1

Plenary lectures of the 1st Congress

Budo in transition – the challenge of the third millennium ...... 2 Stanisław Tokarski ...... 2 The meaning and rule of budo (the ) in japanese school ...... 8 Taketo Sasaki ...... 8 The experience of the scientific basing of the time resources for military men training in hand-to-hand fighting ...... 9 S.M. Ashkinazi ...... 9 A biomechanical analysis of level C difficulty jumps ...... 12 Zhu Dong1, Huang Cheng2 ...... 12 Educational effects of Martial Arts? ...... 14 Matthias von Saldern ...... 14 Assumptions and objectives of the combat sports propedeutics ...... 15 Roman Maciej Kalina1, Władysław Jagiełło2, Artur Kruszewski3 ...... 15 Mission and assignments of the University Centre for Combat Sports and Martial Arts (UCCSMA) ...... 19 Andrzej Parzęcki1, Waldemar Sikorski2, Roman M. Kalina3, Kazimierz Obodyński3 ..... 19 The term of “opponent’s feeling”, its structure, conditions and development in opinion of advanced competitors selected Combat Sports and Martial Arts ...... 23 Włodzimierz Starosta ...... 23 Diagnosing sports preparedness of ultimate fighters ...... 25 Dragan Milanović, Igor Jukić, Sanja Šimek, Daniel Bok ...... 25 Sport activities (, ) in orthopedic treatment of harmful posture and so- called idiopathic scoliosis ...... 27 Tomasz Karski, Jarosław Kałakucki, Jacek Karski, Grzegorz Kandzierski ...... 27 The change of pelvis placement at children under influence of exercises ...... 30 Mroczkowski Andrzej1, Jaskólski Ewaryst2...... 30 Influence of training experience on the technical and tactical schooling and the level of achievements of boxers ...... 32 Stanisław Sterkowicz, Grzegorz Lech, Wojciech Rukasz, Grzegorz Denenfeld ...... 32 The influence of chosen factors on athletes’ competition results in different stages of training – exemplified by fencing ...... 34 Zbigniew Czajkowski ...... 34 Sociology of Far Eastern martial arts – problems and perspectives ...... 35 Wojciech J. Cynarski, Kazimierz Obodyński ...... 35 2

Budo in transition – the challenge of the third millennium

Stanisław Tokarski Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland Academy of Humanities, Łódz, Poland

In the beginning of 1989 several scholars launched the idea to organize in Poland the International Congress On Sciences. That important event happened to be truly integrative platform combining divergent researches on the transition of this , the evolution of its values, techniques, methods of training, its changing rules, and the whole appearance of the discipline. This event has been planned as the encounter of theory and practice suitable for the Western and Eastern specialists. To make the perspective of debates comprehensive and holistic, the organizers invited the researchers, some former champions, the journalists, and coaches of judo. I had the honour to open the scientific part of the debates. The conference was followed by the collective work published the same year by the Institute of Sport (Warsaw) sponsoring this event. I had the honour to open the scientific debates in Spała.

Today, after two decades, I have the chance to begin the debates of another important event, the Congress on Budo Science. At first, I would like to remind that the former deputy director of Institute of Sport and the most enthusiastic adherent of the idea the Spała Congress, Professor Waldemar Sikorski, has been among us here and took part in the preparation Congress of Budo Sciences.

Between these two Congreses, many things happenned. The Polish scholars attended several important meetings dealing with martial arts and combat sports Comprehensive evaluation of the transition of the ways of Budo in the modern world became the main or topic of many scientific debates for a quarter of last century. The martial arts have also been lively present in some other gatherings dealing with the physical culture as the whole. I would like to mention the one in Rzeszów and Łańcut (2004). Many of us present here remember well the hospitality of Professor Obodyński. I also would like to remind several conferences dealing with combat sport organized by Professor Roman Maciej Kalina in Wrocław, Płock, and Warsaw.

The hundred years of modern history of Budo have made me think: the time has come to write the collective, international, holistic, and comprehensive Encyclopaedia of Budo, Martial Arts and Combat Sports (see my article in the Yearly of The Academy of Physical Training. Warsaw 2004). To perform this aim, we have to find the right place and time. Maybe the following debates here will be the first step leading to the creation of scholarly, truly encyclopaedic, and holistic perspective. I is an emergency, The generation of the main actors of Budo appearance in the modern world is still alive. The tradition and transmission of ancient values, techniques of chivalry cherished in combat sports can be described directly, by the first pupils of Budo founders. They have been getting old with modern Budo sports. It seems that we have been witnessing, ton some eztend, the end of the cycle of the transformation of martial arts into the contemporary combat sports. The road of Budo to the West has come to the end. This important process of change, being the constitutive factor of transition in the global civilization, should be described and evaluated by the qualified and gifty historians, sport scholars, researchers, situating the process in a very comprehensive, 3 holistic perspective. In the meantime, we can celebrate one hundred years' anniversary of Budo thought and practice.

Paradoxically, Budo is young and old. The history of modern martial arts and combat sports has begun about a hundried years ago. Born with formation of judo, modern Budo has grown up with expansion of Eastern knowledge of self-perfection in self-defense to the West. Its presence in the Olympic Games gave some Asian systems of fighting the status of the popular sport dsciplines trained everywhere in many countries. After a hundried years of wanderings the Budo is highly considered and valued in the world, just as the old man. At the same time, in Asian perspective, Budo is the young product of the Eastern background. It has been born from the encounters of very ancient Asiatic combat practices with the ideas of Western physical culture and sport. As many other products of ancient Asia, the martial arts had to face the challenge of the modern times. Situated in the global perspective they succeded to reapear in many modern contexts. In a way, we witness a kind of their re-naissance, the transformation of old combat traditions into the leading sports of Asia.

Their way to the West created the new cultural fashions which could be dealt in the perspective of the cross-cultural dialogue. Seen in some wider perspective, the phenomenon of the international expansion of Budo consists a part of the process of the important multicultural encounters. It also has been a great interest for the scholars dealing with the problems of physical culture and sport. On another hand, it created the field to of new researches particularly interested to the scholars specialised in the human sciences. The Western world had to face it as a challenge: many dimensional impact of combat sports and martial arts has changed the modern civilization.

In the aim to enter into the world of Budo practices , values, ideas, the Western scholars had to transcend the narrow and old fashioned European conscience, to develop the new approaches. The area of philosophy and ethics of combat sports became the area of confrontation and dialogue. The new situation has been described in wider perspective by the famous historian of religions, Professor Mircea Eliade: “Our historical moment - he wrote in 1969 (/The Quest/ Chicago 1969, preface) - forces us into the confrontation that could not even have been imagened fifty years ago. The peoples of Asia have recently reentered the history. They are seeking to become its active subjects instead of its passive object5s. But if the peoples of the West are no longer the only ones to make history, their spiritual and cultural values are no longer to enjoy the priviledged place, to say nothing about the unquestionned authority that they have enjoyed some generations ago. These values are analysed, compared, and judged by nom-Westerners”.

For the world of martial arts this new situation meant the great debate on the meaning of widely understood notions of self-defence and launching the battle against aggression in sport in the name of non-violence. It also dramatically changed the ideas of self-expression in sport creating a new aesthetic of sport spectacle; this particularity of martial arts has been explored by media. And what is the most important, in the vehicle of Budo ideas came to the West the spectacularly preached ideas of self-realisation with great consequences for spiritualisation the area of physical culture, For the time being this area in the general Western reception has often been reducted to the material and mechanical dimension. That meant the new status and new prestige of the human body for long forgotten in the modern world. We may say that it launched the crusade for revival of axiology, not only within the framework of combat sports but in the area of physical culture as a whole. The 4 meaning of this orientation of the evolution of martial arts cannot be underestimated, particularly present in its Asian perspective. As an example to follow I would like to remind the collective work /Toward An Understanding of Budo Thought/ edited by Shigeoshi Matsumae (Tokai University Press 1987). The debate evoked there shows the clash of values of great consequences, not only important for the martial arts in transition but also for the waste area of modern sports, their image in medias and for the physical culture as a whole.

The civilization of every nation of the world has to face the challenges of multicultural encounters. Sport and physical culture came across this phenomenon from the very beginning of the modern ages. These trends have been developped considerably within the framework of the modern Olympic Games. In this area the barriers were to be overcome first, long before the political and economic obstacles. Today we witness the big migrations of sports, sportsmen and sport fashions. East and West meet, in individual and social consciousness.

Martial arts are the best example of these new encounters. At the beginning of the 20th century the values, ideas, and techniques of combat sports became the place of the exchanging ideas and practices. There the highly considered patterns of Budo disciplines emerged but also some by-products threatening the homogenity of Budo spirit. From these confrontations some brand new combat sports were born, with Western framework of competition and Asiatic techniques but not with Eastern values deeply rooted in Codex of Bujutsu warriors. Although they were themselves also traditions in transition, their international expansion has has been followed by questionning the strategies, notions, and systems of of value in modern European physical culture described as fair play. In the aim to strugglr with these pathologies (no rules, no values, only pragmatic effectiveness) we have to look with the special attention and care into the ethos of some pathological forms of the recent combat spectacles.

On this ground the philosophy of modern Budo has been reborn. The Japanese brought into this area new notions of self-realisation, self-expression, and very comprehensive idea of self- defence. Other ancient disciplines of combat with non-Japanese background followed this example to form the familly of Budo in well received, attractive and fashionable forms in the global dimension. But the comprehensive reconstruction of Budo is stilI a challenge for modern world. Its philosophical and moral backgrounds have not been studied satisfactory nor they have been entirely known to many practitioners. We also have to study the social dimension of the transition of Budo, the transformation of its practices, theories and values. The process of its transformation consists from the very beginning a part of global change.

