Plio-Pleistocene Diets Homo Sapiens H

Origins and Evolution of The Western Diet: Health Implications for the 21st Century

© Loren Cordain, Ph.D. Professor Colorado State University Fort Collins, CO USA The Hominin Fossil Record: Plio-Pleistocene Diets Homo sapiens H. floresiensis 0 H. erectus Paranthropus H. neanderthalensis boisei 1 H. heidelbergensis Australopithecus H. ergaster P. robustus Pleistocene H. antecessor habilis

2 Au. garhi Au. sediba

Au.

3 rudolfensis P. aethiopicus Pliocene Kenyanthropus Au. platyops Au. africanus bahrelghazali 4 Ardipithecus ramidus Au. afarensis Au. anamensis

5 Millions of Years of Millions Orrorin . As many as 22 hominin species tugenensis 6 may have existed since the evolutionary split between 7 hominins and pongids (5-7 MYA) Sahelanthropus tchadensis . No universal diet existed, but 8 rather varied by ecologic niche, season, geographic locale, availability of edible foods Wood B. Palaeoanthropology: hominid revelations for Chad. Nature 2002:418:133-35 Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: The Known – An Omnivorous Diet

Minimally Processed, Wild Plants and Animals

!Kung Woman displays fruits of her gathering: tamma melons, grewia berries, tortoise, roots Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: An Omnivorous Diet – The Evidence The Diet of Our Closest Living Relatives Pan troglodytes, Pan paniscus

Wild Chimps Eating Bushbuck . Primarily frugivorous . Diet varies by habitat & season . ~3-5 % animal foods (small vertebrates & insects) . During the dry season meat intake may reach ~ 65 g/day in adults

1. Schoeninger MJ, Moore J, Sept JM. Am J Primatol 1999;49:297-314 2. Teleki G. The omnivorous diet. . . In: Omnivorous Primates,Columbia Univ Press, NY, 1981 3. Stanford CB. The hunting ecology of wild chimpanzees: implications for the evolutionary ecology of Pliocene hominids. Am Anthropol 1996;98:96-113. Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: An Omnivorous Diet – The Evidence Stable Isotopes

Browsers “ It now seems inescapable that

Grazers all hominid species inhabiting the Suids S. African landscape from the late Procavia sp. - Hyrax Pliocene to the early Pleistocene Papio sp. - Baboon exploited foods of C4 grass origin Theropithecus - Baboon and were very likely all Homo omnivorous ” Paranthropus robustus Lee-Thorp J et al. J Human Evol 2000;39:565-76 Australopithecus africanus P. Pardus - leopard Meganteron - sabertooth Crocuta-spotted hyena Hyaena brunea Chasmoporthetes (Pliocene hyena) -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2

more C3 more C4  13C %o (Grasses, Sedges) A. africanus Sponheimer M et al. Science 1999;283:368-70 Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: The Uncertain – How Much Plant Food? How Much Animal Food?

Homo sapiens H. floresiensis 0 H. erectus Paranthropus H. neanderthalensis boisei 1 H. heidelbergensis Australopithecus H. ergaster P. robustus Pleistocene H. antecessor habilis

2 Au. garhi Au. sediba

More Animal Animal Food More Au. 3 rudolfensis P. aethiopicus

Pliocene Kenyanthropus Au. platyops Au. africanus bahrelghazali 4 Ardipithecus ramidus Au. afarensis Au. anamensis 5

Orrorin Millions of Years of Millions tugenensis 6 . Beginning at least 2.5 MYA, a number of lines of evidence 7 indicate increasing reliance upon Sahelanthropus animal foods by some species of tchadensis

8 hominins Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: Increasing Animal Food – The Evidence

Oldowan Lithic Technology First Appears 2.5-2.6 MYA

Semaw S. et al. 2.5-million-year-old stone tools from Gona, Ethiopia. Nature 1997;385:333-6

Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: Increasing Animal Food – The Evidence Earliest Meat & Marrow Extraction (2.5 MYA) Hammerstone Percussion Pits

SEM Scanning electron microscopy of a stone cut mark on the medial surface of an Alcelaphine bovid Hammerstone pits on Bovid (wildebeest/Hartebeest) mandible right tibial midshaft made during made during tongue removal marrow extraction

