DOCSLIB.ORG

Horace Kallen Confronts America: Jewish Identity in Discursive Formation

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Horace Kallen Confronts America: Jewish Identity in Discursive Formation HORACE KALLEN CONFRONTS AMERICA: JEWISH IDENTITY IN DISCURSIVE FORMATION BY MATTHEW KAUFMAN A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY GRADUATE PROGRAM IN HUMANITIES YORK UNIVERSITY TORONTO, ONTARIO JANUARY 2017 © MATTHEW KAUFMAN, 2017 Abstract This study of the life and thought of American Jewish philosopher Horace Meyer Kallen (1882-1974) explores the discursive fields from which American Jewish modernity developed. Through a close analysis of Kallen's writings and relationships, of his engagement with print culture, and of his understanding of science and scientific culture, I describe one trajectory in the American Jewish community's discourses concerning science, religion, and secularism from the early twentieth century to mid-century. I trace how Kallen gained social capital through the popular press, and then used that capital to negotiate a new understanding of the place of Jews in America, becoming an architect of American Jewish ethnicity. I suggest that his importance as a theorist of ethnicity is located, in part, in his anticipation of current theoretical models. I contextualize Kallen within literary modernism, and suggest a new way to interpret his discursive interventions regarding America and democracy. I seek to recover Kallen's centrality to the social circulation of ideas concerning secularism and religion in America, and argue that his significance may be assessed by analyzing his deep and extended engagement with a number of prominent, public discourses. I contend that both the positive and negative responses to Kallen helped to establish the discursive frameworks in which Jewish ethnicity and its relationship to religion were debated. I conclude that Kallen's commitment to Jewish identity, seen as rooted in an evolving and diversified ethno-cultural process, is inextricably intertwined with the formative discourses of twentieth-century Jewish American life. ii Table of Contents ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................................................... II TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................................................ III INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................. 1 A BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH ............................................................................................................................................... 4 THE POLITICAL BACKDROP ............................................................................................................................................. 7 THE MELTING POT AND ORCHESTRATION ................................................................................................................ 10 ON KALLEN'S LEGACY ................................................................................................................................................... 13 ON SCIENCE AND PRINT CULTURE .............................................................................................................................. 15 RESPONSE TO MODERNITY ........................................................................................................................................... 17 CHAPTER 1 HORACE KALLEN IN THE AMERICAN JEWISH PRESS: ON RACE AND HEBRAISM .......................................................................................................................................................................... 20 ON THE AMERICAN JEWISH PRESS .............................................................................................................................. 22 KALLEN ON RACE ........................................................................................................................................................... 28 THE JEWISH PRESS GIVES KALLEN A BOOST ............................................................................................................ 39 THE SCIENTIFIC VINDICATION OF THE HEBRAIC WORLDVIEW ............................................................................ 44 RACE SCIENCE AND THE AMERICAN ENGLISH-LANGUAGE JEWISH PRESS .......................................................... 48 PSYCHOPHYSICAL INHERITANCE ................................................................................................................................. 50 COMPETING FOR SOCIAL CAPITAL .............................................................................................................................. 59 CHAPTER 2 ETHNICITY AS NATIONALITY: THE SIGNIFICANCE OF PSYCHOPHYSICAL INHERITANCE .............................................................................................................................................. 61 THE MENORAH ASSOCIATION AND THE HEBRAIC PSYCHE .................................................................................... 65 THE MENORAH JOURNAL: POPULAR DISCOURSE CONCERNING PSYCHIC INHERITANCE .................................. 71 KALLEN AND DANIEL DERONDA .................................................................................................................................. 75 RACE AND RELIGION: ENTER ANTHROPOLOGY ........................................................................................................ 78 INVOKING NATIONALITY: JEWISH IDENTITY AS ETHNICITY .................................................................................. 86 CONTESTING THE LIMITS OF ETHNICITY ................................................................................................................... 98 REVISITING KALLEN'S MODEL OF ETHNICITY ........................................................................................................ 105 CHAPTER 3 HORACE KALLEN AS A MODERNIST: A DISCONTENT OF HOPE ........................ 109 PHILOSOPHICAL DARWINISM ..................................................................................................................................... 116 CULTIVATING A PUBLIC ............................................................................................................................................... 121 THE SOCIAL APPLICATION OF NATURAL SELECTION ............................................................................................ 