Index

Abdul Hadi bin Haji Hasan 9, 129, smallholder planting 108 133 Ahmad Zaidi, Tun 149, 162 Abdul Rahim Kajai 129, 143, 153, Al azhar 184, 225, 233, 241 220 Al-Attas, Syde Naquib 218–219 Abdul Rahman, Tunku 129, Alexander the Great 27, 47, 80, 99, 155–160, 164, 208, 215, 234 100–101, 139 Abdul Razak, Tun 161 All Ceylon Malay Association 117, Abdullah bin Abdul Kadir 135, 178 (Munshi) 64, 70, 73, 92, 110, Amir Hamzah, Tengku 170 112–115, 120, 127–128, 201–203, Andaya, Barbara 95, 174 209, 231, 237, 239 Andaya, Leonard 11, 82, 85, 98–99, Aceh 11, 47, 49, 51, 53, 75, 81, 99, 101, 200 100, 101, 105 Anderson, John 52, 57, 61, 63, 69, adat (custom) 4, 10, 15, 24, 65, 67, 71, 78, 125 70, 77, 113, 128, 134, 137, 139, animism 193 171, 187, 194–197, 199, anthropological work 148, 187, 208–209, 214, 217, 221–222, 189–197, 217–218, 242 228, 236 see also Malay studies determination by the raja 67–68, Anwar Ibrahim 219 137, 171 Archipelago, pre-colonial levels of, and contents 4 civilizational homogeneity 85, 96 persistence of 70 community 96–97 and protectionCOPYRIGHTED of nama 67 competition MATERIAL and fl uidity 53–55 Adtityawarman 18, 39 narrative of decline 50–51 afterlife 28, 68 political fragmentation 49–50 agriculture 55–56, 108–109 population shifts 55–58 cash cropping 109 architecture colonial 108 colonial 110 pioneering character 57, 95 Islamic 142 plantation economy 109, 137 mosques 44–45, 61, 142 276 Index architecture (cont’d) bangsa Melayu 3, 128, 131–132, 138, royal residences 60–61, 79 147–148, 151–153, 158, 160–161, see also housing 173, 210, 213, 220, 227, 229, Ariffi n Omar 136–137, 148, 153, 233–238 171, 173, 200 alternative form of community and Aru 13, 36–37, 40, 43, 47, 50, 54, identity 220, 233 65, 81 ideological challenges 210–215 Asahan 53, 55, 77, 82, 136, 171 impermanence, anxiety about 130– ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian 132 Nations) viii, 2, 238 Islamic challenge 138, 142–144, atap houses 23 211, 215–227 Austroasiatic languages 22 kerajaan concepts, appropriation Austronesian language family 2, of 233 21–22 kerajaan opposition to 135–137, global distribution (map) 20 138 Austronesian-speaking people 22–24, Melaka-Johor fl avour 236 27 nation-state challenge 214 Ayutthaya empire 36, 51, 77 UMNO version 234–235 Azahari, Sheikh A. M. 135, 148–149, Banjar 77 162, 164, 179 Banjarmasin 55, 83, 105, 108–109 Banks, David 7, 192–193, 197 Babcock, Tim 96, 122, 125, 134, 232 Barus 24, 77, 82, 91 Badawi, Abdullah 219, 239 Batak 2, 10, 11, 53, 82, 85, 169–171, Bailey, Conner 189 185, 199–200, 214, 232 bangsa 10–11, 101, 127–129, 133, Batam 175 142, 210 Batavia 105–106, 111, 169 adat, role of 221–222 Batu Bara 56, 61 and descent 231–232 becoming ‘Malay’ 85, 197, 199–202, devotion to 128–129 214 inclusiveness, notion of 127, 133 see also Malayization Islamic resistance to 218–222 Bellwood, Peter 21, 23 in kerajaan texts 126–127 Bencoolen 105 localization 236–238 Benjamin, Geoffrey 5, 10, 76, 82, 94 MNP approach 155 bersila 31–32, 40 Peninsular focus 154–155, 159 bilateralism 8, 23, 188–191, 194, promotion of 148–149 196 UMNO approach 154–155 Bintan 54, 59, 175 see also race bodhisattva 29, 39, 41 bangsa consciousness 142–143 ‘Boemipoetera’ 137 bangsa 11, 169, 235 bomoh (shaman) 8, 187–188, 190 bangsa 161, 213–214 borders 178–183 bangsa Sabah 162, 235 cross-border activity 180 bangsa Sumatra 173, 235 kerajaan era 58–59, 180 bangsa Sumatera Timur 173, 235 Malaysia–Indonesia 179–180 Index 277