Thew most striking confrontation took place in the scientific area. The encounter of Budo theory and practice had another unavoidable and very important consequences. The cross- cultural dialogue in this area meant for many traditions of Asian fighting the confrontation with Western science. The Eastern spirit of fight has been mesured, tested, reworked. It meant for the martial arts the penetration of Western ideas into the area traditionally formed by on Asian ground. In the age of scientific knowledge, man is making rapid progress in all dimensions of his life. It is true in the areas of sports and games; scientific knowledge has revolutionized the standards of human performance in all sport disciplines, sport scientists have evolved scientific methods for talent identification and training sport heroes from childhood to the Olympic Games, constructed systems of the most efficient training - for highest level performance, The new scientific methods have become omnipresent parts of Budo practice, in Asia and in Europe. They guaranteed the effective progress and better preformance in combat sports. Used by coaches all over the world, and they created the training infrastructure of modern champions. 5

This aspect of change is not only the consequence of Budo road to he West, it is also valid in Asia. The paradox of Westernizing the Asian martial arts and at the same time the Easternising the area of Western physical culture is obvious after a hundred years of Budo expansion. Within the years, Budo has brought to the area discribed the new consciousness of body, and radically changed the design of modern physical culture. It also changed the appearance of combat sports, its techniques, and values. At the same time, it has been changed itself. We cannot underestimate the importance of martial arts and combat sports in the perspective of the clash of civilisations, the contact of East and West in this field is creative for Asian and Western cultural conscience. Seen in this respect, Budo is a new trend of modern culture.

Culture has a variety of meanings . The most important understanding of culture comes from cultivation, a soil or a plant. To cultivate meant to plant, to prepare the ground to promote the groveof crops, to care for harvest. Planned and ordered, in general sense cultivation meant education and training, That was true within the area of physical culture, though this term combined with expression the culture of the body sounds in modern civilization like a paradox. The global appearance of Budo caused a new dialogue and re-definition of physical culture.

In Western tradition of rationality, the body is a part of nature, and culture is what is not nature. Nature is wild, culture is man-made. Although language, myths, traditions and religious beliefs widely announce the gospel of domestication of the body, modernity does not take it for granted. Budo spiritualises the body. It sanctifies it, makes it the cult and the vehicle of self-perfection. At the same time, it provides the perfect tool for education of the youngsters, unique to built the courage, chivalry and self-estime. Confronted with the notions of fair play, it created the new entity in the area of Western physical culture. Applied to sports, it clashed with the ideas of high performances and effectiveness. For this purpose it happened to be the subject of change. We are here to reflect on the consequences of the constant evolution of Budo.

If Count Jigoro Kano or any other founder of modern discipline of Budo came back to life he would be greatly astonished. Where are great teachers surrounded with small groups of devoted pupils. Old fashioned dojo in ancient temple has been changed into the modern training area, the traditional designs disappeared. The modern spectacle, the omnipresent advertisments and omnipotent medias follow every step of the new champion of martial arts. Everything has been changed.

The studies of Budo in transition have begun recently all over the world. I have the honour and the pleasure to resume Polish part of it. The beginnings of Polish Budo practice combined with the first import of Budo philosophy have been constructed within the framework of judo training in the area of the Warsaw Academy of Physical Training, in the 1950s. Two Polish students born in France, Adam Nidzgórski and Henryk Gielec and the narrow group of their followers. Back up by some Professors of the Academy of Physical Training in Warsaw, they were well received by the Polish authorities. From this circle the idea of first booklets about Asian self-defence derrived. They created the first club and the first licenced courses for coaches and the referees. Much later, the first comprehensive book dealing with the rich cultural background of Budo has been written by W. Sikorski and St. Tokarski (/Budo. / 1988). 6

The scientific researches on the martial arts have been pursued in Poland in many ways, pragmatic approach to the training, the roads to sport success, the effectiverness of methodology, has been combined with humanistic and intercultural approach. The idea of the first international gathering on this subjects has been launched by the Institute of Sport. The Congress on Judo Sciences has its inauguration in Spała in 1989; Professor Waldemar Sikorski has been one of its promotors. We also have to mention the cycle of conferences following this event: the debate on the pragmatic and moral aspects of martial arts in Wrocław Military Academy (1994), on the social communication and self-defence education (1995, Wrocław), on aspects of communication in struggle (Wrocław 1996), on the military experience of martial arts (Kalisz, 1997), on the training of psychophysical balance for defense formations (1998, Biała Podlaska), on the role of the martial arts in prison (Zakopane, 1999), on the optimalisation of martial arts methods of training (Academy of Physical Education, Krakow 2000), about pragmatic and ethic aspects of martial sports (Warsaw 2000), on the role of the martial arts for children and youth (2001 Płock), humanistic theory of martial arts (Rzeszów 2003), martial arts for soldiers (Warsaw 2003), martial arts against agression (1996, Płock). Presented in the collective works or in periodicals of Academy of Physical Education, in the Scientific Quarterly of the Society of Physical Culture and in occasional military publications, these events created the common perspective of joint researches, constructed the framework of wide perspective. In the centre of these events we usually can find the repeating name of Professor Roman Maciej Kalina, but some other scholars present here in Rzeszów backed him up. I have been attending almost all these conferences.

The positive consequences of such scientific gatherings conferences have been obvious. They provided the common place to integrate and inspire the comprehensive approaches. They also led to the brilliant idea: to create the Centre of Martial Arts and Combat Sports combining highly dispersed in time and space the international efforts - to study the practical and theoretical aspects of martial arts abd combat sports. I hope that such structural creation would not only lead to better understanding of techniques, strategies , methods of sport training on one hand, but on the other hand - to better understanding of Budo axiology, its durability and its dynamics of change. IN order to grasping its social dimension in the truly holistic perspective, in order io create the comprehensive understanding of its broader meaning for the cultural progress of the modern world, its impact for cross-cultural dialogue, we have to establish the sound cooperation. This aims have been our inspiration to organize the Congress On BUDO Sciences.

Outlining very briefly the past and present ways of Budo abroad and in Poland, we cannot forget about the task of Budo scholars in the nearest future. The Congress is the best place to reflect on it.

First of all, we have to think about the construction of the holistic and comprehensive perspective of the researches on martial arts and combat sports. There should be a full account on scientific progress in these fields accesible not only to the scholar world but also to the practical experts. The results of researches should be published or announced first of all in the highly specialised periodical, further researches should be inspired and coordinated.

The debate on the pathologies of the image of Budo in medias, movies and commercial deformations of Budo should be widely discussed. The right image of Budo should be cherished and the values safeguarded - with self-confidence, chivalry and non-violence as the leading terms. For these reasons, the gospel of non-violence of Budo should be integrated 7 with the evaluation of the practical patterns of self-defence formula which could be accepted by the modern culture, taste, morality, and law. Its recent aberrations should be widely discussed.

The evolution of Budo disciplines should be followed and described by scholars with the special attention and care. The educational dimension of the martial arts and combat sports should be the field of particular interest, seen in the dimension of comprehensive researches as well as in practical applications. The wealth of Budo world and its new orientations should be fully acknowledged and properly evaluated. For this reason the truly comprehensive international projects and programmmes of research should be backed up and launched.

The civilisatory gospel of Budo as the unique tool and the attractive vehicle for the cross- cultural dialogue and mutual understanding of the different cultures should be emphasized in its all dimensions, in scientific publications and in medias. Its non-violent message and the struggle with the escalation of modern forms of the aggression should be the core of the message. 8

The meaning and rule of budo (the martial arts) in japanese school

Taketo Sasaki Department of human development and culture, Fukushima University, Japan e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract Many agree that martial arts and sports have common attributes. Although, a number of people claim that Budo (Budo means Japanese Martial Arts) has a component that is a method for the development of the human character, that is different from that of sports. Surely, Budo has more educational purpose than sports, considering that Budo emphasizes spiritual development compared to that of European sports, done for recreation.

Various kinds of sports taught in the school of Japan (as Physical Education) are also taught with spiritual development content. Clearly, not just the technical aspects but spiritual growth are part of the educational curriculum. The spiritual side of Budo emphasizes the spiritual growth aspects of these activities to students more so than that of sports mentioned above.

The new direction of Physical Education is to make students familiar with playing sports and to continue playing them throughout their lives. It can be said that Budo has this same meaning and more importantly, demonstrates this same role in the academic environment. 9

The experience of the scientific basing of the time resources for military men training in hand-to-hand fighting

S.M. Ashkinazi Saint Ptersburg, Russia

Introduction The problem of scientific basing of the time resources for effective military men and police men training in hand to hand fighting is quite important. There are not enough objective data for basing time factors when planning training and for learning programs at the present moment. In particular, there are few researches in the field of the dynamics of military men’ forming and mastering of the skills and abilities of hand to hand fighting in dependence on the time spent on training, on the different terms of learning process.

