DOCSLIB.ORG

Cooperative Breeding and Anti-Predator Strategies of the Azure-Winged Magpie (Cyanopica Cyanus Pallas, 1776) in Northern Mongoli

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Cooperative Breeding and Anti-Predator Strategies of the Azure-Winged Magpie (Cyanopica Cyanus Pallas, 1776) in Northern Mongoli Cooperative breeding and anti-predator strategies of the azure-winged magpie (Cyanopica cyanus Pallas, 1776) in northern Mongolia Dissertation to acquire the doctoral degree in mathematics and natural science the degree 'Doctor of Philosophy' at the Georg-August-University Goettingen in the doctoral degree programme 'Biological Diversity and Ecology' at the Georg-August University School of Science (GAUSS) Submitted by Gantulga Bayandonoi from Dornogobi, Mongolia Goettingen, 2016 0 Thesis Committee Univ.-Prof. i.R. Dr. Michael Muehlenberg Honorary Professor Conservation Biology, Workgroup on Endangered Species, Department of Animal Ecology, Johann-Friedrich-Blumenbach Institute of Zoology & Anthropology, Georg-August University, Goettingen Prof. Dr. Peter M. Kappeler Department of Sociobiology/Anthropology, Johann-Friedrich-Blumenbach Institute of Zoology & Anthropology, Georg-August University, and Behavioural Ecology & Sociobiology Unit, German Primate Center (DPZ), Goettingen, Germany Prof. Dr. Eckhard W. Heymann Department of Sociobiology/Anthropology, Johann-Friedrich-Blumenbach Institute of Zoology & Anthropology, Georg-August University, and Behavioural Ecology & Sociobiology Unit, German Primate Center (DPZ), Goettingen, Germany Members of the examination board: Referee: Univ.-Prof. i.R. Dr. Michael Muehlenberg Co-referee: Prof. Dr. Peter M. Kappeler Second Co-referee: Prof. Dr. Eckhard W. Heymann Other members of the Examination Board: Prof. Dr. Stefan Scheu Department of Animal Ecology, Johann-Friedrich-Blumenbach-Institut für Zoologie und Anthropologie, Georg-August University, Goettingen Prof. Dr. Rainer Willmann Abteilung Morphologie, Systematik, Evolutionsbiologie Johann-Friedrich-Blumenbach-Institut für Zoologie und Anthropologie, Georg-August University, Goettingen PD. Dr. Matthias Waltert Workgroup on Endangered Species, Department of Animal Ecology, Johann-Friedrich- Blumenbach Institute of Zoology & Anthropology, Georg-August University, Goettingen Date of the oral examination: 11.07.2016 1 CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..................................................................................................... 5 ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................................................. 6 CHAPTER 1 ............................................................................................................................. 8 General introduction ................................................................................................................ 8 Cooperative breeding ........................................................................................................... 10 Anti-predator strategies ........................................................................................................ 12 The study species ................................................................................................................. 14 Cooperative breeding in the azure-winged magpie .......................................................... 17 Nest predators of the azure-winged magpie ..................................................................... 18 Study colonies .................................................................................................................. 18 The outline of this study ....................................................................................................... 21 CHAPTER 2 ........................................................................................................................... 24 Helping behaviour affects nestling condition and nest predation in a facultative cooperative breeding bird, the azure-winged magpie ......................................................... 24 Abstract ................................................................................................................................ 25 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 26 Methods ................................................................................................................................ 29 Study area and breeding colonies ..................................................................................... 29 Data collection .................................................................................................................. 30 Nest predators ................................................................................................................... 33 Data analyses .................................................................................................................... 35 Results .................................................................................................................................. 37 Food availability ............................................................................................................... 37 Feeding rate ...................................................................................................................... 37 Nestling body mass .......................................................................................................... 41 Number of helpers at the nest ........................................................................................... 43 Duration of the chick-rearing stage .................................................................................. 43 Nest predation .................................................................................................................. 43 2 Nest attentiveness ............................................................................................................. 44 Discussion ............................................................................................................................ 44 Food availability ............................................................................................................... 44 Contribution from helpers ................................................................................................ 45 Selective factors promoting cooperative breeding ........................................................... 47 Acknowledgements .............................................................................................................. 51 CHAPTER 3 ........................................................................................................................... 52 Responsive adaptation to anti-predator strategies of the Azure-winged magpie (Cyanopica cyanus Pallas, 1776) breeding colonies in northern Mongolia ....................... 52 Abstract ................................................................................................................................ 53 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 54 Methods ................................................................................................................................ 57 Study area and breeding colonies ..................................................................................... 57 Nest predators ................................................................................................................... 57 Data collection .................................................................................................................. 58 Data analyses .................................................................................................................... 59 Results .................................................................................................................................. 62 Predation rate .................................................................................................................... 62 Nest distance .................................................................................................................... 63 Nest concealment ............................................................................................................. 64 Effect of breeding pair experience on anti-predator strategies......................................... 64 Avoidance from the carrion crow nest ............................................................................. 65 Synchronous breeding ...................................................................................................... 65 Impacts on nest success .................................................................................................... 65 Behavioural responses against predators .......................................................................... 68 Protector species ............................................................................................................... 69 Discussion ............................................................................................................................ 69 Nest concealment ............................................................................................................. 69 Effect of helpers ............................................................................................................... 70 Effect of breeding pair experience ................................................................................... 70 Synchronous breeding .....................................................................................................