Malaysia– 180–181 Malay Teachers Association racial and ethnic 180 148 see also frontiers, open; Buddhism 14, 24, 28–29, 32–33, 39, Borneo 10, 22, 27, 43, 53, 71, 77, 83, 41, 107 105, 116, 119, 121, 123–124, bodhisattva ideal 41 158 Siwa-Buddhism 39 becoming ‘Malay’ 199–200 Bugis 10, 11, 124, 199 colonialism 105–106 Bukit Seguntang 100 Dayak 10, 53, 121, 123 Bukit Tinggi 26–27, 29, 100, 174, ‘Malay’ community 197 178–179 ‘Malay homeland’ 22 Bulungan 75, 177 ‘Malayness’ 209–210 bumiputra 160, 163 Muslim immigrants 125 bureaucracies, European-led 118 pre-colonial sultanates 53–54, 58 Burhanuddin Al-Helmy, Dr 154, 157, racial classifi cation 120 158, 160, 209, 215, 234 Borschberg, Peter 89 Brahmanism 28, 31, 33, 37–39 1, 2, 81, 90, 98 Brissenden, Rosemary 196 becoming ‘Malay’ 200 Brooke, Charles 106, 112 ‘Cham’ 1, 98, 178, 182, 184–185, Brooke, James 73, 76, 108, 121 200, 227 Brotherhood of Malay Penfriends ‘Chvea’ 90, 98, 177–178, 117, 131, 134 227 Brown, D. E. 135 Islamism 226–227 Brunei 13, 24, 34, 40, 43, 47, 50–52, ‘Malay’ community 178, 182, 61, 64, 69, 73, 75, 77–78, 83–84, 226 105, 121, 134–135, 137, 148–149, ‘Malay’ consciousness 177–178, 164 185 Azahari rebellion 179, 182, 223 Pol Pot regime 178 bangsa infl uences 148 textile production 182 capitalist class 73 Cape Malay Association 135 colonialism 105 capitalism 72–73 genealogical inheritance 50 Carsten, Janet 188, 192, 194–196, Indianization 24 236 Islamism 83 census taking 120, 122, 124, 126, Japanese occupation 149 147–148, 232 kerajaan concepts, persistence ceremonial of 223 audiences 64–65 ‘Malay’ consciousness 134–135 coronations 25, 69, 142 ‘Malay’ ideological work 223 court ceremonial 31 ‘Malay’ population 1 diplomatic exchanges 33, 51 Malaysia project 164 nama and 67 oil wealth 164 weddings 7, 24–25, 129, 176, 187, royal court 51, 60–61, 62 194, 216 trade 51, 77 ceremony 130, 142, 239 278 Index

Ceylon Islamic 216 ‘Malay’ consciousness 177 person-defi ning role 63 see also royal 31, 61, 63 Chakrabarty, Dipesh 91, 120 status 61, 63 Champa 81 stereotypical 7–8 Chams 1, 161, 178, 182, 184, 200, sumptuary laws 64, 107, 139 227 cock-fi ghting 79, 140 characterization of Malays Cocos-Keeling Islands 4, 88, 178 colonial 5–6 ‘Malayness’ 198 denigrated traits 207 Collins, James 122 revolusi mental, creation of 207, colonialism 5, 75, 109, 158, 177, 182, 209 185 stereotypes 7–8, 77, 95, 111, 115, avowed conservative 119, 122 intentions 103, 106–107 Chea Boon Kheng 152, 156 British 53, 88, 103, 105–106, 110, x, 36–7, 51 123 Chinese community 3, 72, 108–110, colonial economies 109 121, 151–152, 154–156, 160–161, colonial southeast (map) 104 239 Dutch 53, 102–103, 105, 106–107, communist insurgency 155 110, 123–124, 147, 154, 234 domination of the commercial economies 108–109 sphere 72–73, 109, 128, 203, French 111 206, 239–240 ideological justifi cation 50 growth of 109 ‘Malay’ character, formulation of 6 Malayan Chinese Association ‘Malay colonialism’ 158, 163 (MCA) 156 social change 107 movement from clan identities to communitarian concept 128 Chinese identity 120 community 194–196 separatism 72 adat, importance of 194–196 stimulus to ‘Malay’ ethnicity 9 bangsa-based concept 144 ‘yellow danger’ 111 bilateralism 188–190, 192–194, Chitu 24, 31 196 Christianity 214 community/citizenship tension chronicles 80 211 citizenship 115, 118, 155 cultural notions of 132 community/citizenship tension 211 early historical period 23, 33 civil service 157, 205 family 94–95 civilization, concept of x, 242 halus–kasar dichotomy 65, 195, Malayness and 93 238 Clifford, Sir Hugh 106, 112 inter-monarch relations 33 clothing styles Jawah 96–97 Austronesian people 23 kerajaan community 92, 99 fundamental clothing structure 78 ‘Malay’ minority community inter-polity distinctions 78, 197 status 211 Index 279