Methods Hand to hand fighting readiness check was complex and included three varieties of hand to hand combats: 1) combat of an unarmed with a knife armed opponent; 2) combat of an unarmed with an opponent armed with a submachine gun with bayonet; 3) bayonet combat. The criteria of the estimate were developed on the basis of the probabilistic-statistic approach (S.M.Ashkinazy, 1989, 2001). The combats were held in protective equipment and with special weapon models. The following results were fixed as overall results: - «winning», if a probationer: а) performed any disarmament hold; b) stroke off the knife stab and performed a blow to a pain zone; c) performed an effective counter attack and performed a preventive leg kick; - «defence», if a probationer kicked off the knife stab without a blow to a pain zone and kept the distance away from the opponent; - «mutual defeat», if the probationer missed the knife stab as a result of weak defense in a counter or mutual attack, but managed to perform an effective kick to an opponent’s pain zone; - «defeat», if the probationer appeared to be defeated and an opponent remained unharmed. Besides, the level of the forward’s training was determined according to the method of expert scores of 9 marks scale: (q) taking into consideration the following criteria: initiative, determination, aggressiveness (psychological component), speed of attacking actions, presence and quality of deceit actions, variety of technical actions ( tactic and technical component), ability to choose start of an attack and distance ( tactical moment itself). Further these showings were transformed into four probability and statistical criteria: Р1 - probability of disarmament ( defense act); Р2 - an integral showing of the probability of successful actions in hand to hand combat (according to the total number of attempts, when the probationer was not defeated); Р3- activeness of defense and reciprocal actions ( according to the total number of attempts when the probationer defeated the opponent); Р4 – effectiveness of defense and reciprocal actions (in relation of the number of attempts, where the probationer was a winner to a total number of attempts, when he made blows to the opponent). Further the probability showings were recounted with consideration with the training level of forward in conventional 1000 marks scale in the following formula: = Pi⋅q + q⋅10 + 10, где i = 1,2,3.

Results and their discussion We have estimated the 4 year dynamic of skills and abilities forming of soldiers and cadets of the Military Institute of Physical Culture after 10, 20, 28, 76 and 148 hours of training. 25 soldiers and 30 cadets were picked for this research (who were not single combats), attended not less than 75% of training sessions. In general, 600 combats and over 1200 free-style were 10 held to estimate the quality of formed skills of the actions mentioned above. The results are indicated in the table.

Table 1. Generalized showings of effectiveness of defense and reciprocal actions of military men in hand to hand combats. Defense and reciprocal Number of training hours actions 10 20 28 76 148 Estimation of actions in standard conditions, (5 marks scale) - - 3,74±0,09 4,21±0,07 4,65±0,05 Training level of the forward (в 9 marks scale): q 3,7±0,19 4,7±0,17 5,5±0,16 7,3±0,15 8,3±0,07 Probability of effective

disarmament action Р1 (%), Q1 (1000 marks scale) 5,8±0,4 6,5±0,3 6,8±0,1 8,0±1,3 8,5±0,9 68,7±7,9 87,5±8,4 102,1±4,9 141,4±9,5 162,9±7,4

Integral showing: Р2 (%) 13,8±1,5 14,1±1,4 14,2±1,3 22,5±2,2 28,3±3,12 Q2 (1000 marks scale) 98±8,2 128±10, 142,6±7,3 247,3±16 326,6±26 1 Activeness of defense and

reciprocal Р3 (%) 13,8±1,4 14,3±1,1 14,6±1,6 19,3±1,8 21,2±2,2 Q3 (1000 marks scale) 101±7,8 127±9,3 144±6,6 223,9±13 267,6±18 Effectiveness of defense and reciprocal actions: Р4 42 43,6 46,6 41,5 40,1 (%)

Based on these data the mathematic models were developed, described by the equation of modified exponent : (C0-С1×t) (dоi - d1i×t) q = 9 - e и Qi = 1000 - e , where: i = 1,2,3; C о ,C1 ,dоi ,d1i - constants; t – time for hand to hand fighting training; t ∃ [0,tmax ], tmax - maximum really possible time spent on training. Extrapolation and interpolation were held according to the models and the training results forecast was conducted in dependence on time and conditions of training.

Summary

Series of experimental researches allowed to confirm that the following conditions are necessary for effective hand to hand fighting training: 1. Concentrated character of training, especially in initial period. 2. Realization of rules of dynamic, tactic, psychological and effective compliance in training with special models of weapon and protective equipment usage in combats.

3. Extreme atmosphere making when conducting combats in pairs. 4. It is necessary to plan 10-15% half-conditional combats from total training time on the initial period and not less then 20-25% when mastering.

References 11

Ashkinazi S.M. (1989) Verojatnostno-statistitsheskyi podhod k ozenke podgotovlennosti voennoslugashich k rukopashnomu boyu / Tesisy dokladov konferenzii ad’junktov Instituta sa 1988 god. Woen. Instit. Fisitsh. Kult., Leningrad, pp. 97-98. Ashkinazi S.M. (2001) Voprosy teoryi i praktiki rukopashnogo boya v Wooruzjonnych Silach Rossyjsko Federacji. Monografja. WI FK, St.Peterburg, 242 p. 12

A biomechanical analysis of level C wushu difficulty jumps

Zhu Dong1, Huang Cheng2 1.Wushu Dep. Shanghai University of Sport, P.R. China 2. Shanghai Sport Institute, P.R. China

Introduction In order to improve current training techniques, the biomechanical characteristics of three C level Wushu difficulty jumps; the 720 degree jumping tornado kick, the 720 degree jumping lotus kick, and the 720 degree butterfly twist, were extensively analyzed during this study.

Methods The study consisted of two separate data collection techniques. In the first survey, participants included 68 female and 27 male athletes. They were filmed by SONY TRV-30, and subsequently analyzed with Adobe Premier software. The second survey consisted of 4 male and 2 female athletes who were filmed by a motion analysis system. Biomechanical parameters of the 720 degree jumping tornado and jumping lotus were collected and processed with Kintrak and EVaRT 4.2.1 software.

Results and Discussion Results show that when allowed to choose which difficulty to perform, most athletes prefer the jumping tornado kick, with the butterfly twist coming in second, and the jumping lotus kick selected the least. The ratio of successful 720 degree jumping tornado kicks is higher in men when compared to women. In men, loss of balance is the main influence affecting the jump’s success, while an insufficient rotating angle is the main influence occurring in women. The motion analysis test indicated that the maximum right angle is 101.31 degree during take off. Regarding the time ratio comparing the jump’s take off to slapping the kicking foot’s sole and slapping the sole to landing, women averaged a time of 0.28 sec./0.38 sec., while men averaged a time of 0.28 sec./0.47 sec.

Throughout this study the 720 degree jumping lotus kick was regarded by athletes as the most difficult jump within the C level jumps. After analysis, it was shown that athletes who performed this kick successfully consistently squatted deeply with both legs in order to rotate the full 720 degrees prior to landing. Results from the motion analysis test showed that maximum knee angle is 76.62 degree while in flight.

Evidence shows flight time of the 720 degree butterfly twist is longest among the three jumps. Many athletes avoid selecting this skill to perform, largely because a long flight time and faster acceleration produced by horizontal rotation during flight may increase the risk for spinal injury if landed incorrectly.

Conclusions This investigation shows there is difference in athlete preference between the three C level difficulty jumps. The 720 degree jumping lotus kick is regarded as having the most difficulty, while the jumping tornado is considered relatively easier to perform. While it is selected the least, the success rate of landing the 720 degree butterfly twist is the highest. Results show that the height of an athlete’s body is not the main influence dictating success rate. In order to increase rotational speed, emphasis should be placed on applying the greatest amount of force during the initial torque during take off. Similarly, minimizing the amount of time the athlete touches the ground immediately following the final step prior to take off will 13 take advantage of the full extension contractive force of the agonistic muscle groups responsible for jumping power. 14

Educational effects of Martial Arts?

Matthias von Saldern University of Lüneburg, Germany

Abstract

The argument of many Budo-Masters to support the necessity of budosports was its positive effects of the development of the personality. On one hand, budo and martial arts have something to do with fight, aggression and the objective to win a combat.

On the other hand, budo as a word means „stop the weapon“. There are many more hints to this assumption, e.g. the names of the first in karatedo: heian. Heian means peace. Additionally the rules of bushido give ethical hints and rules to behave in daily life.

The question is whether modern scientific research can support the hypothesis that budo leads to peaceful thinking about the world. We have to less studies about this question, but positive experiences. There seem to be some criteria whether budosport has a positive effect: person of the trainer/master, rules of the type combat sports/budosport/martial art.

Conclusion What we need are a lot of longitudinal studies. 15

Assumptions and objectives of the combat sports propedeutics

Roman Maciej Kalina1, Władysław Jagiełło2, Artur Kruszewski3 1 Faculty of Physical Education, University of Rzeszow, Poland 2 Academy of Physical Education and Sport, Gdańsk, Poland 3The J. Piłsudski Academy of Physical Education, Warsaw, Poland

There is ample empirical proof that an effectively implemented judo training may be accepted as one of the most valuable and attractive ‘life sports’ – i.e. one that can be practiced from early childhood until old age. Yet there is data that more than 60% of judo adepts leave their dojo during the first three month of training. Unfortunately this negative effect results from focusing attention by judo trainers on technologies of training and striving at quick sports achievements. Judo is first of all a universal and timeless system of physical and moral education, which may be considered a truism. Judo may be recommended successfully in at least four fields: 1) biological development; 2) movement competencies (safe falling as protection of the body in situations of impacts and falls; preparation in the scope of self- defence; efficiency and coordination of body movements); 3) spiritual (moral) development; 4) quality of social functioning. Consequently it is the goal of this study to recommend „Combat sports propaedeutics” (two parts: basics of judo; judo in self-defence) as an empirically verified programme proposal for all types of schools and for all education levels – from primary schools to universities. In our opinion the application value is all the more important as judo may constitute an alternative to a lot of pathologies of modern schools including in particular the pathology of violence and aggression. Our reasoning was based on two basic premises. First of all, no combat sports or martial arts constitute a fully complementary system (despite the fact that training affects positively basic systems and functions of the organism, it does not assure optimum adaptation in other scopes, such as for example as regards widely understood self-defence). Secondly, each martial sport is at the same time a form of self defence art [Kalina 2000]. By considering the quality of self defence education as one of the most important aspects of complementary adaptation, it is necessary to appraise in a critical way, but at the same time in a way free of emotion, defensive values of various combat sports. This is due to the fact that combat sports make use of weapons (e.g. kendo, fencing), or striking with the use of limbs (box, etc.), or applying throws and grips that immobilise movements of the opponent (judo, , etc.). Consequently if full training in combat sports should also include self-defence, for example judo and wresting contestants should be taught to defend themselves against blows, and boxers and karatekas – to defend themselves against grips. Yet those obvious statements do not decrease the number of advocates of debates concerning better suitability of a particular type of martial art in self-defence. In adaptation to suitable self-defence (i.e. one that is worthy of a human being, which means when criteria of necessary defence are respected) it is impossible to overrate the role of combat sports. Considerable variety of permissible combat methods (from moderate forms of grips in judo and wrestling to blows with hands and legs – an example is kick-) allows exercising persons to experience various forms of physical pressure on the body – both one's own and that of the competitor (opponent). Slightly different relations occur in this scope in practicing of martial arts (such as for example aikido, , wu-shu). The lack of competition factor on the model of combat sports (i.e. direct fight of opponents) causes that more acute means of affecting the opponents body are executed as conventional forms of exercise (the blows are simulated). 16