129 EVOLUTION AND RHETORIC ....................................................................................................................................... 135 On Population Pressure ......................................................................................................................................... 139 On Sexual Selection ................................................................................................................................................. 141 A TIME OF TRANSITION .............................................................................................................................................. 146 THE NEW REPUBLIC AND THE NEW SCHOOL FOR SOCIAL RESEARCH ............................................................... 150 iii THE DIAL ........................................................................................................................................................................ 153 MODERNISM AS LIFE: KALLEN AT THE INTERSECTION OF ART, SCIENCE, AND PUBLISHING ........................ 158 PRAGMATIC MODERNISM AND JEWISH IDENTITY .................................................................................................. 166 CHAPTER 4 ON SECULAR RELIGION: THE BOOK OF JOB AND DEMOCRACY ........................ 169 CREATION: KALLEN SECULARIZES JOB ..................................................................................................................... 172 REVELATION: PSYCHOLOGY RENARRATES RELIGION ........................................................................................... 180 De-Christianizing and Psychologizing Religion .......................................................................................... 182 Functionalist Psychology Secularizes Religion ........................................................................................... 188 Engaging with Jewish Religious Humanism: Kallen and Cronbach ................................................... 194 REDEMPTION: ON SECULARISM AS RELIGION ........................................................................................................ 202 REDEMPTION: ON JOB AND LIBERTY ........................................................................................................................ 214 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................................. 220 THE STRUGGLE FOR IDENTITY ................................................................................................................................... 221 THE NEW PHYSICS, ART, AND BECOMING ............................................................................................................... 223 "THE PLAYING IS THE WRITING" .............................................................................................................................. 226 BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................................................................................................................
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Bibliography of Genesis Articles at Gordon*
    714 Bibliotheca Sacra 137 (1980) 223-40. Copyright © 1980 by Dallas Theological Seminary. Cited with permission. Studies in the Book of Genesis Part 1: The Curse of Canaan Allen P. Ross The bizarre little story in Genesis 9:18-27 about Noah's drunkenness and exposure along with the resultant cursing of Canaan has perplexed students of Genesis for some time. Why does Noah, the spiritual giant of the Flood, appear in such a bad light? What exactly did Ham do to Noah? Who is Canaan and why should he be cursed for something he did not do? Although problems like these preoccupy much of the study of this passage, their solutions are tied to the more basic question of the purpose of the account in the theological argument of Genesis. Genesis, the book of beginnings, is primarily concerned with tracing the development of God's program of blessing. The bless- ing is pronounced on God's creation, but sin (with its subsequent curse) brought deterioration and decay. After the Flood there is a new beginning with a renewal of the decrees of blessing, but once again corruption and rebellion leave the human race alienated and scattered across the face of the earth. Against this backdrop God began His program of blessing again, promising blessing to those obedient in faith and cursing to those who rebel. The rest of the book explains how this blessing developed: God's chosen people would become a great nation and inherit the land of Ca- aan. So throughout Genesis the motifs of blessing and cursing occur again and again in connection with those who are chosen and those who are not.
    [Show full text]
  • Multiculturalism and the Politics of Interest
    MULTICULTURAUSM. AND TH E POLITICS OF INTEREST 89 ishment so much as insult and degradation, the sociaJ aperience ofuinvis­ ibility." Inevitably, rhetoric and gestute take on great importance. These arc the double-edged swords of multicultural politics. We usc them to tell ourselves (and the listening wodd) how good, strong, proud, and beau­ tiful we are; the others use them to convict us of fear, laziness, greed, and CHAPTER + violence. Hence the intensity of the debates about "hate speech" and "polit­ ical COtrectness," an intensity that survives the ridicule of commentators and critics, since so many of the participants are convinced that wotds Multiculturalism and are reaJly helpful or hurtful: the old rhyme about sticks and stones isn't convincing anymore. Hence also the new political emotions (I mean, newly the Politics of Interest surfaced, publicly expressed): not indignation, which implies a standard of justice, but resentment, offense, mortification, hurt feelings. It is hard Michael WaJur to imagine a trade union official telling the representatives of manage­ ment that their contract proposal has hurt his feelings and should there­ fore be withdrawn. But hurt feelings are political currency, money in the • bank, in the world of multiculturalism. Thin Skins There is not always enough money, of course, to get what one wants. A year or so ago a group of Jewish srudents from a nearby university carne to me with a complaint: the local black students' organization had invited Contemporary multiculturalism is not quite the same thing Louis Farrakhan to campus. The Jewish students were offended; their feel­ as the cultural pluralism championed by writers like Horace Kallen and ings were hurt.