pre-colonial 94 Dunia Melaya Dunia Islam ruler-centred polity 29–30 (Malay World/Muslim World) umat-based concept 144 process 177 village 94, 189 Dunia Melayu see ‘Malay World’ Conrad, Joseph viii, 54, 124 Dutch East Company 52 constitutional defi nitions of ‘Malay’ 2, Dutch East Indies 106–107, 111, 147, 4 154, 234 Cornish, Andrew 226 coronations 69, 142 East Sumatra 39, 55, 78, 86, 108, Indic elements 25 141, 149, 169, 170, 172–174, cosmopolitanism, national 213 224 craftsmen 56 bangsa Sumatra Timur proposal Crawfurd, John 119 173 cultural congresses 183 Buddhism 39, 41 culture Chinese community 109 convergence of cultures 213 colonialism 109 ‘Malay World’ initiatives 214 ethnic categorization 125 stereotypes 7, 8, 77, 122 Japanese occupation 149 see also clothing styles; dance; food kerajaan elite 136–137, 171 and meals; inheritance customs; kerajaan texts 84 music; theatre ‘leaving Malayness’ 200 curses 28–29, 51 ‘Malay’ consciousness 136–137, 170–171 dakwah movement 215–218, 220, ‘Malay’ leadership 173 226 ‘Malay’ population 154, 170–171, dance 52 224 datu 30, 38, 84 overthrow of kerajaan leadership Day, Tony 132 171 Dayak 10, 11, 57–58, 83, 85, 121, State of East Sumatra 171, 173 185, 198–199, 232 textile production 56 De Casparis, J. G. 19 under Japanese occupation 150 Deli 13, 50, 53, 55, 57, 68, 75, 77, East Sumatra Association 117, 136, 82, 91, 106, 109, 136, 140, 170, 148, 171 173 economic backwardness issues 202– derhaka 25, 65, 67, 153 207 descent, issue of 4, 8, 94, 131–132, assistance and reform programmes 188, 209, 235–236 204–205 bangsa and 231–232 deprivation, sense of 110, 202 patrilineal descent 94 economic and social divorce 190, 217 transformation 204–205 Djamour, Judith 187, 194, 212 see also entrepreneurship Drakard, Jane 51, 99, 100, education 102 assistance and reform programmes Dumont, Louis 60 204 280 Index education (cont’d) haj 139–140 colonial systems 106, 117 Haji Sulong 167–168 segregated 136 halus 65, 195, 238 Effendy, Tenas 175 Hamilton, Alexander 86 Encyclopaedie van Nederlandsche- Hang Tuah 47, 68, 93, 131–132, 159, Indie 125 208, 220, 236–237 entrepreneurship 71, 205–207, 239 see also Hikayat Hang Tuah mixing of politics and 71, 240 Harper, Tim 157, 204, 213 networking 206 Harrisson, Tom 83, 134, 193, 203 ethnic oscillation 200–201, Harun Aminurashid 129, 133–135, 232–233 143, 148 ethnicity ix, 94, 117, 122, 137, 220, Hidup Melayu 12, 98, 152 230–231, 242 hierarchy 67 ethnic consciousness 11, 88, 212 of ‘Malayness’ 198–199 localization ix, 134 see also status projecting back 13 hikayat literature 118 see also bangsa; race Hikayat Aceh 92, 100 ethno-nationalism 225 Hikayat Deli 82, 132 exorcism 188 Hikayat Hang Tuah 60, 68, 80, 91– 92, 95, 96, 100, 114–116, 123 family 94–95 Hikayat Iskandar 80, 91 household composition 187–188 Hikayat Johor 116 Faucher, Carole 224 Hikayat Patani 92 Febvre, Lucien 14 Hikayat Seri Rama 80 Federated Malay States 124 Hinduism 14, 32–33, 38 Firth, Raymond 188–189, 192, 194 Hirschman, Charles 120 Firth, Rosemary 7 history, Malay 9, 11, 13 followership, culture of 241 Austronesians 21–24 food and meals 187, 195–196, 198 communities, confi guration of 31– Fraser, Thomas 7, 188, 193 34 frontier character 192–194, 198 dynamic vision of 114 frontiers, open 58, 180 ethnically conscious 11 see also borders Indianization 24–25, 37–40 Islamic transformational music 52, 78 process 40–45 Gantuoli 24 kerajaan narratives 133 Geertz, Clifford 141 Malay narrative 133 ‘golden age’ of ‘Malayness’ 12, 16, ‘Melayu’ concept 18–21 27, 40, 47, 49, 85, 99 Muslim polities 40–42, 44 gravestones 43–44, 142 projecting into the past 13 Gray, Charles 58 rulership, concept of 29–31 Guizot, François 114 spiritual concerns 28–29 Gullick, John 70, 95, 108 Srivijaya, emergence and growth Gunung Tabur 54 of 25–28 Index 281

transformative change 34–38 ‘Confrontation’ episode 158–160, see also colonialism 175, 179 Hoevell, Baron van 112 decentralization 176, 223–224 Hooker, Virginia Matheson 91, 110, ‘Indonesia’, concept of 137, 147, 131, 209 150 household composition 187–188 ‘Malay’ assistance and reform housing 6, 7, 78, 187 programmes 204 atap houses 23 ‘Malay’ ideological work 223 Austronesian 23 ‘Malay’ population 1, 154, 169– inter-polity distinctions 78 170, 187 stilt houses 56, 78, 187 ‘Malayness’, kerajaan focus of 137, Huntington, Samuel 242 224–225 Hussainmiya, B. A. 164 ‘Malayness’, promotion of 177 Hussein Alatas, Syed 71, 73, 202– Malaysia–Indonesia border 178– 203, 207, 230 179 nationalism 137, 164, 169–170, I-Ching 24 173, 176 Iban 83, 107, 121, 158, 162 opposition to Malaysia formation Ibn Battuta 45 158–159 Ibrahim Yaacob 110, 130, 133–135, pan-‘Malay’ activism 177 138, 143, 147–150, 152–153, 159, population shifts 176 164, 215 Social Revolution (1946) 170–171 identity sultanates, revival of 177 bangsa 133 Indonesian Raya 147–148, 152, 156, local concepts of 134 169, 215 place names and 19, 21–22 inheritance customs 113, 192, 194 racial 96, 120 Ishak Haji Muhammad 131, 149, religious 32–33 208–209, 237 see also bangsa; ethnicity; kerajaan; Ishikawa Noboru 180–182 nationalism; race; umat Islam x, 3, 14–15, 37, 83 ideological engineering, ideological adoption of 40, 42–43, 82–84, work 15, 17, 43, 132, 159–161, 197–200 207–228, 233, 235, 237, 241 bangsa–Islam relation 218–222 Inderagiri 174 ‘civilizational Islam’ 219 India 24 dakwah (revivalist) movement 190, Indian community 3, 154, 160 215–218, 220, 226 Indianization 24–25, 28, 37–40, 77 food and drink prohibitions 43 individualism 108, 128, 189, 194 haj 139–140 Indonesia 2, 3, 73, 154, 158, kerajaan interest in 98–99 169–174 legal penalties 43 Bahasa Indonesia (national mainstreaming 218–220 language) 3 Qur’an 44, 61, 221, 239 Bangsa Indonesia 11 Shari’ah 44–45, 139 capitalist class 73 spread of 37 282 Index