De Heinzelin J et al. Science 1999; 284:625-29 Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: Increasing Animal Food – The Evidence The Expensive Tissue Hypothesis 5000 4500 Brain 4000 Brain 3500 3000 Gut 2500 Gut 2000

1500 Organ Weight (gm) Weight Organ 1000 Liver Liver

500 Kidney Kidney 0 Heart Heart Observed (65 kg Human) Expected (Similar Sized Primate)

Aiello LC et al. Curr Anthropol 1995;36:199-222. Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: Increasing Animal Food – The Evidence The Expensive Tissue Hypothesis INTERPRETATION:

. Relaxation of selective pressure formerly requiring a large gut cause by: . Increase in dietary quality . Increase in energy density Australopithecine Chimpanzee . Decrease in fibrous, high roughage plant foods . Increase in animal Modern Human foods Aiello LC et al. Curr Anthropol 1995;36:199-222. Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: Increasing Animal Food – The Evidence Northern Latitude Colonization

Dmanisi, Georgia H. ergaster/erectus 1.8 MYA Zhoukoudian, China H. erectus 800,000 YA

Longgupo, China H. erectus 1.9 MYA Lake Turkana, Kenya H. ergaster 1.65 MYA Java Java H. erectus H. erectus ~40,000 YA 1.6-1.8 MYA

Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: Increasing Animal Food – The Evidence Evolutionary Biochemical Adaptations Similar to Carnivores

Cats Humans 1. Synthesis of Taurine Lacking Inefficient (Semi-conditional) 2. Synthesis of vitamin A from beta carotene Lacking Inefficient 3. Desaturase enzymes Extremely low Low 4. Dietary B12 requirement Essential Essential

Cordain L et al. The paradoxical nature of hunter-gatherer diets: meat based, yet non-atherogenic. Eur J Clin Nutr 2002;56 (suppl 1): s42-s52 Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: The Uncertain – How Much Plant Food? How Much Animal Food?

Homo sapiens H. floresiensis 0 H. erectus Paranthropus H. neanderthalensis boisei 1 H. heidelbergensis Australopithecus H. ergaster P. robustus Pleistocene H. antecessor habilis

2 Au. garhi Au. sediba

More Animal Animal Food More Au. 3 rudolfensis P. aethiopicus

Pliocene Kenyanthropus Au. platyops Au. africanus bahrelghazali 4 Ardipithecus ramidus Au. afarensis Au. anamensis 5

Orrorin Millions of Years of Millions tugenensis 6 . Clearly, plant:animal subsistence would have varied by season, geographic locale and food 7 Sahelanthropus availability tchadensis . Were there general trends? 8 Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: The Uncertain – How Much Plant Food? How Much Animal Food?

Clues From Historically Studied Hunter Gatherers: . The ethnographic data . Gray JP. A corrected ethnographic atlas. World Cultures J 1999;10(1):24-85. . Analysis included 229 World Wide Hunter !Kung Hunter-Gatherers Gatherer Societies Butchering Giraffe

Cordain L et al. Plant to animal subsistence ratios and macronutrient energy estimations in world wide hunter gatherer diets. Am J Clin Nutr, 2000, 71:682-92 Frequency Distribution of Subsistence Dependence upon GATHERED PLANT FOODS in World Wide Hunter Gatherer Societies (n = 229)

50 45 Mode = (26-35%) 42 45 Median =(26-35%)

40 35 35 35 30 30 Only 13.5% of all 23 25 societies have 20 > 56% 15 11 subsistence 10 6 2 upon gathered plant Societies (n) Societies 5 0 0 foods

0-5 6-15 16-25 26-35 36-45 46-55 56-65 66-75 76-85 86-100 % Dependence

Cordain L et al. Plant to animal subsistence ratios and macronutrient energy estimations in world wide hunter gatherer diets. Am J Clin Nutr, 2000, 71:682-92 Frequency Distribution of Subsistence Dependence upon TOTAL (FISHED + HUNTED) ANIMAL FOODS in World Wide Hunter Gatherer Societies (n = 229)

50 45 Mode = (56-65%) 42 45 Median =(56-65%) 40 35 35 35 30 58 % of all 30 23 25 societies 20 have > 56% 15 11 subsistence 10 6 2 dependence Societies (n) Societies 5 0 0 upon animal foods