    [Show full text]
  • Cornell Notes 1898 to World War II
    The Papers of F. G. Marcham: II Cornell Notes 1898 to World War II By Frederick G. Marcham Edited by John Marcham The Internet-First University Press Ithaca, New York 2006 The Papers of F. G. Marcham: II Cornell Notes 1898 to World War II By Frederick G. Marcham Edited by John Marcham The Internet-First University Press Ithaca, New York 2006 The Internet-First University Press Ithaca NY 14853 Copyright © 2006 by John Marcham Cover: Professor Marcham in his office in McGraw Hall, March 4, 1987, in his 63rd year of teaching at Cornell University. —Charles Harrington, University Photos. For permission to quote or otherwise reproduce from this volume, write John Marcham, 414 E. Buffalo St., Ithaca, N.Y., U.S.A. (607) 273-5754. My successor handling this copyright will be my daughter Sarah Marcham, 131 Upper Creek Rd., Freeville, N.Y. 13068 (607) 347-6633. Printed in the United States of America ii Cornell Notes: 1898 to World War II by Frederick G. Marcham Contents Childhood .................................................................................2 World War I ..............................................................................3 In a New World .........................................................................5 On to Oxford ............................................................................7 What Career? ..........................................................................11 Why Leave England? ..............................................................14 On to Cornell ..........................................................................18
    [Show full text]
  • The American Jewish Future After Immigration and Ethnicity Fade: H
    religions Article The American Jewish Future after Immigration and Ethnicity Fade: H. A. Wolfson’s Analysis in 1918 Joel Perlmann Levy Economics Institute, Bard College, 30 Campus Rd, Annandale-On-Hudson, NY 12504, USA; perlmann@levy.org Received: 11 October 2018; Accepted: 14 November 2018; Published: 19 November 2018 Abstract: H. A. Wolfson arrived in the United States at 16 from the Lithuanian region of the Russian Empire and at Harvard as a freshman five years later. He remained at Harvard until his death in 1974, as Emeritus Professor of Hebrew Literature and Philosophy. Among the most important historians of western religious philosophy, he published on contemporary issues only until 1925 and even then only rarely. Nevertheless, his 1918 article, “Pomegranates”, deserves attention. Wolfson clearly followed debates about the American ethnic future. He carved out an original and unexpected position on that issue, and on the American Jewish future within that context. He perceptively rejected Horace Kallen’s views of a “multi-national America”, and like Israel Zangwill’s Melting Pot, he stressed that full cultural and political assimilation would occur in the United States. But unlike Zangwill, he argued that Jewish religious creativity would find a long-term place in American life, once freed of its national trappings. Strongly supporting a Hebraic renaissance and a Jewish homeland in Palestine, he also emphasized with great force that the “we”—the east-European Jewish intellectuals and the Zionists—had greatly misunderstood the promise of Reform Judaism for the diaspora. Keywords: American Judaism; melting pot; pluralism; assimilation; Zionism; Yiddish nationalism Harry Austryn Wolfson died in 1974 at the age of 87, having spent his life since 1908 at Harvard University.