Islam (cont’d) ‘Malayness’ 198 Sufi sm 41–42 North Kalimantan 162, 164 transformational process 42–43 South Kalimantan 199 ulama 138–139 West Kalimantan 175, 198, 203 umat 138, 142, 144, 220–221, 227 Kampar 50, 54, 174 see also Shari’ah-mindedness Kampe 37 Islamization 40–46, 77–78, 241 kampong 7, 8, 23, 57, 187, 193, 238 gradualism and fusion 43–45 boundaries 56–57 Ismail Hussein 4–5, 12, 27, 76, 182– pioneering settlements 192 183, 185, 215, 228, 237 Karim, Wazir Jahan 189–191, 196, Ishikawa Noboru 181 216–218, 239 Karo Batak 82, 85, 171 Jakun 3, 82, 124 kasar 195 Jambi 18–19, 36, 75, 86 Kathirithamby-Wells, Jaya 72 Japanese occupation 149–151 Kato, Tsuyoshi 137, 175, 192, 200 insensitivity towards religious Kedah 4, 7, 13, 22, 24, 32, 36, 43, obligations 150 50, 55–56, 98, 101, 107, 123, 135, transfer of sultanates 107, 150 150, 168 Java 4, 86, 88, 109, 123, 176 agriculture 55–56 Jawah 33, 90, 96–99, 230 descent issues 4 Jawi 2, 3, 21, 51, 81, 90, 97, 102, 140 founding of 55 Jawiken 97 frontier character 192 Johns, Anthony 139 Indianization 24 Johnson, Deborah 110 kerajaan opposition to ‘Malay’ Johor 11, 13, 19, 47, 49, 51, 53, 57, consciousness 135 81–82, 105, 116, 119 ‘Malayness’ 197–199 colonial rule 105 pre-Austronesian languages 22 descent issues 4 religious identity 32 genealogical heritage 13 Thai rule 107, 168 land ownership 57 women’s position 190 ‘Malayness’ 198 kedatuan 30–31, 59 territory 116 Kelantan 2, 7, 9–10, 27–28, 45, 56, under Japanese occupation 150 58, 69, 72, 75, 77–78, 81, 91, 98, written constitution 116 107, 150 Jory, Patrick 226 ethnic awareness 12, 212 frontier character 192 Kahn, Joel 7, 196, 208, 217, 219, 229 housing styles 78 Kalimantan 13, 84, 105, 175–176 Islamic party 219 becoming ‘Malay’ 199 Islamism 45, 84 Central Kalimantan province 176 ‘Malay’ population 13 East Kalimantan 175 ‘Malayness’ 197–198 kerajaan leadership 175 royal court 69 ‘Malay’ population 1, 177–178 territory 58 ‘Malay’ sense of deprivation 203 textile production 56, 182 Index 283

Thai rule 107 written constitutions 116 women’s position 190 see also raja kerajaan 30, 46, 47–74, 49, 54, 59, keris 79, 238 66–74, 76–77, 99–102, 230 Kessler, Clive 39, 184, 208, 237–238, anti-kerajaan activists 112–113, 240–241 150, 152 Khmer 22 archaism 256 Khoo Kay Kim 179 assimilation 81–84, 128 King, Victor 58, 83, 108, 176, bangsa, subordination to 210–211 198 ceremony, preoccupation with 114, kinship ties see bilateralism 203 Kipp, Rita Smith 125, 174 colonial challenges 110–111, 118 Klang 54 colonial period 111–118, 153 Klinken, Gerry van 177 colonial retention of 103, 110, 118 Klinkert, H. C. 89 concept of race, injection of 131 Kratoska, Paul 57, 149 cultural absorption 93, 131 Kuantan 19, 126, 199–200 European commentary on 111–112 Kumar, Ann 102 fl uidity 54–55, 76 Kutei 24, 27, 57–58, 72, 77, 83, 85, genealogical claims 100–101 106, 123, 177, 224 homogeneity 78 ideological subversion of 71, 113 Labuan 135, 148 ideology 66–74, 80 Laffan, Michael 98 inter-polity relations 65–66, 98 Lamuri 37 interest in the Muslim world 98 land 56–57 Islamic critique 71, 138–142, 215 Malay Reservations legislation 119, Japanese occupation era 150 124 kerajaan economics 71–73, 107, migratory approach to land 115, 205–207, 240 settlement 57 kerajaan elites 118, 150 private property concept 108 kerajaan texts 63, 65–66, 68, 82, uncultivated 57 84, 92, 99, 116, 123, 127 see also borders; territory and the Malayan Union scheme Landak 83, 177 152–153 Langkasuka 24, 33, 35 map 48 Langkat 53, 106, 109, 136, 170–171, modern word for ‘government’ 116, 173 205, 240 Langkawi 194 pre-colonial lifeworld 14 languages raja-centred 113 accents 10 religiosity 141–142 Aslian languages 82 spread of kerajaan culture 84 Austroasiatic languages 22 status and ceremony 64–69 Austronesian language family 20 status concept 66–69 (map), 21–22, 87 subjects, priority of 55–58, 66, 71 European commentaries 3–4 territorial dimensions 58–60 Kacukan 3–4 284 Index languages (cont’d) Luckman Sinar, Tuanku 224 Malay-language qualifi cation 2–3, Lufti, Ahmad 221 21, 76, 134 lustration ceremonies 25 race–language relation 130 Luzon 84, 182 see also Malay language law Ma Huan 45, 78 Islamic law 43, 45, 139 MABMI (Indonesian Council of Malay kerajaan legal texts 64, 139 Custom and Culture) 204, 224 sumptuary laws 64, 107, 139 Macapagal, President 2 Leach, Edmund 121, 134, 199 McKinnon, E. Edwards 44 leadership 29–31 Madagascar 1 bodhisattva concept of 29, 31, 68 Maeda Narifumi 192–193, 197 hierarchical 30 Magellan expedition 51, 84, 86 ideological centrality of the Mahathir Mohamed 165, 202–203, ruler 29–30, 66, 73–74 204–205, 208, 210–211, 213, 219, Perfect Man ideal 42 233–234, 239 Persianized celebration of 42 Mahmud Mahyuddin, Tengku 167 ruler–subject relationship 59–60, Maier, Henk 92, 118, 239 64–65, 68, 113 Makassar 49, 51, 86 top-down ideological work 14–15, ‘Malay’/‘Malays’ 16, 43, 159–161, 207–210, 233, anxiety about impermanence xi, 15, 237, 241 127, 130–131, 186, 220, 237–238 see also raja Chinese infl uences 36–37 Lee Hsien Loong 179 civilizational perspective 93, 94, Lee Kuan Yew 161, 166 100, 230 Leyden, John 87, 119, 123 colonial infl uence on construction Li, Tania 193, 197 of 122–126 Lingga 13, 52–53, 112, 198 constitutional defi nitions 2, 4 literature 9, 12, 15–16, 242 cultural construction 131 colonial 124 descent, perspective of 4, 8–9, 94, court chronicles 80–81, 92, 101 131–132, 188, 209, 232, hikayat literature 80, 118 235–236 kerajaan literature 63, 65–66, 68, diversity and contradiction 16 114, 116, 120, 139 early historical development xi, ‘Malay’ consciousness 12 18–46, 230 ‘Malayness’, theme of 132 European construction of 76, 86– oral 70, 79 90, 118–119, 230–231 poetry 131 ideological construction 76, 126– localization 38, 132, 134, 235, 129, 153–155 236–238 kerajaan usage 84–86, 98 Loh, Francis 163 ‘Malay’ category 1–5 loyalty 29, 95, 159, 241 in Malay writings 90–94 to place 95–96 Melaka-Johor identifi cation 90–92, Loyalty Song 39, 208, 211 100, 122–123, 155, 209, 230, 236 Index 285

