 (1967), 840-841. See also Joseph A. Griffin, “The Sacred Congregation de Propaganda Fide: Its Foundation and Historical Antecedents,” American Catholic Historical Society 41 (December 1930), 289-327. 38 Ibid., 201. 39 It is noteworthy that Cardinal Francesco Ingoli (1578-1649), the first secretary of the Propaganda Fide, criticized the power wielded by those possessing the right of patronage of the Iberian monarchs. Ingoli served as secretary of the Propaganda Fide The Influence of Roman Catholic Mission on Comity Agreements 177 and jurisdiction, the Roman Curia could have full authority over all Roman Catholic missionary work throughout the whole world. It was based upon the same missionary principles detailed in the 1493 papal bulls. The aim of this centralized institution was to carry out the task of the evangelization of the world more efficiently. As the task of Christianizing the newly discovered lands became the exclusive monopoly of the Dicastery of the Holy See, the Vatican began to play a more central and directive role in the propagation of the Catholic faith. The Pope had started to appoint vicars apostolic or papal delegates to non-Christian and non-Catholic areas. The Roman Curia wanted to bypass the patronato system and its pretensions. This new paradigm of missionary sending became the new face of the Catholic missionary enterprise. However, this raised serious jurisdictional conflicts in some mission fields between the apostolic missionaries sent by the Propaganda Fide and those under the padroado (patronato). Many clashes erupted especially from 1640 to 1668 in Asia (Cochin- China, Tonkin[Vietnam], Siam, and India).40 During the past 500 years, this jus commissionis approach to foreign mission, where mission fields assigned to specific missionary orders, had become firmly established in the fields of Catholic Church. As a result, the Catholic Church could carry out foreign missions without any conflict. In due time, needless duplication or wasteful overlapping of evangelistic work could be avoided by concerted efforts of the Propaganda Fide, the command-and-control center for Catholic missionary activity. Herbert Kane makes the following observation aptly about how the Propaganda Fide worked out a solution to the conflicting situation in the mission field:

With such a vast network of religious orders in all parts of the world, for twenty-seven years, from 1622 to 1649. Meier, “The Organization of the Church,” 63; Bernard de Vaulx, History of the Missions, trans. Reginald F. Trevett (New York: Hawthorn Books, 1961), 85-86. 40 Patrick Taveirne, “The European Roots of the Modern Missionary Enterprise,” Theology Annual 13 (1991-1992),3-4, http://archive.hsscol.org.hk/Archive/periodical/ abstract/A013h.htm (accessed August 27, 2020). 178 KOREA PRESBYTERIAN JOURNAL OF THEOLOGY Vol. 52 No. 4

it was necessary for the Roman Catholic Church to work out some system of comity to avoid duplication, to say nothing of competition. Consequently, certain [missionary] orders were assigned to certain countries. In the East the Paris Foreign Missions Society was responsible for Siam [Thailand], Tibet, and Burma [Myanmar]; the Dominicans for Formosa [Taiwan]; and the Missioners of the Sacred Heart for Melanesia. In the larger countries, such as India, China, and Japan, most of the major and many of the minor orders were to be found. There prudence dictated that the various orders be assigned to different parts of the country. For example, in China the Dominicans worked in Fukien and the Divine Word Missioners concentrated on Shantung.41

2. Protestant system: Comity Agreements

According to R. Pierce Beaver, a mission comity of the Protestant Church can be defined as “the division of territory and assignment of spheres of occupation including delimitation of boundaries on one hand, and non-interference in one another’s affairs on the other.”42 Field missionaries often viewed comity agreements as efficient tools of evangelization and ecumenicity. Pierce Beaver, an expert on the comity, goes on to say that:

Comity through delimitation of territory and assignment of spheres of occupation sought to assure the responsibility to specific missionary agencies for the speedy evangelization of every region of the earth and every district in each region, to the end that the Kingdom of God might spread through the whole world and that a great Church of Christ might arise in every land through the combined efforts of the separate societies.43

41 J. Herbert Kane, A Concise History of the Christian Mission, 59-60. 42 R. Pierce Beaver, Ecumenical Beginnings in Protestant World Mission: A History of Comity (New York: Thomas Nelson & Sons, 1962), 15. 43 Ibid., 16. The Influence of Roman Catholic Mission on Comity Agreements 179