    [Show full text]
  • The Woman Suffrage Debate 1865-1919
    Dialectic of the Enlightenment in America: The Woman Suffrage Debate 1865-1919 Inaugural-Dissertation zur Erlangung der Doktorwürde der Philosophischen Fakultät für Sprach-, Literatur- und Kulturwissenschaften der Universität Regensburg vorgelegt von Frau Borislava Borisova Probst, geboren Marinova Wohnadresse: Ludwig-Thoma-Str. 19, 93051 Regensburg Vorlage der Arbeit bei der Fakultät für Sprach-, Literatur- und Kulturwissenschaften im Jahre 2014 Druckort: Regensburg, 2015 Erstgutachter: Herr Prof. Dr. Volker Depkat, Lehrstuhl für Amerikanistik, Universität Regensburg Zweitgutachter: Frau Prof. Dr. Nassim Balestrini, Institut für Amerikanistik, Karl-Franzens- Universität Graz Dialectic of the Enlightenment in America: The Woman Suffrage Debate 1865-1919 Table of Contents: I. Introduction: I. 1. Aim of Study…………………………………………………………………..…1 I. 2. Research Situation ………………………………………………………………9 I. 2.1. Scholarly Situation on Female Suffrage ……………………………10 I. 2.2. The Enlightenment in America…………………………………..……12 I. 2.3. Dialectic of Enlightenment in America………………………….……16 I. 3. Mothodology und Sources ……………………………………………………..18 I. 3.1. Methodology………………………………………………………….18 I. 3.2. Sources………………………………………………………………30 II. Suffragist and Anti-Suffragist Pragmatics of Communication II. 1. The Progressive Era, Women and the Enlightenment…………………………33 II. 1.2. The Communication of the Suffrage Debate: The Institutionalization of the Movements…………………………….……42 II. 1.3. Organized, Public Suffrage Communication………………………………43 II. 1.4. Organized Public Anti-Suffrage Communication……………………….….67 III. Enlightenment and Inclusion: Suffrage Voices…………………………………………88 III. 1. Isabella Beecher Hooker: “The Constitutional Rights of the Women in the United States” (1888)……………90 III. 2. Carrie Chapman Catt: “Will of the People” (1910)………………………………..104 III. 3. Further Suffrage Voices………………………………………………………….…114 III. 3.1. Suffragists’ Self-understanding…………………………..……………….115 III. 3.2. Rights…………………………………………………………………..…120 III. Suffragism and Progress……………………………………………………….126 IV.
    [Show full text]
  • Thinking Beyond Identity, Nationalism, and Empire
    THINKING BEYOND IDENTITY, NATIONALISM, AND EMPIRE A Dissertation Submitted to The Temple University Graduate Board In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy Rachael Kamel May 2016 Examining Committee Members Dr. Laura Levitt, Department of Religion, chair Dr. Rebecca Alpert, Department of Religion Dr. Terry Rey, Department of Religion Dr. Peter Gran, Department of History ii ABSTRACT This project explores how and why an Americanized form of Zionism became an effective movement in American Jewish life. In the quest for a just and lasting resolution of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, most scholarly attention has been focused on the state (and people) of Israel and the people of Palestine. As a result, we have focused too little attention on the role of support for U.S. nationalism in the American Jewish community in sustaining the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. I argue that a critical juncture in this process occurred in the early twentieth century, as the United States emerged as an international power. Many of the early leaders of Americanized Zionism, such as Horace M. Kallen and Justice Louis Brandeis, began their careers as Progressive reformers and brought their ideas about social and political action with them into the Zionist movement. Brandeis in particular played a critical role in making Zionism acceptable to American Jews. As this Americanized version of Zionism has become normalized in American Jewish life, the principle of Jewish sovereignty has become widely understood among American Jews to be an essential guarantor of Jewish safety. To understand the roots and implications of this stance, I explore the genealogy of the idea of sovereignty, as well as the binary opposition of “Arabs” and “Jews” in Euro-American thought.