Peninsular focus 234 Malay Reservation Act (1913) 120, place-name identifi cation 19, 21–22 123–124 social formation 193–194 Malay studies viii–ix, 6–9, 75, 118– total population viii, 1 119, 122 UMNO formulation of 152, 155 colonial 5–6, 121, 123, 187 Malay Annals (Melaka-Johor chronicle) culture pack stereotypes 6–7, 8, 77, 12, 19, 36, 50, 59, 64–65, 68, 70, 95, 111, 115, 119, 121 90–91, 101, 120, 123, 139, 205 post-colonial 6 ‘Malay’ consciousness x, 12–13, 74, see also anthropological work 76, 89, 94, 214 ‘Malay World’ 4–5, 13, 183–185, colonial impact on 103, 137–138 214, 237 commoner-led promotion of 136 compass of 5 extra-Peninsula promotion 133– cultural initiatives 183 138 non-Muslim Malays 214–215 kerajaan opposition to 135–137 objectives 184 post-independence period 186 post-nation-state dimension 185 pre-colonial setting 94 Malay World Assemblies 183 transnational 17 Malay World Symposium (1985) see also bangsa Melayu; Malayness; 184 ‘Malay World’ Malayan Chinese Association ‘Malay’ essence 196–199 (MCA) 156 ‘Malay homeland’ 10, 22 Malayan Union 152–153, 155, 210– ‘Malay’ language 130, 230 211, 221 Arabic vocabulary 216 Malayization 10, 84–85, 121, 132, colonial impact on 117–118, 199, 200, 202, 232, 237 121–122 ‘Malayness’ viii, 129, 229–230 dialects 77, 80 becoming ‘Malay’ 85, 197, 199– downgrading of 208–209 202, 214 Jawi 2, 3, 21, 51, 81, 90, 97, 102, bilateralism 188–191 140 civilization concept 93 kin-infused 95 classifi cation 1–2 Malay-language geography 115, colonial formulation 5–6, 124 120 content 128, 130, 134 ‘Old Malay’ 16, 21–23, 28, 30, 32, contestation 17, 210–227 39 convergence of cultures 212 prestige 81, 84 cultural essence 15 Romanized Malay 140 fl exibility 131, 209, 227–228, 235, Sanskrit vocabulary 24, 30, 39, 42, 241 68 frontier character 192–194 Malay Muslim Kamboja 161 historical issues 11–13 Malay Nationalist Party 148, 152, ideological engineering 134, 207– 154–155 210, 233 Malay Nationalist Party of Islamic ingredient 2, 3, 17, 46, 129, Labuan 148 197, 220, 227, 230 286 Index

‘Malayness’ (cont’d) Malaysian National Writers’ Islamist challenge 215–227 Association 183 leaving ‘Malayness’ 200 Malayu 85–86 Malay essence 196–199 Mandal, Summit 213 Malay language requirement 2, 3, Manguin, Pierre-Yves 32 5, 21, 76, 130, 134, 208 manners 64–67, 194 modern conceptions of 131 halus–kasar dichotomy 65, 195, 238 motifs and themes 239 inter-polity 65–66 multiple forms of 186–228 raja–rakyat 64–65 perceived hierarchy of 198–199 royal 69, 121 religious element 214–215 Mansur Shah, Sultan 60 social scientists’ descriptions of 8, Mansur, Tengku 136, 149, 172, 186–188 184–185 veil of Malayness problem 75, 94, Maphilindo episode 2, 182 98, 228 Marino 1 Malayo-Polynesian languages 21 marriage 202–203 Malaysia 4, 151 intermarriage 83, 197 community/citizenship tension 211 polygyny 191 Constitutional defi nition of see also divorce; wedding ceremonies ‘Malay’ 2 Marsden, William 12, 94, 103, 139, establishment 155–159 274 extra-Peninsular Martinez, Patricia 217 incorporation 159–161 maruah 205, 240 government service 205 Maududi, Abu Ala 221 ideological construction 159–162 Maxwell, Robyn 99 Indonesian ‘Confrontation’ 158– Mecca 140 160, 175, 179 Medan 3, 42, 111, 124, 136–137, international profi le, boosting 141, 149, 183 of 184 education 120 Islamic party (PAS) 219, 221, 226 Muhammadiah movement 141 Islamism 14–15 Melaka 19, 23, 25, 27, 29, 37, 40, 47, language issues 3 51, 54, 58, 64, 65–66, 75, 78, 100, ‘Malay’ assistance and reform 105, 126, 241 programmes 204 court writings 105–106 ‘Malay’ community 151, 186 genealogical descent 19, 21, 64 ‘Malay’ consciousness 214, 223 ideological engineering 207 ‘Malay’ ideological work 223 inclusiveness 225 ‘Malay’ population 1, 2 inter-polity relations 65–66 Malaysia–Indonesia border Islamism 231, 240 issues 178–179 ‘Malayness’ 198 Malaysia–Thailand border Melaka/Melayu link 86, 92, 119, issues 180–181 123, 236 national culture 212–213 Portuguese conquest 51, 55, 59, ‘New Malay’, promotion of 15 65–66 Index 287