Such approach to the problem inclines us to stop and ponder the sense of basic the system of education for children and youth in the scope of widely understood self-defence on a particular combat sports or martial art. Consequently rather difficult questions arise, such as: Do judo grips suffice to stop an armed aggressor? Can fighting means applied in karate be considered as useful in each situation of danger? Is the ability of making safe falls of equal importance as avoiding of blows and efficient counterattacks? Are simulated blows and other situations of danger sufficient means of adaptation to direct fights implemented in an extremely acute way? What should be taught in the first place? Utilitarian values of martial sports and arts should nevertheless not be predetermined by external attractiveness of competition or training, or by ties with self-defence understood by self-defence understood in a narrow sense, where pragmatics over ethics (in universal understanding a blow is much more efficient than immobilising movements of the aggressor with the use of grips, or solving of conflicts in a verbal way). But for a man of particular importance is widely understood self-defence – when ethical criteria are respected in an equal way as those connected with fitness. This is predetermined by the perspective of a necessity of surviving and having a worthy life [Rudniański 1989]. Hence rationalisation of defence education through combat sports and martial arts may be limited to the rule that a brave and reasonable human being tries to solve conflict situations in the softest possible way – striving to pacify aggression of the opponent and that of one's own, and to avoid its escalation [Jaskólski 1987; Kalina 1991, 1997; Tokarski 1994]. Consequently using fists as a counterargument is not the best solution. Yet this does not change the principles that in a particular situation of danger the application of blows appears to be the only rational solution. Thus full defensive education must be connected with competencies both in the scope of soft counteracting to criminals, and applying against them not only blows but also particular weapons [Kalina 1997]. Such an understanding leads to defined consequences as regards organisation of training, selection of methods and of didactic means. Taking the above into consideration and making an analysis of widely understood needs of man in the scope of development and survival, as well as the necessity of having correct relations with other people we perceive the particular mission of combat sports and martial arts in the implementation of those needs and life and life tasks. Consequently we are convinced that already in the initial phase of education each individual should learn elements of self defence in a wide sense – to protect one's body during falls and collisions with other objects (wall, thrown stone etc.), as well as in situations of danger of physical aggression, respecting principles of necessary defence. On the basis of those presumptions and assumptions we may associate the main objectives of propaedeutics of combat sports with elements of judo (especially the ability of falling safely) and formulate them in the following way: Ability of falling in a safe way to protect the body during falls and collisions with vertical obstacles, as well as during direct fight implemented with criteria of sport type judo, or self defence based on relatively soft means (which among others means throws applied in judo, , wrestling); ability of providing security of a falling body specially thrown off balance; feeling of self-confidence in situations of sudden loss of balance or necessity of counteracting to criminals in defence of oneself or other endangered persons; learning respect the body of one's own and of other people, as well as soft methods of immobilisation of opponent's body; 17 development of self control in situations of social approval for application of physical force in relation to others; making the body resistant to various forms of physical pressure (including blows); development of individual predispositions to sports fights of the wrestling type (judo). In this programme of combat sports propaedeutics learning safe falling is based on the judo methodology [Pawluk 1973; Kudo 1974]. Our methodological solutions concern abilities of colliding with vertical obstacles, practicing front fall with turn and the ability of providing protection to a falling body (of opponent or partner during exercises). A methodological novelty is also constituted by exercises of situational practising of safe falls as well as a test verifying those abilities. Main means for adaptation to combat in direct hand-to-hand fight are constituted in this programme by recreational forms of combat, which moreover help initial training to soft forms of self-defence [Kalina, Jagiełło 2000]. Such an adaptation is supplemented by elements of judo (throws and grips). Implementation of the third objective of this programme (ability of protecting one's body during an unexpected fall or physical aggression) may be assisted to a large extent by the application of recreational forms of combat and exercises of making safe falls, already mastered by the pupils, as elements of the so-called warm up part of the lesson. Adaptation to self-defence in a wide sense means in practical terms that in a situation of danger (when there is no time for any warm up) a given individual is able to take up adequate motor activity. The implementation of goals four, five and six is associated first of all with rational application of recreational forms of combat that comprise using blows and their avoidance, immobilisation of the opponent's body and freeing oneself from the grip, as well as complex solving of a direct fight [Kalina, Jagiełło 2000]. The seventh goal (developing predispositions for sports combat) should be implemented through frequent application of refereed and carefully selected recreational forms of combat (e.g. sumo, puddle). Having a referee to those exercises also is of particular importance because of the necessity of having the young people learn to respect ethical standards. This may be done through organising a fight in which there is a direct fight, as then it is easiest to exceed the approved standards. Such frequent influencing the opponent's body with one's own is impossible during other forms of physical (apart from participation in combat sports). Combining exercises in making safe falls with recreational forms of combat and exercises that developed strength, speed, litheness etc. is also a result of a wish to protect the organism against cumulating of negative consequences of repeated collisions with the ground and frequent changing of vertical position to a horizontal one (similarly as during falls with turns). Since 2001 we have been implementing in the Academy of Physical Education in Warsaw each part of the programme entitled “Combat sports propaedeutics” in 13 hours (a total of 26 training hours) – “basics of judo” during the second semester; “judo in self-defence” during the third semester. Each semester ends in crediting of a test (second semester – “Test of making safe falls”; third semester – “Judo in self-defence”). In the Paweł Włodkowic University College in Płock the subject is being implemented throughout 26 hours during the second semester – when students end their studies they have to pass two tests. Owing to editing limitations educational effects measured by those tests have been presented on posters. In conclusion we would like to emphasise that since 2001 in both the above mentioned Polish universities “Theory of combat sports” is a standard lecture for all students. We are convinced that such theoretical and practical preparation of students (prospective teachers of physical education) allows the possibility of amore expansive introduction of elements of judo in all types of schools. This is not only a question of administrative decision, but also a projection of consequences. Results of tests obtained up to now indicate a very high effectiveness of the programme related to fields defined above – and namely biological development, motor 18 competencies, spiritual (moral) development and quality of social functioning. Proof of positive social acceptance of this educational proposal is constituted by recommendations for presentation of the programme (first part – “basics of judo”) in the UNIPAC University (Brasilia) in November 2003 during special international workshops.

References

Jaskólski E. (ed.) (1987) judo jako środek działania w realizacji celów wychowania fizycznego (judo as means of operation in implementation of physical education objectives). awf, wrocław. Kalina R.M. (1991) przeciwdziałanie agresji. wykorzystanie sportów walki w zmniejszaniu agresywności człowieka (counteracting aggression. making use of combat sports in decreasing human aggression). pthp, warsaw. Kalina R.M. (1997) sporty walki i trening samoobrony w edukacji obronnej młodzieży (combat sports and self-defence education in defensive education of youth). ptnkf, volume 2, warsaw. Kalina R.M. (2000) teoria sportów walki (theory of combat sports). cos, warsaw. Kalina R.M., w.jagiełło (2000) zabawowe formy walki w wychowaniu fizycznym i treningu sportowym (recreational forms of combat in physical education and sports training). zeszyty naukowo-metodyczne. akademia wychowania fizycznego józefa piłsudskiego, warsaw. Kudo K. (1974) judo in action. throwing techniques. tokyo. Pawluk J. (1973) judo sportowe (judo in sports). 2nd edn., warsaw. Rudniański J. (1989) kompromis i walka (compromise and combat). instytut wydawniczy pax, warsaw. Tokarski S. (1994) o sztuce agresji i nieagresji. rola azjatyckich praktyk walki w dydaktyce wojskowej (on art of aggression and non-aggression. the role of asian combat forms in military training). in: r.m.kalina (ed.) sprawnościowe i moralne aspekty walki wręcz w wojsku (fitness and moral aspects of hand-to-hand fights in armed forces). wrocław, pp. 89-112. 19

Mission and assignments of the University Centre for Combat Sports and Martial Arts (UCCSMA)

Andrzej Parzęcki1, Waldemar Sikorski2, Roman M. Kalina3, Kazimierz Obodyński3 1Council of Combat Sports and Martial Arts by the Minister of Sport, Poland 2Academy of Humanities and Economics, Łódź, Poland 3Faculty of Physical Education, University of Rzeszów, Poland

Mission of the Center Mission of the University Center for Combat Sports and Martial Arts being the didactic- research unit should focus on: diagnosis in interdisciplinary concept the most essential phenomena of theory and practice of combat sports and martial arts; monitoring research results, methodological solutions worth disseminating, screening pathology in view of achieving better results in training; systemic and continuous training of physical education teachers, trainers and instructors interested in developing their didactic and scientific competences with holistic approach to combat sports and martial arts. Although continuous training of teachers is the most important part of the Centre’s mission, however placing this issue as the third is just and reasonable. Effective system of trainers education must be a result of actual and scientifically tested knowledge confirmed by practice. This knowledge should be screened and submitted to evaluation.