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Allomaternal Investments and Child Outcomes in the United Kingdom
    Allomaternal Investments and Child Outcomes in the United Kingdom Emily Hazuki Emmott Doctor of Philosophy Department of Anthropology University College London 2014 p. 1 Declaration I, Emily Hazuki Emmott, confirm that the work presented in this thesis is my own. Where information has been derived from other sources, I confirm that this has been indicated in the thesis. Emily H. Emmott p. 2 Abstract Due to the fact that human mothers often have multiple, vulnerable offspring with long periods of dependency, it is argued that mothers need assistance from allomothers to successfully provide and care for their children. Cross-cultural observations and quantitative research converge on support for the idea that mothers in high fertility, high mortality populations need assistance from other individuals for successful childrearing. It is also clear within the literature that there is variation across populations in terms of who matters: who provides the help, how they help, and how much impact they have on childrearing. The current thesis extends from previous studies by exploring the effects of allomothers on childrearing in a contemporary developed context: With economic development and the demographic transition, questions arise regarding the importance of allomothers for successful childrearing, and whether humans in these settings still operate as cooperative breeders. This thesis specifically focuses on quantitatively investigating the effects of fathers, stepfathers and grandparents on child development in the UK. First, using the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children, I investigate how direct investments from fathers and stepfathers affect multiple child outcomes. Second, using the UK Millennium Cohort Study, I investigate how direct and indirect investments from maternal and paternal grandparents affect parental investment levels, as well as multiple child outcomes.
    [Show full text]
  • Walker Marzluff 2017 Recreation Changes Lanscape Use of Corvids
    Recreation changes the use of a wild landscape by corvids Author(s): Lauren E. Walker and John M. Marzluff Source: The Condor, 117(2):262-283. Published By: Cooper Ornithological Society https://doi.org/10.1650/CONDOR-14-169.1 URL: http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.1650/CONDOR-14-169.1 BioOne (www.bioone.org) is a nonprofit, online aggregation of core research in the biological, ecological, and environmental sciences. BioOne provides a sustainable online platform for over 170 journals and books published by nonprofit societies, associations, museums, institutions, and presses. Your use of this PDF, the BioOne Web site, and all posted and associated content indicates your acceptance of BioOne’s Terms of Use, available at www.bioone.org/page/terms_of_use. Usage of BioOne content is strictly limited to personal, educational, and non-commercial use. Commercial inquiries or rights and permissions requests should be directed to the individual publisher as copyright holder. BioOne sees sustainable scholarly publishing as an inherently collaborative enterprise connecting authors, nonprofit publishers, academic institutions, research libraries, and research funders in the common goal of maximizing access to critical research. Volume 117, 2015, pp. 262–283 DOI: 10.1650/CONDOR-14-169.1 RESEARCH ARTICLE Recreation changes the use of a wild landscape by corvids Lauren E. Walker* and John M. Marzluff College of the Environment, School of Environmental and Forest Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA * Corresponding author: [email protected] Submitted October 24, 2014; Accepted February 13, 2015; Published May 6, 2015 ABSTRACT As urban areas have grown in population, use of nearby natural areas for outdoor recreation has also increased, potentially influencing bird distribution in landscapes managed for conservation.