rise of 23, 47, 65 music 52, 216 rivals 49–50 gamelan music 52, 78 royal court 60 Islamic lyrics 216 sumptuary laws 64 myth of lazy Malays 203 trade 47, 49 tributary relationships 50 Nagata, Judith 201, 212, 220, 237 Melaka-Johor concept of ‘Malay’ 82, nama 64, 66–68, 73, 81, 127, 134, 92–93, 104, 116, 119, 123, 133, 143, 205, 207, 239 142, 154–155, 209, 230, 236 maximization 68, 113 Melayu 90 status and 67 cultural meaning 93 value in afterlife 68 derivation 18–19, 21, 86 Nash, Manning 21, 197, 212 in Malay writings 90 nation states Melaka/Melayu link 86 building process 137, 145, 151– pre-Melaka period 90 155, 174, 191, 211 see also bangsa Melayu; Malayness colony-based 151 Melayu Baru see ‘New Malay’ show-case nations 198 Melayu Raya 147–148, 152, 155, see also citizenship 161, 210, 215 National Language and Literature Melayu river 19, 33 Agency 183 Mempawah 55, 191 National Malay Association of Merah Silu 55 Tawau 134 middle class, growth of 108–109, nationalism 148, 150, 152, 156, 164, 212–213 223 migration 55–58, 70, 145, 147, 210 ethno-nationalism 225 Muslim 153 Indonesian 137, 164–165, 170, rural mobility 57, 188, 192 173, 178 Minangkabau 27, 51, 91, 95, 100, Islamic condemnation of 221 140, 168, 199–200, 203 nationalism 190 Misa Melayu 101 pan-Malay 149–150, 162 missionaries 81, 140–141 negeri 59, 95, 109, 110 Mohamed Aris Othman 24, 201–202, ties of loyalty 109 233 Negri Sembilan 118, 123, 194, 234 Mohd. Eunos Abdullah 124, 142– neocolonialism 158 143, 148, 153, 208–209, 231, neo-traditionalism 208 237 ‘New Malay’ viii, 10, 208, 228, 233– Mohd. Taib Osman 159, 173 234, 241 Mon 22 newspapers and magazines 133–134 monarchy see kerajaan Nik Aziz Nik Mat 221, 239 mosques 58–59, 61, 142 Nishii Ryoko 231 Muhammad Ikmal Said 211 Noor Aini Abdullah 214 Muhammad, Prophet 40 Muhammad Shah, Sultan 64 oaths 51 Muhammadiah 141 O’Connor, Richard 94 288 Index