    [Show full text]
  • Religion and Cornell University's Foundation
    GODS AND SCHOLARS: RELIGION AND CORNELL UNIVERSITY’S FOUNDATION MYTH A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Cornell University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts by Fredrika Louise Loew August 2016 © 2016 [Fredrika Louise Loew] ABSTRACT Cornell University’s foundation narrative focuses intensely on the nonsectarian clause in the institution’s charter, with the ‘godless’ nature of the university and its commitment to secularism forming the basis of the narrative. Though parts of the narrative are true, Cornell’s Protestant-heavy founding and early relationships with religion have been left out. This paper examines Cornell University’s primary archival material from 1865 to 1890 and secondary sources and reconstructs the religious foundation narrative of the university, which takes into account the strong Christian ethics upon which the university was in fact founded. In addition, the paper discusses the initial desire for a secular university, as well as investigates broader issues of identity reappropriation and analyzes the differences between the accepted narrative of Cornell’s foundation myth and the primary texts. BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH Fredrika Loew received her Bachelor’s degree in Archaeology and Near Eastern Studies from Cornell University in 2012. During her senior year, she began working as a Collections Assistant and Processor in Cornell’s Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections, where she has been working ever since. In the fall of 2014, she entered the Employee Degree Program to pursue her Master’s degree from the Cornell Institute for Archaeology and Material Studies with a focus on museology and religious studies.
    [Show full text]
  • New Futures, New Pasts Horace M
    Roskilde University New Futures, New Pasts Horace M. Kallen and the Contribution of Jewishness to the Future Feldt, Jakob Egholm Published in: European Review of History DOI: 10.1080/13507486.2016.1203873 Publication date: 2016 Document Version Peer reviewed version Citation for published version (APA): Feldt, J. E. (2016). New Futures, New Pasts: Horace M. Kallen and the Contribution of Jewishness to the Future. European Review of History, 23(5-6), 847-862. https://doi.org/10.1080/13507486.2016.1203873 General rights Copyright and moral rights for the publications made accessible in the public portal are retained by the authors and/or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. • Users may download and print one copy of any publication from the public portal for the purpose of private study or research. • You may not further distribute the material or use it for any profit-making activity or commercial gain. • You may freely distribute the URL identifying the publication in the public portal. Take down policy If you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact rucforsk@ruc.dk providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. Download date: 28. Sep. 2021 New Futures, New Pasts: Horace M. Kallen and the Contribution of Jewishness to the Future Jakob Egholm Feldt Abstract Early in the 20th century, American philosopher and educator Horace M. Kallen (1882-1974) constructed a cultural philosophy under the headline Cultural Pluralism. This philosophy was intended to have cosmopolitan effects in the sense that it had global ecumenical concerns for the social hope for all.
    [Show full text]
  • Felix Adler's Campaign for Social Justice in the Progressive
    “Let Our Little People Go Free:” Felix Adler’s Campaign for Social Justice in the Progressive Era Esther Lifshitz Senior Thesis HIST C4399 Department of History, Columbia University April 12, 2010 Lifshitz ii Acknowledgments This thesis benefited from the talent, wisdom, and dedication of many who merit mention. I would like to thank the wonderful librarians and staff at Columbia University’s libraries, particularly the archivists at the Rare Book and Manuscript Library for all their assistance. I am also sincerely grateful to the Leaders and affiliates of the New York Society for Ethical Culture, namely, Dr. Anne Klaeysen, Dr. Howard B. Radest, and Dr. Marc Bernstein, who were always gracious with their time and supportive of my research. The intelligence and passion of my history professors have inspired my outlook on history. While they did not contribute directly to this thesis, Professor Alan Brinkley and PhD student Alexander Kaye warrant mention for their influence on the development of my scholarship. This applies as well to professors Eric Foner and Casey Blake, who deserve special thanks for the generous time and advice they gave to this thesis. I must pay tribute to Professor Steven Mintz, my teacher for two semesters, advisor for the past two years, and second reader for this thesis. Professor Mintz was forever encouraging, considerate, and constructive; his patience and guidance were invaluable not only to this thesis but to my academic career. Among the many debts I owe to Professor Mintz, his classes shaped my approach to historical study. Professor Mintz is both an exceptional teacher and human being.