Assignment of the Center Main assignments of the Center in the field of didactics To enable experienced and graduated trainers and instructors of combat sports and martial arts receiving physical teacher’s degree to be allowed to teach propaedeutics of combat sports and one own`s physical education lessons based on technical elements of combat sports and self- defence (it does not mean that they could have all the competences of physical education teachers). To enable physical education teachers gaining competences of a trainer or instructor of a given combat sport or martial art to teach in various types of schools propaedeutics of combat sports and martial arts and one own`s physical education lessons based on technical elements of these sports and self-defence. They could also run in the school sat pupil’s clubs and non- obligatory lessons chosen combat sport or self-defence. To enable physical education teachers gaining technical and methodical competence within: safe fall down and avoidance of collision as a prophylactic of body injury; diagnosis of the pupils aggression due to taking advantage of playful forms of combat; diminishing pupils aggression with introduction into lessons some techniques of combat sports; developing gallantry and bravery; preventing pathology and violence by teaching youth self-defence; showing respect for ones own and others corporality. To enable persons having defined didactic qualifications to work in uniform formations (army, police, prison service etc.) and get special competences of an instructor in a given combat sport or martial art. To enable experienced athletes with an excellent technique receiving instructor’s degree in the sport they trained. 20

To enable persons with foreign degree or certificate (not authorized to teach in Poland) or the trainers and instructors out of practice for five years or more, taking place in special qualification courses (licence).

Main assignment of the Center concerning scientific researches Evaluation effectiveness of interdisciplinary educational activity what happens to be one of the main task of the Center. Verification of efficiency methods of choice and selection to training combat sports on professional level. Verification of effectiveness of training methods in various combat sports and martial arts; Elaborating best methods and tools of selection the most talented competitors and providing appropriate control (operational and long-term) of training process and sport contest; Elaborating appropriate methods and tools for selection candidates for uniform formations, having predispositions for effective intervention actions in close contact with an opponent or a group of opponents and making operational and long-term control of results of continuous training.

Main assignment of the Center on monitoring of research results and methodological solutions concerning combat sports and martial arts

Dissemination of the results and experts opinion on main issues of the Center in the fields of didactic and scientific investigations. Providing parliamentary committees, governing institutions, universities and Polish sports associations with opinions, expert assessments and informations, which could be of crucial importance for legal initiatives, educational solutions, investments etc.

Ways and tools for fulfilment of the Center mission and assignments Execution of the didactic assignments of the Center is connected with existence of: 1. Post-graduate study (at least three terms – 350 hrs.) taking into account various courses: a) Pedagogics of combat sports (for the trainers of combat sports with university education to gain teacher’s competence on propaedeutics of the given combat sports); b) Pedagogics of martial arts (for the instructors and trainers of martial arts with university education to gain teacher’s competence on propaedeutics of the given martial arts); c) Pedagogics of self-defence (for physical education teachers to gain competence on propaedeutics of combat sports and competence of recreation instructors with self-defence specialization; d) Pedagogics of combat sport and martial arts for needs of national security (for the persons recommended for didactic activity in the army and related); e) Pedagogics of combat sports for national internal security (for the persons recommended for didactic activity in police, border’s guards, prison service etc.).

2. Courses for trainers and instructors: a) concerning combat sport of a given specialization; b) concerning martial arts of a given specialization.

3. Training courses for physical education teachers on: a) safe falls down and avoiding collisions as a prophylactic of body injury; b) diagnosis and diminishing aggression of youth and adults due to application some technical elements of combat sports; 21 c) methods of developing bravery and gallantry of youth and adults with application of some technical elements of combat sports and self-defence.

4. Training courses aiming at receiving or extending trainer’s or instructor’s licence of a given combat sport or martial art. Realization of scientific investigation assignment by the Center should concern one’s own projects or ordered by the Ministry of Sport, sports federations or international projects. Monitoring research results and methodical solutions on combat sports and martial arts could be done thanks to scientific magazines, edited by the scholars and didactics of combat sports who have inspired creation of the Center and declare their contribution to it: Acta Asiatica Varsoviensia (S. Tokarski – a member of edition council), Archives of Budo (R.M. Kalina – Editor-in-chief), IDO - Movement for Culture (W.J. Cynarski – Editor-in-chief), Scientific Review of Physical Culture of University of Rzeszów, Poland (K. Obodyński –Editor-in-chief) Publishing scientific and didactic results of the Center in other magazines, presentation during congresses and conferences etc. is traditional way of dissemination achievements.

Localization of the Center and its international character Appointment of the Center by Physical Education Faculty of Rzeszow`s University is justified from formal viewpoint and concerning the essence of the subject. The statute of the University takes into account possibility of making didactic-research centers, only didactic or only research aiming at realization of educational, didactic or research assignments. The Department of Combat and Extreme Sports at the Faculty of Physical Education in the University of Rzeszów has been opened since 2006/2007 academic year. It is the only one Scientific and didactic department of such a profile in Poland. There are three professors (Wojciech J. Cynarski, Roman M. Kalina, Kazimierz Obodyński) having great scientific and didactic achievements in the field of combat sports, martial arts extreme sports and activity of human being in difficult situations employed in the department. Above mentioned team of professors have been collaborating for years with other eminent Polish professors dealing with issues of combat sports and martial arts (Zbigniew Czajkowski – AWF Katowice, Władysław Jagiełło – AWFiS Gdańsk, Ewaryst Jaskólski – AWF Wrocław, Stanisław Sterkowicz – AWF Kraków, Stanisław Tokarski – PAN. Names in alphabetical order). Cooperation with outstanding specialists and institutions dealing with issues of combat sports and martial arts all over the world emphasises the international character of the Center. This cooperation has been going on for many years between Polish professors, trainers, sports menagers with foreign partners. It would be intensified in the field of continuous education. During post-graduate studies or courses, if a Polish Association expresses its wish, experts from other countries could be invited as visiting professors. Education will be very flexible. It will be possible to increase the number of hours or even terms to take advantage of foreign experts knowledge and skills.

Summary The University Center for Combat Sports and Martial Arts may initiate new approach to decision of a single person, a family, schoolmates and students in physical education and sport system of a region, state or even a group of states. It means that there is possibility of choice a very attractive “sport of life”. Each of the combat sports or martial arts is also an art of self-defence (having support in the team of competent specialists) and a field for interpersonal and intercultural dialogue that can be widened and continued up to an old age So, physical activity based on these form of motion increases feeling of safety of oneself and given group of people. 22

At last educational mission of the Center is fully in agreement with the Declaration of Bologne which continuous education treats as one of the most important goals. It recommends that equivalent of the work at education courses should be defined in credit points ECTS Therefore, education in the Center will also be attractive because credit points ECTS are value of education on university level. 23

The term of “opponent’s feeling”, its structure, conditions and development in opinion of advanced competitors selected Combat Sports and Martial Arts

Włodzimierz Starosta University School of Physical Education in Poznań, Faculty of Physical Culture in Gorzów Wielkopolski, Poland

Introduction

According to W. Farfel’s concept about levels of movement coordination in myself interpretation, I included combat sports and martial arts to the third, that is the highest coordination level. The correct functioning at this level, and more so, achieving of outstanding sport results requires precise and speed movements in the changing conditions. Only such movements induce the attainment of high effectiveness of the fight. The statements above are almost truisms. In spite of that, in the hitherto researches on motor abilities, both in combat sports and martial arts, mainly the level of physical abilities and technical preparation was dealt with. In this research output, works dealing with coordination abilities constitute a very insignificant part [Blady et al. 1998; Fostiak, Starosta 1998; Kaśa, Gregor 1998; Markiewicz, Starosta 1998; Starosta 1998, 2003, 2006; Starosta, Pawlowa 1998; Starosta, Tracewski 1998]. In the researches, only a scarce number of coordination abilities was most frequently concentrated on (1-3), and their local manifestations were evaluated. It seemed to be forgotten that in coordination complex sport discipline these abilities appear in an integrated (global) character. It happened quite often that different measuring methods were applied in the researches involving competitors practicing various sport disciplines. It rendered the comparison of the coordination abilities level difficult to evaluate, e.g. among those specializing in different combat sports and martial arts. Very few researches dealt with conditions affecting the level of coordination abilities, i.e. depending on the age, years of sport practicing, sex, level of sport advancement, training period, and others, as well as on their correlation with other physical abilities. The level of coordination abilities is of crucial importance in combat sports and martial arts. Its particular and very specific manifestation is the “opponent’s feeling” which exerts a considerable impact on the effectiveness of the fight. Despite the considerable importance of the “opponent’s feeling” this problem has been treated very marginally so far . The proof of the fact is the lack of very little number of publications [Blady et al. 1998; Starosta 2003] and attempts to define the notion, to describe its structure and conditions of development.

Therefore, the aim of the work was: 1. Define the term of “opponent’s feeling” in combat sports and martial arts competitors. 2. Specify components (structure) of “opponent’s feeling”. 3. Define the conditions of high level of “opponent’s feeling”. 4. Attempt to establish the conditions affecting the “opponent’s feeling” and methods of its development. 5. Look for reserves as far as the development of movement coordination, and focus particularly on its complex manifestation such as “opponent’s feeling”, “mat feeling” etc.