These comity agreements have characterized Protestant mission to an amazing degree since the global expansion of the great missionary movement in the nineteenth century.44 It is my judgement that comity agreements among Protestant missions developed from preceding missionary practices of Roman Catholic missionary orders. Several scholars have noted Roman Catholic principles of territorial jurisdiction among missionary orders. Specifically, thejus commissionis (or ‘right of entrustment’) system of the Propaganda Fide prescribed that “once an organization had been given a mission territory to evangelize, no other group could come in to help or to take over part of that territory without the express invitation of that organization.”45 In this way, rivalries between missionaries from different nations and orders were precluded.”46 Even though the Protestant comity agreements do not specifically mention the Roman Catholic principle of jus commissionis, I argue that in content and implementation, they are strikingly similar to their Catholic pre­ cursors.47 In many respects, Propaganda Fide became a model for its Protestant mission. Indeed, the charters of most of the early Protestant missionary agencies, including Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658)’s mission plan,48 the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge (SPCK, the

44 Bradley N. Hill, “Rethinking Comity: Conflict or Confluence Along the Ubangi- Mongala Border?” Missiology: An International Review 13 (April 1985), 176. 45 Jean-Paul Wiest, Maryknoll in China: A History, 1918-1955 (Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1988), 48, 480; David J. Bosch, Transforming Mission: Paradigm Shifts in Theology of Mission (Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1991), 228-29. 46 Bosch, Transforming Mission, 228-29. In addition to Wiest and Bosch, James M. Phillips also supports this position by saying that “Catholic groups before and after the war had their own ‘comity arrangements’ on a diocesan basis.” (From the Rising of the Sun: Christians and Society in Contemporary Japan (Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1981), 162) 47 For more details, see Beaver, Ecumenical Beginnings in Protestant World Mission; Sacrae Congregationis de Propaganda Fide Memoria Rerum, Vol.1/1 1622-1972 (Breisgau: Herde, 1971); Willi Henkel, Die Druckerei der Propaganda Fide (München: Schoningh, 1977). 48 Cromwell’s mission plan was to divide the whole world into “four mission fields” with the work delegated to “seven directors and four secretaries.” However, the topic is beyond the scope of this research. For more details, see Gustav Warneck, Outlines of A History of Protestant Missions from the Reformation to the Present Time, Translated from 180 KOREA PRESBYTERIAN JOURNAL OF THEOLOGY Vol. 52 No. 4 oldest Anglican mission organization founded by Rev. Thomas Bray in 1698), and the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts(SPG, an Anglican missionary organization founded by Thomas Bray in 1701), specifically mentioned thePropaganda Fide. Even Gustav Warneck (1834-1910) who held very strong anti-Catholic views remarked that Propaganda Fide was one of the most magnificent mission institutions in the world.49 The Protestant mission societies were designed to counteract their Catholic counterpart. They were all founded against the backdrop of the strong anti-Catholic milieu of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Protestants felt the need to found their own version of the Propaganda Fide with a central power to plan, coordinate, and carry out global mission work efficiently in order to avoid conflicts and competition among Protestant missionary societies. It is noteworthy that with the weakening of Spain and Portugal at the beginning of nineteen nineteenth century and the independence of the major American colonies in South America between 1817 and 1823, the patronage system of Catholics gradually disappeared.50 In contrast, the comity agreements of Protestants became widely accepted in the mission field overseas.

VI. CONCLUSION

The history of the Protestant world mission did not come into being in a vacuum. Roman Catholics started first and had a longer history of mission. During the sixteenth century, the Catholic mission was closely related to the Iberian overseas expansion. Several papal bulls, such as the Treaties of Alcáçovas (1479), Inter Caetera (1493),

the 7th German ed., and ed. George Robson (New York: Fleming H. Revell Co., 1901), 49-50. 49 Warneck was a German missiologist and the founder of the science of missiology. R. Corrigan, Die Kongregation de Propaganda Fide und ihre Tätigkeit in Nord-Amerika (München: Verlag E. Joergen, 1928), 182. Quoted in Griffin, “The Sacred Congregation de Propaganda Fide,” 325. 50 Jean-François Zorn, “ Les espaces de la Mission,” 52. The Influence of Roman Catholic Mission on Comity Agreements 181 and Tordesillas (1494), allowed Spain and Portugal to divide up the entire non-Christian world and to occupy them. These papal bulls were based on the assumption that the Pope held absolute authority to divide the entire world. Here lies the origin of the right of patronage (patronato in Spanish and padroado in Portugal). Consequently, the Holy See could delegate the Christianization of the New World to the rulers of the two Iberian countries. Comity agreements of Protestant Church sought to achieve what the Roman Catholic Church accomplished through the Propaganda Fide, their central and authoritative mission organization. Comity agreements are rooted in the Roman Catholic principle of the so-called jus commissionis of the Propaganda Fide. The right of entrustment presupposes the right of pre-occupation and non-interference, thus overcoming rivalry, conflicts and duplication of limited resources of all missionary societies. However, after the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith (‘Propaganda Fide’) was established in 1622, jus commissionis had been implemented with greater vigor than ever before. In many respects, the mission practices of the Protestant Church modelled after those of the Catholic Church. The territorial division and the jus commissionis system of Propaganda Fide of Catholic mission became the precursor to the comity agreements of the Protestant Church. From the 1820s through 1930s, mission comities eventually became the widespread mission praxis of the Protestant Church.51 The tradition of missionary cooperation through division of the mission field and recognition of the right to entrustment, which was practiced in the Roman Catholic and later modern Protestant Churches, poses critical lessons and challenges to today’s mission field. Without an understanding of comity agreements, many Korean missionaries are repeating the mishaps of Western missionary practices such as denominationalism, wasteful duplication, and competition, creating an atmosphere of discourteous rivalry. This contempt of