0-5 6-15 16-25 26-35 36-45 46-55 56-65 66-75 76-85 86-100 % Dependence

Cordain L et al. Plant to animal subsistence ratios and macronutrient energy estimations in world wide hunter gatherer diets. Am J Clin Nutr, 2000, 71:682-92 Shortcomings of Ethnographic Data . The majority of ethnographic data is subjective & not quantitative . However, a few quantitative studies of hunter-gatherer diet do exist

Bannock Indians (circa 1870) The 13 Quantitative Studies of Hunter Gatherer Animal: Plant Subsistence % animal % plant Population Location Latitude food food Reference

Aborigines (Arhem Land) Australia 12S 80 20 McArthur, 1960 Ache Paraguay 25S 90 10 Hill et al, 1984 Anbarra Australia 12S 87 13 Meehan, 1982 Efe Africa 2N 44 56 Dietz et al, 1989 Eskimo Greenland 69N 96 4 Sinclair, 1953; Krogh & Krogh, 1914 Gwi Africa 23S 24 76 Silberbauer, 1981; Tanaka, 1980 Hadza Africa 3S 54 46 Blurton Jones et al, 1997; Hawkes et al, 1989 Hiwi Venezuela 6N 78 22 Hurtado & Hill, 1986; Hurtado & Hill, 1990 !Kung1 Africa 20S 33 67 Lee, 1968 !Kung2 Africa 20S 68 32 Yellen, 1977 Nukak Columbia 2N 61 39 Politis G, 1996 Nunamiut Alaska 68N 99 1 Binford, 1978 Onge Andaman 12N 81 19 Rao et al, 1989; Bose, 1964 Islands

MEAN 69 31 Without Eskimo, Nunamiut 64 36

Cordain L et al. Eur J Clin Nutr 2002;56 (suppl 1): s42-s52 Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: The Uncertain – How Much Plant Food? How Much Animal Food?

Clues From “The isotope evidence overwhelmingly Stable Isotopes: points to the Neanderthals behaving as top-level carnivores”

Neanderthal 1 Neanderthal 2 Wolf Actic Fox Herbivore Bison Deer

) )

o 8 Neanderthal Mandible, Vi-207 11.41 from Vindija (29,080 + 400 Yr BP) (% 6 N N 4 Richards MP et al. Neanderthal diet at 15 Vindija and neanderthal predation: the d 2 evidence from staple isotopes. Proc Natl Acad Sci 2000;97:7663-66 0 Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: The Uncertain – How Much Plant Food? How Much Animal Food? “We were testing the hypothesis that these humans had a mainly hunting Clues From economy, and therefore a diet high in animal protein. We found this to be the Stable Isotopes: case. . .” H. sapien1 H. sapien2 H. sapien3 H.sapien4 H. sapien5 Arctic Fox Deer Auroch Horse

Gough’s Cave Adult Cranium, )

o 6 OXA 2796 (12,380 + 110 yr BP) (% 4

Richards MP et al. Gough’s Cave N Human stable Isotope values 15 2 indicate a high animal protein diet. d J Archaeolog Sci 2000;27:1-3. 0 Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: The Known – Foods That Couldn’t Have Been Eaten

Highly Processed, Refined Foods Minimally Processed, Minimally Processed, Wild Animals Wild Plants

What are the Health Implications? These foods comprise (>70% energy) in typical Western Diets But were virtually unknown in Ancestral Human Diets Breads, Cereals, Rice and Pasta Dairy Products Added Salt

Refined Vegetable Oils Refined Sugars Processed Alcohol (except honey) Meats

Cordain et al. Am J Clin Nutr 2001;71:682-92 Refined sugars, grains, vegetable oils and dairy = 70.9% of energy in the U.S. food supply Meats, Fish 1.4 Eggs 15.7 18.6 Nuts, Seeds Refined 3.1 Legumes Sugars Refined 3.3 Fruits Vegetable Oils Grains Dairy

17.8 4.8 Vegetables 0.8 Miscellaneous 23.9 10.6 . Refined sugars, grains, vegetable oils and dairy represent Neolithic & Industrial era foods that were not present in traditional ancestral human diets . By default, their inclusion displaces minimally processed, wild plant and animal foods.