    [Show full text]
  • Bird Damage to Pistachios
    The extent of damage to pistachios by some birds that knock nuts to the ground, where they hull, shell, and eat them, can be measured. Losses to birds that pluck nuts from the tree and fly off to eat them else- where can only be estimated. counties to the south. District I1 (Central) is Merced, Madera, Fresno, and Kings Bird damage to nistachios counties. District I11 (Northern) is Monte- rey, San Benito, Inyo, and all counties to the north of Merced County. Terrell P. Salmon 0 A. Charles Crabb 0 RexE.Marsh Scope of the problem We received 105 responses (23 percent) from the 458 surveys mailed. Thirteen (12.7 percent) were excluded from analy- Crows are the primary culprits sis, because the orchards represented followed by ravens and jays were not in production, were outside Cali- fornia, or were managed by another per- son. The remaining 92 indicated they had pistachio losses due to one or more bird species. Bird damage was widespread through- out the state, as indicated by surveys re- turned from 18 counties. These 18 coun- ties represent 98 percent of the bearing pistachio acreage in California. The infor- mation we report here is based on the sur- vey returns and does not account for bird Various bird species are pests to a step in defining the problem and evaluat- damage and control that undoubtedly oc- number of California crops. Nut crops ing current bird control methods. cur but were not reported. Our estimates such as pistachios, almonds, and walnuts The major focus of the survey was to should therefore be considered conserva- are particularly hard hit, although infor- identify the bird species involved, the ex- tive.
    [Show full text]
  • A Fossil Scrub-Jay Supports a Recent Systematic Decision
    THE CONDOR A JOURNAL OF AVIAN BIOLOGY Volume 98 Number 4 November 1996 .L The Condor 98~575-680 * +A. 0 The Cooper Omithological Society 1996 g ’ b.1 ;,. ’ ’ “I\), / *rs‘ A FOSSIL SCRUB-JAY SUPPORTS A”kECENT ’ js.< SYSTEMATIC DECISION’ . :. ” , ., f .. STEVEN D. EMSLIE : +, “, ., ! ’ Department of Sciences,Western State College,Gunnison, CO 81231, ._ e-mail: [email protected] Abstract. Nine fossil premaxillae and mandibles of the Florida Scrub-Jay(Aphelocoma coerulescens)are reported from a late Pliocene sinkhole deposit at Inglis 1A, Citrus County, Florida. Vertebrate biochronologyplaces the site within the latestPliocene (2.0 to 1.6 million yearsago, Ma) and more specificallyat 2.0 l-l .87 Ma. The fossilsare similar in morphology to living Florida Scrub-Jaysin showing a relatively shorter and broader bill compared to western species,a presumed derived characterfor the Florida species.The recent elevation of the Florida Scrub-Jayto speciesrank is supported by these fossils by documenting the antiquity of the speciesand its distinct bill morphology in Florida. Key words: Florida; Scrub-Jay;fossil; late Pliocene. INTRODUCTION represent the earliest fossil occurrenceof the ge- nus Aphelocomaand provide additional support Recently, the Florida Scrub-Jay (Aphelocoma for the recognition ofA. coerulescensas a distinct, coerulescens) has been elevated to speciesrank endemic specieswith a long fossil history in Flor- with the Island Scrub-Jay(A. insularis) from Santa ida. This record also supports the hypothesis of Cruz Island, California, and the Western Scrub- Pitelka (195 1) that living speciesof Aphefocoma Jay (A. californica) in the western U. S. and Mex- arose in the Pliocene. ico (AOU 1995).