Material and method

The research material included over 80 advanced competitors practicing different combat sports and martial arts (judo, wrestling, taekwondo) from 7 countries. The predominant part of the athletes belonged to the age group of 18-30. A questionnaire prepared by W. Starosta and containing 21 questions dealing with “opponent’s feeling” was research method. The 24 questions concerned the “opponent’s feeling” among representatives of selected of combat sports and martial arts.

Conclusions 1. A complex manifestation of a high level of coordination abilities such as “opponent’s feeling” or “mat feeling” depend on a number of conditions: level of sport advancement, training experience, length of training period, part of training session, temperature of the surrounding, level of emotions etc. 2. The majority of the questioned observed in the themselves a higher level of “opponent’s feeling” during the start training period, rather than during preparatory period. 3. According to the surveyed (45%), the highest level of the “opponent’s feeling” occurred in the main/ core part of the training session, and the lowest in its further part (31%). 4. The symptoms of the high level of “opponent’s feeling include: 4.1. The correct predicting of the opponent’s intentions; 4.2. Proper psychic attitude; 4.3. The certainty of the fight; 4.4. The improper of “opponent’s feeling” is the lack of these symptoms.

References

1. Starosta W. (1998) The level of selected co-ordination abilities in sport games and martial arts. In: Movement Coordination in Team Sport Games and Martial Arts. Abstracts. Academy of Physical Education in Warsaw - Institute of Sport and Physical Education in Biała Podlaska, pp.56-57. 2. Starosta W. (2003) “Opponent’s feeling” and its conditions in competitors of taekwondo from Arabic countries. In: Motor coordination abilities (In Polish). International Association of Sport Kinetics, Warsaw, pp. 355-365. 3. Fostiak D., Starosta W. (1998) Level of ability to kinesthetic differentiation of a movement amplitude in wrestlers during different training stages. In: Movement Coordination in Team Sport Games and Martial Arts. Biała Podlaska, pp. 185-191. 25

Diagnosing sports preparedness of ultimate fighters

Dragan Milanović, Igor Jukić, Sanja Šimek, Daniel Bok Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Zagreb, Croatia

Introduction Ultimate fight is an extreme sport developed as a combination of all martial arts and combat sports. It belongs to the group of polystructural sports in which the ultimate goal is to disable the opponent to continue fighting or to make him give up. Since ultimate fight combines all combat sports, it is a very complex and demanding sport activity which requires great physical conditioning of its competitors.

Sports’ training is a programmed procedure for developing and maintaining numerous characteristics and abilities of an individual sportsman or sports team. The ultimate goal in sports training has always been the increase of competition efficiency and high performance achievements. Because of that goal it is important to gain an insight into the actual state of relevant abilities, characteristics and knowledge of athletes.

Anthropometric and physiological characteristics of sportsmen determine success in particular sports disciplines differently. Proper knowledge of those characteristics is indispensable to determine its importance for sport success. The ultimate goal of this paper is to determine anthropometric and functional characteristics of a top - level ultimate fighter.

Anthropometric and functional diagnostics

Anthropometric measurements determine acute morphological state of sportsmen and they are the result of a man’s inheritance and his adaptation to influences of different factors, particularly sports training and nourishment. The results of anthropometric tests are very important in sportsman selection and especially in the evaluation of the training process.

Practically no interpretation of any conditioning status indicators is possible if the knowledge of the measured person's anthropometric dimensions is missing. Functional diagnostics enables insights in particular physiological and biochemical characteristics of sportsmen. It covers a considerably wide area of work among which are the determination of spirometric and spiroergometric parameters that are mentioned in the paper. Four spirometric and fifteen spiroergometric parameters were measured. The results suggest great aerobic endurance according to the sports discipline as well as very good anaerobic capacity which was presented in a long lasting range of work from anaerobic thresholds to maximum loading.

Table 1. Body height and weight, fat percentage and non fat mass of a ultimate fighter Test Body height Body weight Fat (%) Non fat mass (cm) (kg) (kg) Result 184 103,2 9,5 93,4

Table 2. Spirometric parameters Test FVK (l) FEV1 (l) TIFF (%) FEF25-75 (l/ MEF75 min) (l/min) Result 9,32 6,45 69 4,2 1,9 26

Legend: forced vital capacity (FVK), forced expiration volume in the first second (FEV1), Tiffeneau indeks (TIFF), mean of forced expiratory flow between 25 and 75% FVK (FEF25-75), maximal expiratory flow at 75% FVK (MEF75)

Table 3. Spiroergometric parameters Test VO2max RelVO2max MHR MOP MMV (lO2/min) (mlO2/kg/min) (bmp/min) (mlO2) (l/min) Result 5,36 51,9 180 30,4 176,9 Test MBV (l) MBF (l/min) RSVO2max MRS (km/h) MLC (mmol/ (km/h) l) Result 3,63 57 18,5 19 13,9 Legend: maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max), relative oxygen consumption (RelVO2max), maximal heart rate (MHR), maximal oxygen pulse (MOP), maximal minute ventilation (MMV), maximal breathing volume (MBV), maximal breathing frequency (MBF), running speed at maximal oxygen consumption (RSVO2max), maximal running speed (MRS), maximal lactat concentration (MLC)

Table 4. Spiroergometric parameters at anaerobic threshold Test RS RelVO2max VO2max %VO2max HR (bmp/min) (km/h) (mlO2/kg/min (lO2/min) (%) Result 14 46,3 4,77 89 161 Legend: running speed (RS), relative oxygen consumption (RelVO2max), maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max), maximal oxygen consumption percentage (%VO2max), heart rate (HR)

Conclusions

The diagnosis of an athlete's readiness or preparedness for the competition becomes undoubtedly one of the most substantial activities in a process of sports promotion and sports performance improvement. All those parameters that were measured allow programming and control of the training process with adequate workloads, means and methods. The coaching science becomes more and more enriched with new insights important for high level sports performance. This explains the significance of scientific reports, held at scientific or professional conventions, for coaches and every other professional included in the process of preparing and conditioning elite athletes.

References

1. Milanović D., Heimer S. (1997) Dijagnostika treniranosti sportaša (uvod). In: D. Milanović, S. Heimer (eds.) Zbornik radova Međunarodnog savjetovanja "Dijagnostika treniranosti sportaša", u sklopu 6. zagrebačkog sajma športa, Zagreb, 1. ožujka 1997. Fakultet za fizičku kulturu Sveučilišta u Zagrebu, Zagreb, pp. 3-6. 27

Sport activities (karate, tai chi) in orthopedic treatment of harmful posture and so- called idiopathic scoliosis

Tomasz Karski, Jarosław Kałakucki, Jacek Karski, Grzegorz Kandzierski Chair and Department of Pediatric Orthopedics and Rehabilitation, Medical University of Lublin, Poland www.ortopedia.karski.lublin.pl

Introduction The new approach to therapy of harmful posture and of the so-called idiopathic scoliosis is based on discovery of their etiologic factors [Karski 1996]. The biomechanical approach allows elaboration of new effective rehabilitation treatment and moreover of new prophylactic methods stressing necessity of removal of contractures with stretching exercises.

Etiopathogenesis of harmful postures Clinical observations of harmful postures point that they result from contractures of muscles – asymmetry between flexors and extensors. First example: functional „round back” dorsum rotundum is a cause of ante-pulsing contracture of shoulders but not a cause of weakening of back extensors. At adult age this disorder causes “back pain”. Second example: protruding belly and shifted backwards buttocks with lumbar hiper-lordosis are caused by flexion contractures of hips and not the result of abdomen and buttock muscles weakening. Both of these disorders (shoulder & thoracic spine, pelvis & lumbar spine) develop at children with lack of sport, movement activities and with habits of “sitting way of life” (Rogge - CIO, Urbanik, Walczak, Karski). Untreated at young age these harmful postures may result in different pain syndromes: back pain, cervical pain, spondyloarthrosis, spondylolisis, spondylolisthesis, ischialgia.

Etiopathogenesis of the so-called idiopathic scoliosis Biomechanical etiology of the so-called idiopathic scoliosis was described by Karski in years 1995-2004. The spine deformity is a result of anatomical and functional asymmetry between both hips and both sides of pelvis. Contractures at the right hip cause limitation of adduction, internal rotation and extension movements. This asymmetry during walking provokes compensatory movement of pelvis and spine. Asymmetry of loading and growth leads to development of spine curves. Scoliosis can be classified into three etiopathological groups [I- st, II-nd & III-rd epg] [Karski 2003a, b]. Development of curves in I epg is therefore related to walking and stand “at ease” position only on the right leg. Acceleration period of growth is extremely endangered with enlargement of scoliosis. I epg is double curve scoliosis with right sided rib hump and stiffness of spine. II epg is left sided convex scoliosis (lumbar, sacro- lumbar or lumbo-thoracic) related to permanent stand “at ease” position only on the right leg. III epg is clinically „stiff spine” with visible sport difficulties (inability to roll backwards at youth) and with back pain at older age [Karski 2006].