SUCROSE

FIRST SALT MINES

WINE AND BEER

FIRST DAIRYING EVIDENCE

WHEAT & BARLEY DOMESTICATED ~10,000 YRS AGO

SHEEP, GOATS, COWS DOMESTICATED

Years ago

9,000 8,000 7,000 6,000 5,000 4,000 3,000 2,000 1,000 10,000 Human present Generations 333 300 267 233 200 167 133 100 66 33 0 (30 yrs) Evolution of the Western Diet: Industrial Revolution (~200 yrs ago)

HFCS

HYDROGENATED OILS

REFINED VEGETABLE OILS

REFINED GRAINS

FEEDLOT PRODUCED MEATS

SUCROSE

Year

2008

1828 1858 1888 1918 1948 1978 Human 1798 Generations 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 (30 yrs) Evolution of the Western Diet: Industrial Revolution Processed Foods – The 20th Century

1969: PRINGLES CHIPS

1952: SUGAR FROSTED FLAKES 1941: M&M’s 1932: CORN CHIPS 1928: RICE KRISPIES

1921: WONDERBREAD 1913: OREO COOKIE 1911: CRISCO 1906: KELLOGS CORN FLAKES 1902: PEPSI 1900: HERSHEY’S CHOCOLATE BAR

Year

2008

1908 1918 1928 1938 1948 1958 1968 1978 1988 1998 Human 1898 Generations 4 3 2 1 O (30 yrs) Neolithic and Industrial Era Foods: Nutritional Implications . As Neolithic & Industrial Era foods displace minimally processed, wild plant and animal foods, they adversely affect the following nutritional factors: . 1. The Glycemic Load . 2. The Fatty Acid Balance . 3. The Macronutrient Balance . 4. The Trace Nutrient Density . 5. The Acid/Base Balance . 6. The Sodium/potassium Balance . 7. The Fiber Content Disruption of these 7 nutritional components fundamentally underlies much of the chronic diseases in the Western World Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: The Known – Foods That Couldn’t Have Been Eaten (Cereals) Contribution of Cereals To Total Energy in the U.S. Diet

. Item % total energy

. Whole grains 3.5 . Refined grains 20.4 . TOTAL: 23.9

. 85 % of all grains are consumed as refined grains

. Cereal grains which are the seeds of grasses (Poaceae) in their wild state are: 1. Small 2. Difficult to harvest 3. Minimally digestible without (a) grinding to break down cell walls (b) cooking to gelatinize starch granules

Cordain L. Cereal grains: humanity’s double edged sword. World Review of Nutrition and Dietetics 1999;84:19-73 Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: The Known – Foods That Couldn’t Have Been Eaten (Cereals)

. Thus, the appearance of crude grindstones and mortars in the Middle East (Natufians) and elsewhere (10-15,000 years ago) heralds the beginnings of humanity’s use of cereal grains as a staple food

Bar-Yosef O. The Natufian culture in the Levant, threshold to the origins of agriculture. Evol Anthropol 1998; 6:159-177.

Wright K. The origins and development of ground stone assemblages in Late Pleistocene Southwest Asia. Paleorient 1991;17:19-45 How Cereals Were Milled until about 1880

Human Mortar & Grindstone 100% of flour (endosperm, germ, bran) used – hence 100 % extraction

Water or Draft Animal Powered Stone Mill 100% extraction, unless flour sieved of bran Evolution of the Western Diet: Industrial Food Introductions (Refined Cereals)

Stone Milling of Wheat Steel Rollers to Mill Wheat Invented ~1880 . Steel rollers squeeze endosperm out of coating to leave germ & bran to be sieved off . Whereas, Stone mills pulverize & mix germ along with endosperm; bran remains unless sieved; flour particle size is mixed . Multiple breaks with steel rollers = uniformly small particle size

Storck J, Teague WD. A History of Milling. Flour for Man’s Bread. Minneapolis, Univ Minnesota Press, 1952. How Steel Roller Milling of Flour Influences Fiber Content, Particle Size & Glycemic Index

WHOLE WHEAT KERNEL -100% extraction [fully intact particle] : GI=41 100 90 CRACKED WHEAT KERNEL (bulgur bread) - [cracked 80 particles] GI=52 70 WHOLE MEAL FLOUR[steel milled particles] - : GI=69 60 50 WHITE BREAD [steel milled particles] - 72% extraction: GI=70 40 FANCY PATENT FLOURS [steel milled 30 particles] 40-65% extraction: GI=70-80 20 10 0 100 90 80 70 60 50 40