Onn bin Jaafar 128, 134, 143, 152– Peninsular Malaysia 153, 155, 166 bangsa, subordination of kerajaan opium-smoking 140 to 210–211 Orang Asli 24–25, 96, 99, 146, 199– becoming ‘Malay’ 199 200, 232 immigration 147 Orang Laut 197–198, 200 Japanese occupation 149–150, Osborne, Milton 192 151 ‘Malay’ population 1, 154 Padri, the 140 outsiders, absorption of 161 Pagaruyung 100–102, 177 see also Malaysia Pahang 7, 19, 50, 54–55, 58, 70, 77, Perak 13, 25, 50, 54, 58–59, 61, 64, 93, 123–124, 153, 187 78, 91, 95, 101, 103, 124, 135, Chinese immigrants 109 153 subjects, loss of 55 Chinese immigrants 109 territory 58 genealogical heritage 13 Pahang river 19 housing styles 78 Palembang 9, 18–19, 44, 47 kerajaan opposition to ‘Malay’ Islamism 44 consciousness 135 Palembang-Melaka dynasty 27, royal court 61 100 subjects, loss of 55 Palembang-Srivijaya 75 territory 58–59 pan-Malay aspirations 17, 145, Perlak 40 181 Perlis 107, 135, 150 see also ‘Malay World’ Phibun Songkhram 107 Pasai 13, 40, 42–44, 96 1, 2, 5, 84, 182, 214 Pasir Mas 198 kerajaan infl uences 84, 182 Patani 2, 10, 13, 25, 43–45, 47, 50, ‘Malay’ consciousness 2, 182, 185 51, 55, 67–68, 72, 75–76, 78, 82, ‘Malay’ population 1 98, 105, 122, 141, 167–168, 189, Maphilindo episode 2, 182 192, 225–226 pioneering 192–194 Chinese community 72 piracy 52 ethno-nationalism 225 Pires, Tome 50, 86, 139 frontier character 193 place names, and cultural identity 95, housing styles 78 121 Islamism 44–45 plantation economy 109, 137 ‘Malay’ rhetoric 167 plural society concept 120, 211, 240 religious leaders 141 Pó-ni 33 Siam subjecthood 105–106, 141 politik, novelty of 115 pawang 28, 38 Pollock, Sheldon 24, 38 Pekan Baru 174 Polo, Marco 97 Peletz, Michael 218 polygyny 191 Penang 105, 111, 117 Pontianak 54–55, 72, 75, 78, 87, 105, Peninsular Malays 2, 123, 126, 154, 123, 175 158 Chinese community 72, 109 Index 289 population movements see migration Raja Bahrin Shah bin Raja Ahmad post-colonialism 6, 202 Shah 56–57 pottery 27, 28 rakyat 81, 83, 113, 115, 136 poverty 202 citizenship, transition to 115 see also economic backwardness commercial activity 72–73 issues Dayak converts 82 Pringle, Robert 73, 76, 83, 85, 95 mobility 55–57, 70 Proudfoot, Ian 70 raja–rakyat dynamic 59–60, 64–65, Provencher, Ronald 66, 192, 194, 113, 153, 241 196, 198 Ramayana 39, 80, 97 Ramlee, P. 47 Qur’an 44, 61, 221, 239 ranks and offi ces 52, 64–68 see also status race ix, 11, 116, 118–120, 230, Razaleigh Hamzah, Tengku 211, 242 239 biological concept 131 Reid, Anthony 43, 51, 88–89, 149, census process and 120 171, 173 classifi cation, colonial preoccupation religion and spirituality with 119, 231 afterlife 26, 68 consciousness of race, creating animism 193 209 Brahmanism 28, 31, 33, egalitarian ethic 126 37–39 European construction 16, 119, Christianity 214 154, 231 kerajaan 141–142 in kerajaan communities 127 pre-colonial sultanates 14 localization ix, 132, 242 shaman culture 8, 24, 28, 38, race–language relationship 130 187–188, 190 scientifi c racism 130 see also Buddhism; Hinduism; subversive potential 127 Islam see also bangsa; ethnicity religious engineering 15 racial identity 96, 121 Riau 1, 15, 51, 55, 105, 174–175, Raffl es, Sir Thomas Stamford 7, 70, 202, 223–224, 233 115, 119, 122–124, 140 becoming ‘Malay’ 200 Rais Yatim 213–214 ‘Malay’ aspirations 177 raja 30, 38, 44, 60–63 ‘Malay’ population 1 abandonment of 70 ‘Malay’ sense of deprivation 202, raja–rakyat dynamic 59–60, 64–65, 203 113, 153, 241 Riau-Lingga 124, 174 reconstruction as symbols of Rizal, Jose 182 Malayness 130 Roff, William 145 religious role 68 Rogers, Marvin 212 royal titles 30, 69, 81–84 Rousseau, Jerome 53, 84, 176 unjust 70 rubber planters 108 see also kerajaan rumpun Melayu 215 290 Index

Sabah 1, 2, 83, 85, 106, 109, 134, Sejarah Melayu see Malay Annals 164 Selangor 8, 54, 124, 159, 183, 187, bangsa Sabah 162, 235 189, 192, 195 becoming ‘Malay’ 199 Chinese immigrants 109 Chinese immigrants 109 ethnic awareness 211 colonialism 106 ‘Malayness’ 198 Kadazan community 164 Selangor Malay Association 136 ‘Malay’ population 1, 162–163 Semudra 40, 43, 78 ‘Malayness’ 197 founding of 55 Malaysia project 164 Sennett, Richard 67 Muslims 85, 162–163 Serdang 53, 109, 170–171, 177 promotion of ‘Malay’ sexual prowess 190–191 consciousness 134 shadow play performances 8, 39, 52, Salazar, Zeus 182 78, 118, 187, 194, 216 Salleh Haji Buang, Haji 57 shaman see bomoh; pawang Sambas 83, 91, 123, 177 Shamsul A. B. 120, 220 Sanggau 55 Shari’ah 44–45, 139 Sanskrit 24, 30, 38, 43, 68 Shari’ah-mindedness 139–140, 141, Sarapat 19, 95 143, 216, 218, 219 Sarawak 1, 10, 73, 76, 82–83, 85, 95, ships and shipping 28, 32, 34, 51 106–108, 121, 133–136 Siak 47, 50, 52–53, 55, 61, 174 becoming ‘Malay’ 199 royal court 61 ceded to British government 162 subjects, loss of 55 Chinese immigrants 108–109 trade 52 colonialism 106–109 Siam 65, 66, 105–107, 141 frontier character 193 inter-polity relations 65–66 Iban 84, 121, 134 tributary relationships 66, 105–106 Japanese occupation 150 see also Thailand kerajaan elite 73 Siddique, Sharon 2, 121, 154, 155, kerajaan opposition to ‘Malay’ 161, 209 consciousness 135–136 Sik 7, 55, 187–188, 191–192, 198– ‘Malay’ population 1, 13, 134, 162 199 ‘Malay’ sense of deprivation 203 1, 2, 6, 36, 54, 73, 105, ‘Malayness’ 134, 199 111–112, 117, 140–141, 147–148, Malaysia project 164 179–180 promotion of ‘Malay’ bangsa-minded leadership 168 consciousness 134 capitalist class 73 racial classifi cation 120 ‘Chinese’ community 165–166, Sarawak Malay Association 148 202–203 Sarawak Malay Union 134 ‘Chinese’ leadership 161, 166, 179 Sayyid Shayk Al-Hadi 138, 143 colonialism 105 schooners 32 culture pack 6–7 Scott, James 195 economic situation of séances 8, 194 ‘Malays’ 202–203 Index 291

