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The Urban Hydrosphere

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The Urban Hydrosphere The Urban Hydrosphere Elie Bou-Zeid Princeton University Civil & Environmental Engineering Lecture 6 Slide 2 The Hydrologic Cycle Slide 3 Quick recap Over a watershed: Precipitaon = Evapotranspiraon + Runoff + Infiltraon + Storage (at the surface) + Transfer from other watersheds P = ET + R + I + S + T Hydrograph: Plot of discharge/flow rate (y-axis) in a river, ouall, etc. versus me (x-axis) Hyetograph: Plot of Rainfall (y-axis), as a cumulave volume or a rate, versus me (x-axis) Main water problems related to Slide 4 urbanizaon Water supply: large use of water in small area, water has to be imported from other watersheds, somemes far away Water quality: Agricultural producon around urban areas to feed the large populaon, runoff from dirty and hot streets with heavy metals and other pollutants, and sewers pollute local water bodies Hydrology: large changes in water cycle that are very difficult to control Slide 5 Urban hydrology Vs. natural hydrology Impervious surfaces AND engineered drainage systems combine to Drain water rapidly causing more “flashy” streamflows and floods Reduce infiltraon and ground water recharge and evaporaon Increase runoff since most precipitaon is intercepted and cannot infiltrate or evaporate later Reduce baseflow of local stream that usually drain the areas, also drained water to these streams will be hoer and more polluted Generally, reduce water quality Same data is needed for studies: precipitaon, catchment characteriscs, drainage system, etc Slide 6 Engineering Challenge How to control peak flows and the water levels in drainage system to reduce flood damage at all points? (very demanding) How to predict peak flow and/or runoff volumes? (less demanding) How to design a system that will work well when the populaon drascally increases or when climate changes? Slide 7 Meted: Weather and the built environment hp://www.meted.ucar.edu/ Meted: Great resource for interacve educaonal modules in meteorology from the US Naonal Center for Atmospheric Research Free, but you have to register We will now see the “impacts on the watershed” part of one module on “Weather an the built environment” Interacve modules at: hp://www.meted.ucar.edu/broadcastmet/ wxbuiltenv/ Slide 8 Changes in P Urban areas are rough, almost act like one building reduce wind speed and deflect flow upward They are hot produce buoyant upflows Both effects tend to produce a rise in the air mass, <w> > 0, i.e. convergence and liing Slide 9 Changes in P Slide 10 Changes in P Urban areas are rough, almost act like one building reduce wind speed and deflect flow upward They are hot produce buoyant upflows Both effects tend to produce a rise in the air mass, <w> > 0, i.e. convergence and liing When a passing storm experiences this addional liing precipitaon will increase, mainly downwind of the city … it seems Historic storm data and hyetographs might not be valid anymore for design, also a problem with climate change Slide 11 Water import/export Water brought from other watersheds or drained to other watershed can be very significant. Imported water can recharge groundwater though pipe leakage and irrigaon Otherwise imported water for domes=c use goes to wastewater treatment plants, then its fate depends on where the treatment plant usually send it. Water import in Tel Aviv > P (Hoang Slide 12 Duong et al. 2011) Slide 13 Changes in Storage Natural terrain stores water in surface ponds due to the topography: lile depressions in the surface, etc. Urbanizaon flaens the terrain, removing any natural storage sites In many places in the US and many countries, all new development or construcons must have a retenon basin or pond : which is an arficial lower area/hole that can hold water during high rain events Slide 14 Retenon/Detenon basin Slide 15 Change in Infiltraon Change in infiltraon is almost proporonal (a bit simplisc) to the impervious fracon: a 50% impervious surface fracon means 50% of the surface cannot allow infiltraon But it could be more if a lot of arficial soils are used: they tend to be compacted and have lower hydraulic conducvity In addion, water wells are dug in many cies to extract groundwater, this can lead to a lowering of the water table In coastal cies, lowering of the water table salt water intrusion leading to the groundwater becoming brackish (salty) Sea level rise can exacerbate the problem Simple models: Richards equaons Slide 16 (diffusivity form) for soil water