Flour extraction Rate (%) Flour Remaining High Glycemic Foods

. ALMOST ALL REFINED GRAINS HAVE HIGH GLYCEMIC INDICES . Rice Chex Cereal 89 HIGH G.I. FOODS > 70 . Corn flakes 84 MEDIUM G.I. FOODS 55-70 . Pretzels 83 LOW G.I. FOODS < 55 . Rice Krispie Cereal 82 . Rice Cakes 82 . Rye bread 76 . Waffles 76 . Total Cereal 76 . Graham crackers 74 . Cheerios 74 . Bagels 72 . Short grain white rice 72 . Corn chips 72 . White bread 70 . Whole Wheat bread 69

Foster-Powell K et al. Am J Clin Nutr 2002;76:5-56 High Glycemic Load Carbohydrates Promote Diseases of Insulin Resistance The Metabolic Syndrome

. Type 2 Diabetes . Hypertension . Coronary Heart Disease (CHD) . Dyslipidemia (Reduced serum HDL cholesterol, elevated triglycerides, elevated VLDL, elevated small dense LDL cholesterol) . Obesity . Gout

Liu S et al. Dietary glycemic load and atherothrombotic risk. Curr Atherosclerosis Rep 2002;4:454-61

Ludwig DS. The glycemic index. Physiological mechanisms relating to obesity, diabetes and cardiovascular disease. JAMA 2002;287:2414-23. Cereal Grains Are Net Acid Producers Potential Renal Acid Loads of Foods (100 g portion) + values = acid -values = alkaline Grains: Meats, Fish, Eggs Brown rice 12.5 Trout 10.8 Rolled oats 10.7 Turkey 9.9 Whole wheat bread 8.2 Chicken 8.7 Spaghetti 7.3 Eggs 8.2 Cornflakes 6.0 Beef 7.8 White Rice 4.6 Cod 7.1 Dairy: Fruits Parmesan cheese 34.2 Raisins -21.0 Processed cheese 28.7 Black currants -6.5 Hard cheese 19.2 Bananas -5.5 Cottage Cheese 8.7 Apricots -4.8 Whole milk 0.7 Vegetables Legumes: Spinach -14.0 Peanuts 8.3 Celery -5.2 lentils 3.5 Carrots -4.9 Peas 1.2 Lettuce -2.5

Remer T, Manz F. Potential renal acid load of foods and its influence on urine pH. J Am Diet Assoc 1995;95:791-97 Cereal Grains: Acid/Base Balance . The average western diet produces a slight chronic metabolic acidosis . Net Acid Yielding: . 1. Cereal Grains = 23.9 % energy . 2. Meats, fish = 15.7 % energy . 3. Dairy = 10.6 % energy . 4. Nuts, legumes = 3.1 % energy . 5. Eggs = 1.4 % energy . 6. Salt (NaCl) = 9.6 g/day . Net Alkaline Yielding: . 1. Vegetables = 4.8 % energy . 2. Fruits = 3.3 % energy . Neutral (but displace alkaline foods): . 1. Refined sugars = 18.6 % energy . 2. Refined Oils = 17.9 % energy

Kurtz I et al. Effect of diet on plasma acid-base composition in normal humans. Kidney Int 1983;24:670-80 Cereal Grains: Acid/Base Balance . The displacement of fruits and vegetables by cereal grains shifted hominin diets to net acid yielding . Diseases promoted by a net metabolic acidosis: . 1. Osteoporosis . 2. Hypertension . 3. Kidney stones . 4. Stroke

Sebastian A et al. Estimation of the net acid load of the diet of ancestral preagricultural Homo sapiens and their hominid ancestors. Am J Clin Nutr 2002;76:1308-16 Refined Grains Reduce the Trace Nutrient Density of the Western Diet

Vitamin Depletion from Flour Milling Whole wheat White flour

100

60 50 Folate 40 33 25 24

20 17 20 18

Percentage 20 2 0 Acid Folic Biotin Vit B6 Vit E Folic Vit B3 Vit B2 Vit B1 Panto Vit K Acid Acid Enriched Hyperhomocysteinemia: low B6, folate = Increased risk for CHD Only since 1998 (not Enriched following WWII the same as folate!) Refined Grains Reduce the Trace Nutrient Density of the Western Diet