Test for harmful postures for doctors, sport coaches and parents a/ „bending test for scoliosis” (Adams, 1856) – evaluation of distance between floor and fingers, evaluation of shape of spine in flexion b/ “side bending test for scoliosis” (Lublin test, 1995-2004) - evaluation of distance between floor and fingers, evaluation of shape of spine in flexion to right and left leg [more sensible than Adams test] c/ “kneeing test” with hands up – evaluation of axis of thigh, pelvis and spine 28 d/ „butterfly sitting” test („Polish” sitting) – evaluation of hips abduction and shape of spine e/ evaluation of stand „at ease” habit on right or left leg f/ evaluation of general body anatomy g/ child’s approach to athletics and sport activities at schools

General rules of new rehabilitation therapy of the so-called idiopathic scoliosis and of preventive programs of harmful postures a/ removal of contractures of right hip region b/ removal of flexion contractures of both hips / especially of the right hip c/ removal of contractures of concave sides of each spine curve d/ removal of extension contracture of spine (“stiff spine” – as beginning symptom in I & III epg) e/ sitting „relaxed” (with flexed, kyphotic spine) and not „upright” (!) at school and home f/ sleeping in fetal position with knees at the chin g/ stand „at ease” only on the left leg h/ promotion among all societies of beneficial influence of athletics and sport activities at schools and necessity to practice sport each day – especially stretching exercises like in: karate, yoga, tai chi, taekwondo, aikido, judo and others (Urbanik, Walczak, Karski, Kwieciński, Maciejewski, Kałakucki).

Conclusions Harmful postures and so-called idiopathic scoliosis at children are caused by asymmetric contractures and asymmetry of function of different parts of movement apparatus. The so-called idiopathic scoliosis, until the discovery of its biomechanical etiology, used to be a social, diagnostic and therapeutic problem. The progression of double curve „S” scoliosis with rib hump was often related to wrong „extension exercises” applied widely in past years. Forbidding children with scoliosis to practice sport at schools was another big mistake! Lack of knowledge of etiology resulted in wrong concept of scoliosis treatment leading at numerous patients to iatrogenic deformity. In therapy of harmful postures and so-called idiopathic scoliosis it is necessary to care for full symmetry of movements which enable symmetrical loading and function. Strengthening of muscles is not any more the primary goal. Application of stretching exercises in pediatric orthopedics allows effective prophylaxis and treatment [Karski 2005]. Therefore children and people at all ages should be encouraged to practicing martial art techniques such as karate, yoga, tai chi, taekwondo, aikido, judo and others.

References

Adams in: Tomaschewski R., B.Popp (1992), Die Funktionelle Behandlung der beginnenden idiopathischen Skoliose. Jahann Ambrosius Barth, Leipzig - Heidelberg, pp. 1-96. Howorth B. (1977) The etiology of the congenital dislocation of the hip. Clin. Orthop. 29: 164-179. Karski T. (1996) Kontrakturen und Wachstumsstörungen im Hüft- und Beckenbereich in der Ätiologie der sogenannten "Idiopathischen Skoliosen" - biomechanische Überlegungen. Orthop. Praxis 3 (32): 155-160. Karski T. (2003 a) Biomechanical explanation of etiology of the so-called idiopathic scoliosis. SICOT/SIROT Second Annual International Conference Cairo (Egypt) 10th –13th September. Karski T. (2003 b) Skoliozy tzw. idiopatyczne – etiologia, rozpoznawanie zagrożeń, nowe leczenie rehabilitacyjne, profilaktyka. The etiology of the so-called idiopathic scoliosis. The new rehabilitation treatment. Prophylaxis. Kontrakture in der Atiologie des sogenannten 29

“idiopathischen Skoliosen”. Prinzipien der neuen Ubungstherapie. Moglichkeiten der Prophylaxe. FOLIUM, Lublin. Karski T. (2005) Biomechanical Explanation of Etiology of the So-Called Idiopathic Scoliosis. Two etiopahtological Groups - Important for Treatment and Neo-Prophylaxis. Pan Arab Journal 1(9): 123-135. Karski T. (2006) Recent observations in biomechanical etiology of the so-called idiopathic scoliosis. New classification of spine deformity – I-st, II-nd and III-rd etiopathological groups. Studies in Technology and Informatics, Research into Spinal Deformities 5 (123): IOS 473-482. 30

The change of pelvis placement at children under influence of aikido exercises

Mroczkowski Andrzej1, Jaskólski Ewaryst2. 1Complex of Secondary Education Vocational Schools in Kolo, Poland 2Chair of Methodology of Sport Disciplines, Wrocław University School of Physical Education, Poland

Pelvis and spine function as links in biokinematic chain, in which one change induces another. The changes, for example, of forward tilted pelvis are associated with changes of front and back spine curvatures due to the so called pelvis-lumbar rhythm in functioning of pelvis and spine [Woźniewski 1993]. Similarly, the changes in placement of pelvis in frontal position may precede lateral spine scoliosis in the lumbar section [Tylman 1995]. Abnormalities in pelvis placement may result in overburden on growing bone at a child. Such defects present in a given posture, not corrected in time, may cause abnormal bone growth [Wilczyński 2001], and in this way preserve abnormalities on the structural background.

Despite of confirming the relationship between development of pathological spine curvatures and incorrect pelvis placement, in sets of exercises for children, there are no worked out complex exercises to be performed on muscles which are responsible for proper pelvis placement (to be used in correction gymnastics).

Aim of investigations. The aim of the paper was to examine the influence of aikido exercises on pelvis placement in frontal position at children.

Material and method of investigation The subject of investigation were children with asymmetry of placement of back hip spurs with indication for applying heel pads on the side of pelvis lowering in frontal position. Also boys at whom the threat of slanting pelvis in frontal position due to scoliosis was recognized, were qualified for investigation. Altogether in experiment 202 boys participated in age 7-10 years. They made up three investigation groups. The experimental group consisted of 68 children who practiced aikido. The remaining children constituted two control groups. The measurements and analyses of body posture were performed according to W. Sliwa`s methods [Śliwa, Śliwa 2002] with the use of Posturometer S. The research was conducted in course of the school year 2002/2003.

Results and conclusions

It was confirmed that practicing aikido improved pelvis placement in the frontal position by reducing asymmetry of the back hips spurs and influenced the gradual reduction of heel pad insertions on the side of pelvis lowering in frontal position. The effects of aikido exercises with children at whom no heel pads were applied at the beginning of the investigation, caused the lowest percentage of usage of heel pads in the experimental group. Similarly, at children without asymmetry of back hips spurs at the beginning of the investigation, the increase of asymmetry was also the smallest in the experimental group.

References

Śliwa W., Śliwa K. (2002) Wady postawy ciał i ich ocena. Edytor, Legnica Tylman D. (1995) Patomechanika bocznych skrzywień kręgosłupa. Serwus, Warszawa. 31

Wilczyński J. (2001) Boczne skrzywienia kręgosłupa rozpoznanie i korekcja. Wszechnica Świetokrzyska, Kielce. Woźniewski M. (1993) Biomechanika wad postawy ciała człowieka w płaszczyźnie strzałkowej. In: Śliwa W. (ed) Powstawanie wad postawy ciała, ich ocena i postępowanie korekcyjne. POSMED, Wrocław, pp. 98-106. 32

Influence of training experience on the technical and tactical schooling and the level of achievements of kick boxers

Stanisław Sterkowicz, Grzegorz Lech, Wojciech Rukasz, Grzegorz Denenfeld Department of Theory and Methodology of Combat Sports of the Academy of Physical Education in Kraków, Poland

Introduction

Studies on combat sports indicate that the age and training experience of competitors can have an influence on their successes [Czajkowski 1988; Jagiełło 2000; Ufel 1991]. It has not yet been investigated whether or not such an influence exists in kick-boxing.

Purpose of this Study

The aim of the study was to determine whether any relationships between training experience and the level of achievements could be found or whether competitors with diversified training experience exhibit different: a) frequency of individual techniques, b) lateralisation of activities, c) style of attack, d) combat efficiency, e) activity during fights. Two hypotheses were formulated that competitors with diverse training experience were characterized by different technical and tactical schooling and also that competitors with longer training experience represented higher achievements in this sport.

Material and Method

The research material was a video recording of 30 kick-boxing bouts fought by 30 men during the Light Contact Polish Championships, which took place in Nowy Sącz in 2004. The recorded material showed 950 technical-tactical actions. The following aspects were determined on the basis of a survey questionnaire: age, training experience, and body height of the contestants, who were divided into three groups according to the length of their training experience: Group One - short training experience (n = 18 with training experience shorter than 4 years), Group Two - average training experience (n = 7 with training experience longer than 4 years and up to 7 years), Group Three - long training experience (n = 5 with training experience longer than 7 years). The Chi-square test for independence of traits was used during the statistical analysis.

Results

The analysis of the data indicates that straight punches were the most frequent technical activities (30.3% of the total number of techniques) and round-house kicks (24.2%). Front kicks were the least frequent (17.8%), hooks (15.3%) and spinning kicking techniques, (2.8%). The competitors with a long training experience applied round-house kicks most often (35.6%), those with a short training experience less frequently (22.7%) and those with an average training experience (19.7%). The competitors with a short training experience preferred front kicks (20.0%), whereas the competitors with an average training experience applied hooks (17.6%). This relationship was statistically significant (Chi2 = 24.54; p<0.05). The kick-boxers with a long training experience executed effective attacks most often (66.9%), those with the shortest experience were the least effective (58.5%). The lowest frequency of effective attacks was observed in the group of competitors with an average training experience (49.8%). This relationship was statistically significant (Chi2 = 12.57; 33 p<0.05). A statistically significant relationship between the training experience and the level of achievements was revealed (Chi2 = 0.43; p<0.01). The competitors with the longest training experience won medals most often (100%), the competitors with an average training experience won medals least frequently (28.6%).

Conclusions

Contestants with a long training experience used round-house kicks most often. b) Competitors from all the groups predominately used the left side of the body during attacks. c) Competitors punched the opponents' head most often. d) Competitors used combinations and delivered single punches most often, regardless of the length of their training experience, e) Competitors with an average length of training experience displayed the highest degree of activity. f) Contestants' activities diminished during the second phase of their bouts, regardless of the length of their training experience. g) Competitors with the longest training experience represented the highest sporting level.