    [Show full text]
  • Alain Locke 1885–1954
    Alain Locke 1885–1954 ALAIN LEROY LOCKE—philosopher, race leader, benefits everyone and that democracy itself is at art critic, adult educator, essayist, and antholo- stake. The essence of Locke’s philosophy of gist—was the leading African American intel- democracy is captured in the title “Cultural lectual of his day after W. E. B. Du Bois (1868– Pluralism: A New Americanism,” a public 1963). A social genius, Locke was the lecture he gave at Howard University on mastermind behind the Harlem Renaissance, November 8, 1950. In raising democracy to a that explosion in the 1920s and 1930s of “New new level of consciousness, Locke international- Negro” literature, drama, music, and art that ized the race issue, making the crucial connec- bolstered black pride and earned reciprocal tion between American race relations and white respect on a national scale never before international relations. Racial justice, he pre- achieved. The December 1925 publication of dicted, would serve as a social catalyst of world Locke’s anthology, The New Negro, was a stel- peace. Thus there are two major streams of lar event in American cultural history. A volume thought in Locke’s work—the African American that spoke volumes, The New Negro: An Inter- historical, cultural, and intellectual tradition, pretation was art as manifesto—a secular libera- and a cosmopolitan, global outlook intensified tion theology. For this and other reasons by the Bahá’í principles he embraced. Locke is Columbus Salley, in The Black 100 (1999), both a “race man” (cultural racialist) and a ranks Locke as the thirty-sixth most influential philosopher (cultural pluralist).
    [Show full text]
  • Alain Locke at Oxford: Race and the Rhodes Scholarships
    ALAIN LOCKE AT OXFORD: RACE AND THE RHODES SCHOLARSHIPS BY JACK C. ZOELLER* (New York and University ’) N March , Alain Leroy Locke stunned the American academic es- tablishment when he was elected a Rhodes Scholar from Pennsylva- Inia. He was the first African-American to receive this honor. Although Locke was a brilliant student, he would find that his fellow scholars were not ready to share their pedestal with a black man.† No black Rhodes Scholar would follow him to Oxford until .‡ Alain Locke became a philosopher, writer and professor. But his im- pact on American society would go far beyond the boundaries of schol- arly journals and his classroom at Howard University. Locke became leader of the Harlem Renaissance—he called himself its midwife—who birthed and shepherded a generation of black writers and artists. His book, The New Negro, came to symbolize not just the cultural contribu- tions, but the individuality of blacks in America. Locke was an urbane and cosmopolitan man, whose ideas and force of personality gave him an in- * Jack C. Zoeller is Visiting Research Professor at George Washington University. He lives with his wife and two sons in Washington, D.C. The author is indebted to George Keys (Maryland and Balliol ’) for his invaluable contributions to this article and to the Alain Locke Centenary scheduled for September at Howard University. † In the early s, “Negro” and “Afro-American” were common and usually respectful nouns used to identify members of the African-American race. To the modern ear, “Ne- gro” may have a negative connotation and “Afro-American” is outdated.
    [Show full text]
  • Melting Pot” a Unifying Factor in the Chinese Experience
    The Journal of School & Society 21 ISSN 2575-9922 6(1) 21–33 ©Author(s) 2019 earth. Comparative philosophers David L. Hall Diversity, Harmony (he and Roger T. Ames, however, help to dispel what they call the “myth” of Han identity as ), and the “Melting Pot” a unifying factor in the Chinese experience. While it is unlikely that China will ever be the Jim Behuniak robustly multi-racial society that America is, it is Colby College not as homogenous as it might seem. The Han people are indeed the principle ethnic group in China, comprising over 92% of On Columbus Day in 1915, President Theo- the population. What remains are some fifty- dore Roosevelt gave a speech before a largely odd minority ethnic groups. Despite this ethnic Irish-Catholic group belonging to the fraternal imbalance, however, several demographic forc- organization, the Knights of Columbus, at Car- es—regional, cultural, linguistic, and econom- negie Hall in New York City. The topic was the ic—conspire to “create strains on the presumed emergence of so-called “hyphenated American- harmony of the Han Chinese.”1 Generated ism.” within this tension is a rather fervent need to The phrase referred to Americans who had define and retain “Chinese-ness” as a pervasive immigrated to the United States but who still quality in the face of an inexorable and multi- identified with their own cultural backgrounds, scalar dynamism. e.g. those who might call themselves Irish- Such dynamism is a feature of most natural American, Mexican-American, or Chinese- systems, and it is nothing new.
    [Show full text]