Mineral Depletion from Flour Milling Whole wheat White flour

100 75

60 50

40 33 20 20 18 20 22

Percentage 20 10

0 Ca Cr Cu Fe Mg Mn Se Zn K

Enriched Diseases: iron deficiency anemia (Fe), osteoporosis (Ca), hypogonadal dwarfism (Zn) Both Whole and Refined Cereals Reduce Fiber Content Diseases: Constipation, appendicitis, hemorrhoids, deep vein Thrombosis, varicoses veins, diverticulitis, hiatal hernia, gastro- esophageal reflux 200 185

180 160 140 120 100 80 60 41 40 24

1000 kcal sample kcal 1000 20 6 Total Fiber (grams) Fiber Total 0 Refined Whole Grain Fruits Non Starchy Cereals Cereals (n = 20) Vegetables (n = 3) (n = 8) (n = 20) Ancestral Human Diet: Foods That Couldn’t Have Been Eaten (Dairy)

Ever tried to approach a wild animal? How about milking it? Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: The Known – Foods That Couldn’t Have Been Eaten (Dairy) Contribution of Dairy Products To Total Energy in the U.S. Diet . Item % total energy

. Whole milk 1.6 . Low fat milks 2.1 . Cheese 3.2 . Butter 1.1 . Other 2.6 . TOTAL: 10.6

The Known Natl Acad Sci 2001;98:5927 Hiendleder et S al. Proc R Soc Lond B 2002;269:893

333 SHEEP, GOATS, DOMESTICATEDCOWS

10,000 Plio

300 - 9,000 FIRST DAIRYINGEVIDENCE

Pleistocene Hominin Diet: –

Foods That Couldn’t EatenBeenHave

267 8,000 2008;455(7212):528 EvershedRPNature. al. et - 32

(GOATS)

233 7,000

(Dairy) ; Loftus; RT et al. Mol Ecol 1999 8:2015

200 6,000

167

- 5,000 904

(SHEEP)

133 4,000

;Luikart G et al. Proc

100 3,000

- - 66 22 31

2,000

(COWS) 33

1,000

present Dairy Foods: Glycemic Index/Insulin Metabolism . MILK, SKIM MILK, FERMENTED MILK HIGH G.I. FOODS > 70 AND YOGURTS HAVE LOW GLYCEMIC MEDIUM G.I. FOODS 55-70 INDICES LOW G.I. FOODS < 55 . Skim Milk 32 . Whole Milk 27 . Reduced Fat Yogurt 27 . Non Fat Yogurt 24 . Fermented Milk (3% fat) 11 . BUT PARADOXICALLY HAVE INSULIN INDICES SIMILAR TO: . White Bread 100 . Yogurt 115 . Fermented Milk 98 . Whole Milk 90 . Skim Milk 90

Foster-Powell K et al. Am J Clin Nutr 2002;76:5-56 Nilsson M et al. Am J Clin Nutr 2004;80:1246-53 Ostman EM et al. Am J Clin Nutr 2001;74:96-100 Hoyt G, Hickey MS, Cordain L. Brit J Nutr 2005;93;175-77. Dairy Foods: Glycemic Index/Insulin Metabolism Health Effects: Dietary Interventions Detrimental Effects . CRONIC EFFECTS (Animals) . Intensely milk fed calves experience insulin resistance, hyperglycemia and glucosuria. Hostettler-Allen RL et al. J Anim Sci 1994;72:16073

. CHRONIC EFFECTS (Humans) . 24 8-yr boys consumed 53 g protein as milk or meat daily for 7-d. “Our results indicate that a short-term high milk, but not meat, intake increased insulin secretion and resistance” Hoppe C et al. Eur J Clin Nutr 2005;59:393-98.