content θnat ∂θ ∂ ⎛ ∂θ ⎞ nat = D nat + K + F ∂t ∂z ⎝⎜ ∂z θ ⎠⎟ D is the soil water diffusivity (needed in unsaturated soil only, since the gradient of soil moisture would be zero in saturated soils) K is the hydraulic conducvity Fθ represents source and sink terms, at the surface Fθ = P + QF – R – ET, anthropogenic water QF is the transferred water applied at that locaon Underground Fθ can represent leaking pipes D and K are altered in urban areas, usually reduced, and Fθ has mainly anthropogenic sources Slide 17 Changes in Runoff: more intercepon Slide 18 Fracon of impervious terrain Changes in runoff: faster surface Slide 19 drainage over smooth asphalt streets … and compacted soils Changes in runoff: faster subsurface Slide 20 drainage in storm drainage system Slide 21 Changes to the Hydrograph Leopold, 1968 Slide 22 Runoff Hydrograph construcon requires high me resoluon (whether with models or measurements) since runoff in urban terrain happens fast Spaal variability of P is higher than in natural terrain more rain gages needed, also to catch storm direcon Flow roung now is in drainage network (pipes and channels) and overland many models are available, see Bedient and Hubert chapter 6 for a list or see hp://www.hydrocad.net/tr-55.htm Slide 23 Runoff Completely impervious : P=R+S+T E=I=0 During storms T<<P, aer someme in the storm S≈0 P=R Parally impervious, need to take into account E and I Slide 24 Runoff, as in natural terrain We need to characterize: drainage area, roughness, slope, land-use, soil types, fracon of impervious surfaces, storage characteriscs. Connecvity of impervious areas is also important. A roof that stores water does not contribute to flood peak. Simplest raonal methods to predict peak flow at last outlet: Q=C I A (only if flow is at equilibrium) Q = peak flow (m3/s) C=runoff coefficient ≈ runoff/rainfall (calibraon parameter, but variable; variability for urban surface is actually lower) I is rainfall intensity for the design storm (has to be in m/s) A is catchment area m2 Slide 25 Runoff Coefficient (Bedient and Huber, 1990) Measures to control urban runoff Slide 26 (Bedient and Huber, 1990) Measures to control urban runoff Slide 27 (Bedient and Huber, 1990) Slide 28 Porous asphalt Slide 29 Inlet restricon Blocking the inlet of storm water drainage pipes to get water to flow on the street instead of in the stormwater drainage network Useful in combined wastewater/rainwater network because it prevents water from backing up and going out in residences (basement flooding) Slide 30 Changes in Evaporaon Impervious surfaces have a small water retenon capacity, but all water le there evaporates quickly usually Evaporaon then occurs from the vegetated/ soil/waterbody fracon of the surface Hoer and drier city air enhances evaporaon Increased turbulence increases evaporaon Building shading reduces evaporaon Slide 31 Aerodynamic evaporaon models Eddy covariance Ewq= ρ ′′ ku q q *!( s ! ) z0 MOST model E = z0v ( " z ! d % " z ! d % 10 ln $ ' !! v $ ' # z0v & # L & Bulk model E = C !u(q " q ) H = C !c u(T " T ) e s a h p s a Which can also be formulated as Efuee= esa()(− ) where fue()=+ ( abu )is called the wind function when u is in m/s, a good function is fu( )= 1.25.10−8 u Slide 32 Aerodynamic formulaons Purely fluid mechanical No consideraon of energy or water budgets Problemac if we are relying on mean measurement and just using some turbulence transfer funcon Great if we have fast sensors that can measure turbulence (eddy covariance) But what if we are in a model or with slow sensors that cannot capture turbulence? Energy Budget evaporaon models, more Slide 33 widely used in environmental models Based on: Rn = H+LE+G Penman for wet surfaces: potenal E Δ Qn γ Δ H Ep = + EA OR Ep = + EA Δ +γ Lv Δ +γ γ Le Qn = Rn − G * EA = f (u)(ea − ea ) (e : water vapor pressure, * for saturation) c p γ ≈ p = 67 hPa K−1 is called the psychrometric constant 0.622 Le Δ = de* / dT Slide 34 Energy Budget evaporaon models Reduced Penman for unsaturated soils E = βe Ep Brutsaert et al., Hydrology: An Introducon, 2005 Slide 35 Energy Budget evaporaon models Penman-Moneth for vegetaon Δ ⎛ Q ⎞ γ E = n + E ⎜ L ⎟ A Δ +γ 1+ rC u ⎝ v ⎠ ⎛ rs ⎞ ( s e ) Δ +γ 1+ ⎝⎜ ρ ⎠⎟ In urban terrain, Qn, EA, <u> and Ce and rs are all changed Also historic data of evaporaon parameters runoff, and even rainfall, should be treated with care since urbanizaon changes the catchment Slide 36 hp://www.toolkit.net.au/tools/Aquacycle Urbanizaon of models, more in the Slide 37 next lecture Slide 37 .
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