    [Show full text]
  • Pica (Pica) Bottanensis in India
    PRŷS-JONES & RASMUSSEN: Black-rumped Magpie 71 The status of the Black-rumped Magpie Pica (pica) bottanensis in India Robert P. Prŷs-Jones & Pamela C. Rasmussen Prŷs-Jones, R. P., & Rasmussen, P. C., 2018. The status of the Black-rumped Magpie Pica (pica) bottanensis in India. Indian BIRDS 14 (3): 71–73. Robert P. Prŷs-Jones, Bird Group, Department of Life Sciences, Natural History Museum, Akeman St, Tring, Herts HP23 6AP, UK. E-mail: [email protected] [RPP-J] Pamela C. Rasmussen, Department of Integrative Biology and MSU Museum, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48864, USA; Bird Group, Department of Life Sciences, Natural History Museum, Akeman St, Tring, Herts HP23 6AP, UK. E-mail: [email protected] [PCR] Manuscript received on 01 February 2018. he presence of the Eurasian Magpie Pica pica (sensu lato) in India (Praveen within Native Sikkim, any such records having et al. 2016) is predominantly based on the well-documented occurrence of more probably been a mistake for southern Tthe race bactriana in the north-western Himalayas east to northern Himachal Tibet,” (Meinertzhagen 1927: 371). There is Pradesh (Rasmussen & Anderton 2012; Dickinson & Christidis 2014). However, thus a clear contradiction between his own the question as to whether the taxon bottanensis may additionally occur, or have writings and the existence of his specimen, occurred, in Sikkim has recently resurfaced as a result of a comprehensive molecular from which we deduce that he most likely phylogenetic study of the genus Pica by Song et al. (2018), who recognised Pica (p.) stole the specimen later, relabelling it without bottanensis to be an anciently diverged and distinctive lineage.
    [Show full text]
  • Corvids of Cañada
    !!! ! CORVIDS OF CAÑADA COMMON RAVEN (Corvus corax) AMERICAN CROW (Corvus brachyrhyncos) YELLOW-BILLED MAGPIE (Pica nuttalli) STELLER’S JAY (Cyanocitta stelleri) WESTERN SCRUB-JAY Aphelocoma californica) Five of the ten California birds in the Family Corvidae are represented here at the Cañada de los Osos Ecological Reserve. Page 1 The Common Raven is the largest and can be found in the cold of the Arctic and the extreme heat of Death Valley. It has shown itself to be one of the most intelligent of all birds. It is a supreme predator and scavenger, quite sociable at certain times of the year and a devoted partner and parent with its mate. The American Crow is black, like the Raven, but noticeably smaller. Particularly in the fall, it may occur in huge foraging or roosting flocks. Crows can be a problem for farmers at times of the year and a best friend at other times, when crops are under attack from insects or when those insects are hiding in dried up leftovers such as mummified almonds. Crows know where those destructive navel orange worms are. Smaller birds do their best to harass crows because they recognize the threat they are to their eggs and young. Crows, ravens and magpies are important members of the highway clean-up crew when it comes to roadkills. The very attractive Yellow-billed Magpie tends to nest in loose colonies and forms larger flocks in late summer or fall. In the central valley of California, they can be a problem in almond and fruit orchards, but they also are adept at catching harmful insect pests.
    [Show full text]
  • Magpie Jay General Information and Care
    Magpie Jay General Information and Care: Black Throated Magpie Jays (Calocitta colliei) and White Throated Magpie Jay (Calocitta formosa) are the only two species in their genus. Black Throated Magpie Jays are endemic to Northwestern Mexico. The range of White Throated Magpie Jays lies to the south, overlapping with Black Throats slightly in the Mexican states of Jalisco and Colima, and running into Costa Rica. Both of these birds are members of the family Corvidae. Magpie Jays are energetic, highly intelligent animals and need to be kept in a large planted aviary - not just a cage. These birds are highly social and are commonly found in the wild as cooperative nesters. They are omnivores and favor a great variety of fruits, insects, small rodents, and nuts. A captive diet that works well in my aviaries is a basic pellet low iron softbill diet such as Kaytee’s Exact Original Low Iron Maintenance Formula for Toucans, Mynas and other Softbills. A bowl of this is in the cage at all times and is supplemented with nuts, fruits and veggies like apples, papaya, grapes, oranges, peas and carrots and the occasional treat of small mice and insects like meal worms, crickets, megaworms, and waxworms are relished by the birds. Extra protein is essential if you want these birds to breed. Fresh water should always be provided. I use a shallow three to four inch deep, twelve inch wide crock the birds can drink from and bath in. The birds you are receiving from my aviaries are hand fed and closed banded. How recently they were weaned will affect how tame they are at first.