Nutritional Differences among Wild, Grass Fed, Grain Fed and Processed Meats

Vs. Vs. Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: The Known – Foods That Were Rarely Eaten (Processed, Grain Produced Muscle Meats)

. Prior to Agriculture, all animal foods consumed by humans were: Wild Animals . The entire edible carcass (all organs) was usually consumed . In Western countries rarely are meats other than grain produced muscle/processed consumed Grain Produced & Processed Meats: Year Round Staples in Western Diets Salami Bacon Ground Beef 74 % Fat, 22 % Protein 77 % Fat, 21 % Protein 64 % Fat, 33 % Protein

Hot Dogs Pork Ribs T-bone Steak 82 % Fat, 14 % Protein 72 % Fat, 26 % Protein 68 % Fat, 30 % Protein Wild vs. Domestic Caribou Animals . Body fat in wild animals waxes and wanes seasonally . With the advent of animal husbandry 10,000 years ago, it became possible to attenuate or prevent the seasonal decline in body fat % by provisioning captive animals with plant food . It also became feasible to consistently slaughter the animal at peak body fat % Seasonal Change in Wild Mammal Body Fat % (by Weight)

30 25 20 15 10 5 0 J F M A M J J A S O N D Month of the Year

Mature Bull Caribou Young Bull Caribou Mature Female Caribou

Spiess AE. Reindeer and Caribou Hunters: An Archaeological Study. New York, Academic Press, 1979. Seasonal Change in Wild Mammal Body Fat % (by Weight)

For 7 months out of the year, the group mean body fat % is 3.6 For the entire year, the mean body fat % is 6.4

30 25 20 16.6 15 12 11 9.3 10 6.9 4.6 3.7 3.3 4.3 5 3.2 2.9 3.1 0 J F M A M J J A S O N D

Month of the Year

Spiess AE. Reindeer and Caribou Hunters: An Archaeological Study. New York, Academic Press, 1979. Wild vs. Domestic Animals: Body Wild Deer Carcass Fat Differences Feedlot Cattle Carcasses . Whereas, wild caribou body fat ranges from (3.1 to 6.8 %) . Feed lot produced cattle are typically slaughtered at (25 to 30 % fat) Industrial Era Food Introductions: Feed Lot Produced Beef . As feed lot produced beef replaced traditional grass, pasture and free range beef ~150 years ago the following nutritional factors were adversely affected: . 1. The Fatty Acid Balance (increased ω6 fatty acids; reduced ω3 fatty acids . 2. The Macronutrient Balance (More Fat/Less Protein) . 3. The Trace Nutrient Density (Fat contains fewer vitamins & minerals than muscle or organs per calorie)

Disruption of these 3 nutritional components may contribute to many chronic diseases in the U.S. and elsewhere Literature Summary (n=7 studies) of ω-3 and ω-6 Fatty Acid Differences between Grass and Grain Produced Beef

Grain Fed Beef Grass Fed Beef

285 300 250 200 171 150 93.2 100 60 39.1 28.5 38.5 50 12.2 9.51.93 mg/100 g g beef mg/100 0 18:3n3 LC n-3 PUFA Total n-3 Total n-6 n6/n3

Long Chain (LC) n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) = 20:5n3 (EPA), 22:5n3 (DPA), 22:6n3 (DHA)

Cordain L. Grass fed beef in the human diet: Applications to clinical disease, 2007 Replacing Fatty Grain Produced Beef with Lean Grass Fed Beef: Potential Health Effects: (Omega 3 Fatty Acids: EPA, DPA and DHA

Vs.

100 g grass produced steak: 100 g average grain produced steak: 60.0 mg LC ω-3 fatty acids 28.5 mg LC ω-3 fatty acids

Diseases linked to reduced ω-3 fatty acids: CHD, the metabolic syndrome, Certain cancers, autoimmune diseases, many inflammatory (“itis”) diseases Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: The Known – Foods That Were Rarely Consumed (Added Salt) Total Salt (NaCl) in the U.S. Diet (Grams per Day) . Source grams/day

. Added in processed foods 7.2 . Table salt and cooking use 1.4 . Naturally occurring in foods 1.0 . TOTAL: 9.6

Gerrior S, Bente I. 2002. Nutrient Content of the U.S. Food Supply, 1909-99: A Summary Report. U.S.D.A, Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion. Home Economics Research Report No. 55 Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: The Known – Foods That Were Rarely Consumed (Added Salt) The Mountain of Salt . Salt was known to be (Cardona, Catalonia, Spain) gathered on a dry lake bed in China ~ 8,000 years ago . First inland salt mines appear in Europe ~ 6,000 years ago . Hunter gatherers living near the ocean dipped food in seawater and used dried sea salt The first known salt mine in Europe (6,200 - 5,600 years ago) . Inland hunter-gatherers rarely used salt on a regular Weller O. Antiquity 2002;76:317-18. basis