References

Czajkowski Z. (1988) Wiek a mistrzowskie wyniki szermierzy. Sport Wyczynowy 12: 19-24. Jagiełło W. (2000) Wieloletni trening judoków. COS, Warszawa. Ufel L. (1991) Świat kick boxingu. Sport i Turystyka, Warszawa. 34

The influence of chosen factors on athletes’ competition results in different stages of training – exemplified by fencing

Zbigniew Czajkowski Academy of Physical Education, Katowice, Poland, Committee of Scientific Research, Idōkan Poland Association, Poland

ABSTRACT The author presents a set of tests aimed at finding out the influence of all-round, semi-specific and specific fitness, elementary technique and psycho-motor abilities (cognitive processes – perception, attention, reaction etc. – strictly connected with motor performance). Practically all component parts of training, aims and tasks, methods and forms change considerably in consecutive stages of training. The all-round (basic, general) fitness influences positively the competition results only in the first, basic stage of training. In following stages its influence diminishes markedly. Also the influence of all-round fitness on the level of semi-specific and specific fitness decreases. The influence of semi-specific and specific fitness on athletes’ results slightly diminishes in consecutive stages of training but is always important. The positive influence on competition results of psycho-motor abilities is high and still increases in consecutive stages of training. Then the author describes and discusses teaching perfecting and applying in competition technique, technical-tactical abilities in three phases of teaching and learning technique and tactics. The author’s conclusions are based on many tests plus observation and analysis of competitions and his 70 years lasting fencing activities: competitor, coach, referee, researcher and author. 35

Sociology of Far Eastern martial arts – problems and perspectives

Wojciech J. Cynarski, Kazimierz Obodyński Chair of Combat Sports and Extreme Sports, Faculty of Physical Education, University of Rzeszow, Poland

Sociological reflection on the phenomenon of Asian martial arts has been discussed on the ground of sociology of physical culture as well as in the perspective of more general theory of cultural dialogues. The first of mentioned fields of scientific penetration is still little developed [Cynarski, Obodyński 2004b], which may result from little knowledge possessed by sport sociologists about this part of physical culture constituted by practiced at present all around the world ways of martial arts. The second approach – culturological and systematic seems to be developed better.

Far Eastern martial arts (FEMA) already have their humanist theory, which premises result from the definition of the ways of martial arts as kinds of ascetic systems of psychophysical perfection of the practitioners. Thus, it is not so much about the physical fight but about moral and spiritual development, perfectionism and self-discipline. Sociological reflection is here a crucial foundation of systematic multidisciplinary theoretical structure. And only this systematic approach to the multidimensional and multi-shape phenomenon of martial arts gives a chance for its full, as far as it is possible, view and explanation [Cynarski, Obodyński 2003; Sterkowicz 2001]. The leading directions of socio-cultural studies are: Studies of history and evolution of various FEMA Cultural studies and axiological analyses (including problems of values, life style and studies of descriptive ethics) Biographical studies Studies on reception and understanding martial arts Studies on institutions and institutionalization of FEMA as well as social participation (of women in particular) Studies in the perspective of the theory of cultural dialogues Studies in the perspective of sociology of space Studies on interpersonal relations in the groups of practitioners Studies on relations between FEMA and marketing and business Martial arts tourism.

Sociology of FEMA in the studies of the Rzeszow school

As the creator of Polish school of sociology of physical culture, Zbigniew Krawczyk stated among a few schools operating in the field of sociology of physical culture at present in Poland there is the Rzeszow school represented by Obodyński and Cynarski. It must be added that a numerous group of researchers from both Poland and abroad is connected with Scientific Year’s Issue „Idō–Ruch dla Kultury / Movement for Culture” (IRK-MC) published in Rzeszow. Apart form research and publications of representatives of the Rzeszow school being in accordance with directions described above, we find here certain new concepts and original works. Partially they are a continuation of theoretical output of Z. Krawczyk. The patterns of somatic culture shown in Sociology of physical culture and confirmed by the research of Krawczyk’s group [Krawczyk 1995] have been completed by the ascetic pattern of physical 36 culture as it occurs in the environment of practitioners and fans of martial arts – ‘the ways of non-aggression’ [Obodyński, Cynarski 2003]. A contemporary warrior of martial arts often subscribes to ethos similar to the principles of the Samurai code and knightly code of Europe, however, in a much smoother, humanist version. Thus, one may speak about the influence of martial arts values on the life style of instructors and students of martial arts [Obodyński, Cynarski 2005]. Apart from research and theoretical justifications the Rzeszów researchers realize projects with great applicational significance. It concerns the research on recreational participation in classes of schools, clubs and sections of martial arts, the possibility of using teaching programs of martial arts in physical education and academic sport or also methodological research for the sake of the needs of development of FEMA sociology and general systematic theory of martial arts [Cynarski, Obodyński 2003; Borbély 2005; Ślęzak 2006].

The subject of institutionalization and organizational development of martial arts is extremely important and so far it has been elaborated only to a small degree [Cynarski 2006]. Also particular institutions of martial arts and their social functioning need further reliable description and scientific interpretation.

An original issue is ‘the tourist ways’ of the environment of martial arts, in other words ‘martial arts tourism’ [Cynarski, Obodyński 2004a]. From the very same integral anthropology and systematic paradigm as it concerns humanist theory of martial arts a new outlook on the theory of tourism results, within which self-realizational tourism of people studying martial arts inscribes. This problem is discussed in the perspective of anthropology of martial arts, humanist theory of physical culture and systematic theory of tourism.

Other interesting theoretical concepts

Accepting originating from the Far East martial arts in the western world is an analogical process ( in its reversed form) to adapting Olympic sport and the ideology of Neo-Olympism in Japan. Studying mutual influences of both various patterns of physical culture and ideas coming from different cultures, their global coexistence and interacting, meetings of various traditions and values are an area of interest for scientists from different countries [Donohue 1994; Shimizu 2005]. However, many issues require description here, further deep analysis and interpretation.

On the ground of sociology of culture the problems of identity and identification of FEMA practitioners from different countries have not been studied thoroughly. The question if and in what conditions modification of this identity occurs (?) remains open. The qualitative methods of research appear to be very promising here.

A chance for progress in social studies on the environment of martial arts is subject 1.3 Sociology of far eastern martial arts – European comparative research within the project Interdisciplinary, multiaspect research on the phenomenon of martial arts (director of the project: W.J. Cynarski) realized by the Committee of Scientific Research of the Idōkan Poland Association.

Summary

Apart from sociology of sport and sociology of motion recreation co-creating sociology of physical culture which shape socio-cultural reflection on martial arts, the establishment of 37 sociology of martial arts is influenced by results of research and theses coming from yet other sociological subfields or related fields (cultural anthropology, sociology of culture, sociology of space, sociology of organizations, moral philosophy, social psychology).

Significant output of theoreticians and researchers from Rzeszów have been presented, who operate in the European sociological environment and in the international team concentrated around the editorial board of Scientific Year’s Issue „Idō–Ruch dla Kultury / Movement for Culture”. Main directions of scientific penetrations have been indicated as well as next interesting areas of research. Greater international comparative studies seem to be necessary in this situation.

References

Borbély A. (2005) Eastern Martial Arts in Hungary. Idō–Ruch dla Kultury / Movement for Culture 5: 96-106. Cynarski W.J. (2006) The institutionalization of martial arts. European Journal for Sport and Society 3(1): 55-61. Cynarski W.J., Obodyński K. (2003) Socjologiczna refleksja nad współczesnym fenomenem sztuk walki. In: Z.Dziubiński (ed.) Społeczny wymiar sportu. SALOS RP, Warszawa, pp. 188-195. Cynarski W.J., Obodyński K. (2004a) „Drogi turystyczne” środowiska sztuk walki w Europie – szkic socjologiczno-kulturowy. In: M.Kazimierczak (ed.) Turystyka w humanistycznej perspektywie. AWF, Poznań, s. 295-302. Cynarski W.J., Obodyński K. (2004b) Modern sociology and sports philosophy in the face of socio-cultural issues of Far Eastern martial arts based on Polish and German papers from the years 1995-2001. In: G.Anders, J.Mrazek, G.Norden, O.Weiss (eds.) European Integration and Sport. LIT, Münster, pp. 47-60. Donohue J.J. (1994) Warriors Dreams. The Martial Arts and the American Imagination. Bergin & Garvey, Westport, Connecticut – London. Krawczyk Z. (ed.) (1995) Socjologia kultury fizycznej. AWF, Warszawa. Obodyński K., Cynarski W.J. (2003) The Ascetic Pattern of the Body Culture in the Japanese Ways of Non-Aggression. In: J.Kosiewicz and K.Obodyński (eds.) Sport in the Mirror of the Values. PTNKF, Rzeszów, pp. 131-141. Obodyński K., Cynarski W.J. (2005) Social and Philosophical Determinants of the Lifestyle of a Contemporary Student of Martial Arts. In: B.Hodaň (ed.) Tĕlesná vychova, sport a rekreace v procesu současné globalizace. Univerzita Palackeho, Olomouc, pp. 271-281. Shimizu S. (2005) Cultural Struggles on the Body in Japan and Asia: When should we use ‘modern’ or ‘traditional’ body techniques? International Journal of Eastern Sports & Physical Education 3(1): 89-104. Sterkowicz S. (2001) Systemowa i kulturowa analiza sztuk walk w ujęciu W.J. Cynarskiego. Przegląd Naukowy IWFiZ UR 4: 481-483. Ślęzak M. (2006) Zastosowanie wywiadu narracyjnego na gruncie socjologii kultury fizycznej. Idō–Ruch dla Kultury / Movement for Culture 6: 34-41.