51 William Richey Hogg, Ecumenical Foundations: A History of the International Missionary Council and Its Nineteenth-Century Background (New York: Harper & Row Brothers, 1952), 15-142. 182 KOREA PRESBYTERIAN JOURNAL OF THEOLOGY Vol. 52 No. 4 territorial agreement causes what Dr. Augustus C. Thompson (1812- 1901), the chairman of the Prudential Committee of the American Board of Commissioners of Foreign Missions, called “evangelistic anarchy”(instead of “evangelistic economy”) in the mission field.52 The pioneering attitude of Roman Catholic and Protestant missions gives us an admonition of encroaching on the territory of others, which may cause conflicts in the mission field today. It reminds us of the notion of mutual respect and ecumenical unity among the missions as fellow co-workers of God’s mission.

52 A. C. Thompson, ‘Missionary Comity,” in James Johnson ed.,Report of the Centenary Conference on the Protestant Missions of the World, Held in Exeter Hall, London (June 9th-19th), 1888, vol. 2 (London: James Nisbet & Co., 1889), 438-47. The Influence of Roman Catholic Mission on Comity Agreements 183

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한글 초록

가톨릭 선교가 선교지 분할정책에 미친 영향 ‐ 기독교 선교사의 지역분할 개념의 발전을 중심으로

변창욱 장로회신학대학교 교수, 선교신학

이 논문은 중세 로마 가톨릭교회의 지역분할이 개신교의 선교지 분할 정책에 어 떤 영향을 미쳤는지를 살펴본다. 1493년 교황은 신대륙 개척에 앞장섰던 가톨릭의 해 양 강국인 스페인과 포르투갈 국왕에게 식민지 개척과 식민지에 선교할 권한과 임무를 부여해주었다. 또한 교황은 전 세계를 두 지역으로 분할하여 스페인과 포르투갈에게 나 누어 주었다. 교황이 스페인과 포르투갈의 국왕에게 부여한 임무와 권한이 선교보호권 (patronato real)이다. 보호권을 부여받은 포르투갈과 스페인의 국왕은 처음에는 선교 임무를 성실히 수행 하였으나 이후 선교사업을 제대로 수행하지 못했다. 이러한 상황을 해결하기 위해 교황 청은 1622년 포교성성(Propaganda Fide)을 설립하고 가톨릭의 여러 선교 종단 내의 갈 등과 분쟁을 해결, 조정하고 보다 효과적으로 선교하기 위해 위임권(jus commissionis)을 부여해 주었다. 즉 선교지를 선점한 선교종단에게 그 지역에서 독점적으로 선교할 수 있 는 특별권한을 부여해주었고, 후발 선교종단은 선점한 선교종단의 동의 없이는 그 선교 지역에 들어가서 사역할 수 없도록 하였다. 로마 가톨릭교회의 이러한 선교정책과 방법은 개신교 선교에 많은 영향을 끼치는데, 그 중에 지역 분할, 선교보호권과 위임권은 개신교 선교정책에 직접적인 영향을 주게 된 다. 19세기 중반부터 20세기 초엽에 이르기까지 개신교의 주요 교단 선교부가 참여한 선 교지역 분할협정(comity agreements)은 가톨릭교회의 포교성성이 수립하고 시행한 선교 방법을 그대로 모방한 대표적인 정책이라고 평가할 수 있다. 로마 가톨릭과 개신교 선교 에서 행해진 선교지 분할과 선교위임권 인정을 통한 선교 협력의 전통은 오늘날 다른 선 교부의 선교지역에 들어가 갈등과 분쟁을 야기하는 한국교회의 선교행태에 커다란 교훈 과 도전을 준다. 남의 터에 들어가서 선교활동을 해서는 안되기 때문이다.

주제어

선교보호권, 포교성성, 위임권, 분계교서, 선교지 분할 정책

Date submitted: August 29, 2020; date evaluated: October 4, 2020; date confirmed: October 6, 2020.