    [Show full text]
  • Azure-Winged Magpie Onaga (Jpn) Cyanopica Cyana
    Bird Research News Vol.6 No.6 2009.6.24. Azure-winged Magpie Onaga (Jpn) Cyanopica cyana Morphology and classification Flock: Azure-winged Magpies live in a flock in the breeding and non- Classification: Passeriformes Corvidae breeding seasons, holding their flock territory throughout the year (Hosono 1989). In breeding period they roost in a flock except for Total length: 366.8mm (319-390) Wing length: 130.7mm (122-141) females incubating eggs and nestlings. In Nagano Pref., for instance, Tail length: 214.8mm (192-240) Culmen length: 25.7mm (24-30) the mean flock and home range sizes were 23 birds (9-45) and 21.8 ha Tarsus length: 33.3mm (32-35) Weight: 83.4g (69-96) (11-48), respectively in Kawanakajima (Hosono 1968), 28.7 birds and 135.1ha (103-243) in Ina, and 16.7 birds and 287.6 ha (130-376) in Measurements by Kuzu (1942). Nobeyama (Imanishi 2003). In Saitama Pref., on the other hand, they Appearance: were 24 birds (17-31, n = 16) and 13.4ha (6.2-24.8, n = 11) respec- Azure-winged Magpies are similar in tively in Tokorozawa, where Azure-winged Magpies are assumed to plumage coloration in males and fe- occur in the highest density. They also roost in a flock, but more than one flock occasionally roosted together in the same site. They use as a males. Males are slightly larger than roost site a dense thicket of bamboo, a coniferous wood and a broad- females in body size. They are gray on leaved deciduous wood. A coniferous wood and a thicket of bamboo the upperpart and white or light gray were used with higher frequency in winter, but a broad-leaved decidu- on the underpart (Photo 1).
    [Show full text]
  • Cooperative Breeding in Azure-Winged Magpies, Cyanopica Cyana, Living in a Region of Heavy Snowfall ’
    The Condor89:835-841 0 The CooperOrnithological Society 1987 COOPERATIVE BREEDING IN AZURE-WINGED MAGPIES, CYANOPICA CYANA, LIVING IN A REGION OF HEAVY SNOWFALL ’ SHIGEMOTO KOMEDA,~ SATOSHI YAMAGISHI,~ AND MASAHIRO FUJIOKA Department of Biology, Faculty of Science,Osaka City University,Sumiyoshi-ku, Osaka 558, Japan Abstract. The frequencyof occurrenceof helpers, their age and sex, and certain behavior at nests were investigated in Azure-winged Magpies, Cyanopica cyana, living in central Japan, a region of heavy snowfall. One group of 16 birds was a summer visitor and the other two groupsof about 20 birds were resident. Out of 14 nestswe observed in 1983, six had one to two helpers, one had no helper, and at the other seven we could not confirm whether helpers attended or not. Therefore, 43% to 93% of nests had helpers. One helper was known to attend at least four nests, and seven of 14 marked individuals (50%) acted as helpers.These resultsmean that cooperativebreeding occurs regularly in this population. Key words: Cooperativebreeding; helper; Corvidae;group living;feeding; plural nester: Cyanopica cyana. INTRODUCTION amples of regular cooperative breeders in cool- Cooperative breeding, which involves care of temperate zones are the Long-tailed Tit, Aegi- young by individuals other than parents, has been thalos caudatus (Nakamura 1972, 1975; Gaston reported in a few hundred avian speciesin a wide 1973), Pinyon Jay, Gymnorhinus cyanocephalus variety of taxonomic groups. Most cooperative (Balda and Balda 1978), Gray-breasted Jay, breedersoccur in tropical or subtropical regions Aphelocoma ultramarina (Brown 1970, 1972) or in temperate zones with equable climate and Acorn Woodpecker, Melanerpes formicivo- , (Grimes 1976, Rowley 1976, Woolfenden 1976, rus (Stacey 1979, Koenig 198 1, Koenig et al.