‘Malay’ assistance and reform decline 36 programmes 204 genealogical descent 26–27 ‘Malay’ ideological work 223 hegemon 25–28, 36 ‘Malay’ population 1, 2, 7, 161, Maharajas 25–26, 30–31, 33 165–166, 177–178, 186–187, 197, trade and commerce 25, 26–28 202–203, 223 tributary relationships 33, 36 and the Malaysia project 164 state pan-Malay consciousness 165 colonial states 115 People’s Action Party (PAP) 166 territorial state, emergence of 102, pioneering concept 193 103, 117 religious elite 141, 166 see also nation states Singapore Malay Union 117, 128 status 66–69 Sloane, Patricia 205–207, 239, 240 hierarchy 67 Smith, Adam 115 kerajaan logic 66–68 Snouck Hurgronje 96 rakyat, necessity of 66 solidarity 211–212 see also nama transethnic solidarities 213 stereotypes 7–8, 77, 122 songket fabric 31, 56, 238 subjects see rakyat South Africa 3, 135 Sufi sm 41 Cape Malays 1, 3, 4, 88, 97, 135 Suharto, President 11, 174, 176 Islamic revival 226 Sukadana 55, 83 ‘Malay World’ activities 184 Sukarno, President 150–151, 159, promotion of ‘Malay’ 169 consciousness 135 suku/suku bangsa 10, 176 spice trade 27, 51 sukuisme 11 Spirit of 46 Party 211 sultanates see kerajaan Sri Lanka 87–88, 90, 135, 148–149, Sumatra 1, 2, 3, 9, 10–11, 39–40, 97, 237 105 bangsa promotion 148–149 Bataks 10, 106, 199 Buddhism 41 becoming ‘Malay’ 199–200 colonial use of ‘Malay’ 90 Buddhism 28 economic situation of ‘Malays’ 202 Jambi 18, 19, 36, 75, 86 Islamic revival 226 ‘Malay’ population 1 ‘Malay’ population 1, 3 ‘Malayness’ 209–210 Malay World Symposium North Sumatra 40, 173, 176 (1985) 184 see also East Sumatra promotion of ‘Malay’ sumptuary laws 64, 107, 139 consciousness 135, 182 Sutherland, Heather 88 Srivijaya empire 9, 11, 13, 18, 24, Sweeney, Amin 3, 4, 9, 102, 116, 118, 25–28, 49, 50–51, 91 123 Arabic accounts 30–31 Swettenham, Sir Frank ix, 5, 112, Buddhism 39–40 122–123 Bukit Seguntang 26–27, 29, 100 Swift, Michael 206 Chinese accounts 31 syeds 231 292 Index

Taiwan 22 Austronesian-speaking people 23 Tamiang 37 Chinese 27, 36–37, 41, 52 Tan-Ma-Ling 33–34 Dayak 83 Tan-Tan 31 Indianization and 38 Tanah Melayu 157 kerajaan economy 71–72 Tanjong Tiram 87 monopolies 52 Tanjung Pura 54 Muslim merchants 41 taxation 57–58 nobility’s control of 72–73 Temuan 3 Srivijaya empire 26–28 territory tributary trade 36–37 no-man’s land 58 treason see derhaka sultanates 58–60 Trengganu 2, 44, 52–53, 55–56, 58, textiles 14, 27, 56, 61–62, 99, 142, 69, 72–73, 75, 78, 107, 116, 123, 182 150, 188, 192 Islamic infl uences 99, 142 Chinese community 72 person-defi ning role 63 Islamism 44 potency of 176 royal court 69 songket fabric 31, 56, 238 territory 58 Thailand 1, 3, 17, 97, 151 textile production 56, 182 anti-Thai movement 167–168, Thai rule 107 225–226 trade 52, 73 Ayutthaya empire 36 women’s position 190 Buddhism 107 written constitution 116 colonialism 105–107 tributary relationships 36–37, 50, 66, community/citizenship tension 211 105–106 economic situation of ‘Malays’ Tsubouchi, Yoshihiro 192, 196 202 Islamic leadership 225–226 ulama 138–139 kerajaan polities, incorporation umat 138, 142, 144, 220–221, of 166–167 227 ‘Malay’ population 1, 3, 154, 178 United Malays National Organization ‘Malay’ sense of deprivation 203 (UMNO) 3, 152, 154–156, Malaysia–Thailand border 158–160, 164, 166, 173, 209–210, issues 180–181 219, 221, 234 Peninsular sultanates, transfer urbanization 52 of 150 women’s position 190 Valentijn, François 3, 69, 81, 96, theatre 8, 52 239 shadow play 8, 39, 52, 78, 118, Vickers, Adrian 102 187, 194, 216 1, 22, 111, 184 Tocqueville, Alexis de 126 village community 94, 189 trade 71–72 adat 195–196 absence of independent merchant founders 95 class 72–73 see also kampong Index 293

Wahhabis 140 royal 61 Wallace, Alfred Russel 69, 122, 124, single women 218 214 social prominence 188, 190, 193, Wang Gungwu 145 196 wedding ceremonies 7, 24–25, 130, trading activity 77 176, 187, 194, 216 work Indic elements 24–25, 216 craftsmen 56 Wee, Vivienne 200 debt slavery 57, 107 Wheatley, Paul 37 rakyat 56 Wilder, William 7, 192–193, 195 unpaid labour 56 Wilson, Peter 195, 197, 212, 216, urban 14 227, 232 writing systems 24 Winstedt, Sir Richard 9, 114 Wolters, Oliver 36–38, 94 Yamamoto Hiroyuki 162, 200 women Yao Souchou 212–213 Austronesian-speaking people 23 Yavadvipa, Indian concept of 97 clothing 23 ‘yellow danger’ 111 inner households 195 Young Malay Union (KMM) 147–149 Islamism 217–218 kerajaan society 77 Zainal Abidin bin Ahmad 114, 143 married women 189 Zainal Kling 4, 214, 233 matrilineal traditions 194 Zawawi Ibrahim 205, 240