    [Show full text]
  • Molecular Ecology and Social Evolution of the Eastern Carpenter Bee
    Molecular ecology and social evolution of the eastern carpenter bee, Xylocopa virginica Jessica L. Vickruck, B.Sc., M.Sc. Department of Biological Sciences Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of PhD Faculty of Mathematics and Science, Brock University St. Catharines, Ontario © 2017 Abstract Bees are extremely valuable models in both ecology and evolutionary biology. Their link to agriculture and sensitivity to climate change make them an excellent group to examine how anthropogenic disturbance can affect how genes flow through populations. In addition, many bees demonstrate behavioural flexibility, making certain species excellent models with which to study the evolution of social groups. This thesis studies the molecular ecology and social evolution of one such bee, the eastern carpenter bee, Xylocopa virginica. As a generalist native pollinator that nests almost exclusively in milled lumber, anthropogenic disturbance and climate change have the power to drastically alter how genes flow through eastern carpenter bee populations. In addition, X. virginica is facultatively social and is an excellent organism to examine how species evolve from solitary to group living. Across their range of eastern North America, X. virginica appears to be structured into three main subpopulations: a northern group, a western group and a core group. Population genetic analyses suggest that the northern and potentially the western group represent recent range expansions. Climate data also suggest that summer and winter temperatures describe a significant amount of the genetic differentiation seen across their range. Taken together, this suggests that climate warming may have allowed eastern carpenter bees to expand their range northward. Despite nesting predominantly in disturbed areas, eastern carpenter bees have adapted to newly available habitat and appear to be thriving.
    [Show full text]
  • Energetics of Cooperative Breeding in Meerkats Suricata Suricatta
    International Congress Series 1275 (2004) 367–374 www.ics-elsevier.com Energetics of cooperative breeding in meerkats Suricata Suricatta M. Scantleburya,*, T.H. Clutton-Brockb, J.R. Speakmanc,d aMammal Research Institute, Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0002, South Africa bDepartment of Zoology, University of Cambridge, UK cAberdeen Centre for Energy regulation and Obesity (ACERO), University of Aberdeen, School of Biological Sciences, Aberdeen, UK dACERO, Division of Energy Balance and Obesity, Rowett Research Institute, Aberdeen, UK Abstract. We investigate whether energetic constraints play a role in determining social structure in cooperatively breeding meerkats Suricata suricatta. Energetics may be important at various stages of the reproductive cycle. Peak lactation and peak pup feeding are potentially the most energetically stressful periods for lactating mothers and subordinate helpers, respectively. Here, we review current data on lactation and present additional information on helping behaviour. Daily energy expenditure (DEE) of dominant females, subordinate helpers and pups were not particularly high during peak lactation. However, metabolisable energy intakes of lactating mothers (calculated from isotope-based estimates of offspring milk energy intake) were not significantly different from maximal suggested limits (at around seven times resting metabolic rate). DEEs of lactating mothers also increased with litter size, but decreased with group size. By comparison, during peak pup feeding, DEE values of helpers were not greater than those measured prior to breeding. Nor was there any apparent difference in DEE between bkeenQ and blazyQ helpers, suggesting that helping may not be energetically costly. These results confirm hypotheses that, in cooperatively breeding societies, breeders have high energy costs, which can be reduced by helpers.
    [Show full text]
  • Volume 2. Animals
    AC20 Doc. 8.5 Annex (English only/Seulement en anglais/Únicamente en inglés) REVIEW OF SIGNIFICANT TRADE ANALYSIS OF TRADE TRENDS WITH NOTES ON THE CONSERVATION STATUS OF SELECTED SPECIES Volume 2. Animals Prepared for the CITES Animals Committee, CITES Secretariat by the United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre JANUARY 2004 AC20 Doc. 8.5 – p. 3 Prepared and produced by: UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK UNEP WORLD CONSERVATION MONITORING CENTRE (UNEP-WCMC) www.unep-wcmc.org The UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre is the biodiversity assessment and policy implementation arm of the United Nations Environment Programme, the world’s foremost intergovernmental environmental organisation. UNEP-WCMC aims to help decision-makers recognise the value of biodiversity to people everywhere, and to apply this knowledge to all that they do. The Centre’s challenge is to transform complex data into policy-relevant information, to build tools and systems for analysis and integration, and to support the needs of nations and the international community as they engage in joint programmes of action. UNEP-WCMC provides objective, scientifically rigorous products and services that include ecosystem assessments, support for implementation of environmental agreements, regional and global biodiversity information, research on threats and impacts, and development of future scenarios for the living world. Prepared for: The CITES Secretariat, Geneva A contribution to UNEP - The United Nations Environment Programme Printed by: UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre 219 Huntingdon Road, Cambridge CB3 0DL, UK © Copyright: UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre/CITES Secretariat The contents of this report do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of UNEP or contributory organisations.
    [Show full text]