Diseases linked to salt consumption: Hypertension, stroke, osteoporosis, kidney stones, Menierre’s Syndrome, stomach cancer, insomnia, motion sickness, asthma, exercise induced asthma Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: The Known – Foods That Were Not Consumed (Refined Sugars)

Contribution of Refined Sugars to Total Energy in the U.S. Diet . Item % total energy

. Sucrose 8.0 . High fructose . corn syrup 7.8 . Glucose 2.6 . Syrups 0.1 . Other 0.1 . TOTAL: 18.6

Gerrior S, Bente I. 2002. Nutrient Content of the U.S. Food Supply, 1909-99: A Summary Report. U.S.D.A, Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion. Home Economics Research Report No. 55

U.S.D.A. Economic Research Service, 2002. Food consumption (percapita) data system, sugars Sweeteners, Washington D.C. Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: The Known – Foods That Were Not Consumed (Refined Sugars) . Crystalline sugar was first produced from sugar cane in Northern India in ~ 500 BC . Honey would have always been part of the human diet, but was only available seasonally. . Thus, year round consumption of refined sugars would not have been possible

Galloway JH. The Cambridge World History of Food, Vol 1. Cambridge Univ Press, 2000, 437-49 Evolution of the Western Diet: Industrial Era Food Introductions (Refined Sugars)

Per Capita Sugar (Sucrose) Consumption

in the Netherlands (1745-1937)

120

100

0 Per capita consumption (lbs.) consumptioncapita Per 1745 1760 1775 1790 1805 1820 1835 1850 1865 1880 1893 1905 1915 1922 1930 Year Evolution of the Western Diet: Industrial Era Food Introductions (Refined Sugars)

Per Capita Sugar (Sucrose) Consumption

in England (1815-1970)

120

100

40 WWI WWII

0 Per capita consumption (lbs.) consumptioncapita Per 1815 1830 1846 1860 1870 1880 1895 1910 1915 1918 1920 1930 1940 1944 1946 1948 1952 1955 Year Annual Per Capita Consumption of Refined Sugars in the U.S. (1909-2009)

64 % 160 148 141 140 127 115 123 120 113 112 105 109 100 90 80 60 40 20 0 1909- 1920- 1930- 1940- 1950- 1960- 1970- 1980- 1990- 2000- 19 29 39 49 59 69 79 89 99 09

All sugars Changes in the Refined Sugar Composition in the U.S. Diet Since 1970

. In 1960, 90 % of the refined sugar in the U.S. Food supply came from sucrose . With the advent of chromatographic enrichment technology . Beginning in the late 1970’s it became economically feasible to manufacture high fructose corn syrup in Ion Exclusion Chromatography mass quantity from corn columns for fructose syrup starch manufacture Cordain L et al. Hyperinsulinemic diseases of civilization: more than just syndrome X. Comp Biochem Physiol Part A 2003;136:95-112. Annual Per Capita Consumption of Refined Sugars in the U.S. HFCS has increased from 0.4 lb in 1970 to 64 lbs in 2000. Total fructose (from sucrose & HFCS) has increased from 51.5 lbs in 1970 to 64.9 lbs in 2000 (26 %) Sucrose High Fructose Corn Syrup Glucose

160 151 136 136 140 121 122 22 120 22 16 19 20 100 0 64 19 50 53 80 60 102 40 83 64 66 65 20 0 1970 1980 1990 2000 2008

Gerrior S, Bente I. 2002. Nutrient Content of the U.S. Food Supply, 1909-99: A Summary Report. U.S.D.A, Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion. Home Economics Research Report No. 55

. Diseases linked to refined sugars: . Metabolic Syndrome (Type 2 diabetes, CHD, dyslipidemia, obesity, gout, hypertension . Dental caries . Certain cancers

Cordain L et al. Hyperinsulinemic diseases of civilization: more than just syndrome X. Comp Biochem Physiol Part A 2003;136:95-112. Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: The Known – Foods That Were Not Consumed (Refined Vegetable Oils)

Contribution of Refined Vegetable Oils to Total Energy in the U.S. Diet

. Item % total energy

. Salad, Cooking Oils 8.8 . Shortening 6.6 . Margarine 2.4 . TOTAL: 17.8

. Vegetable Oils are made via three processes: . 1. Rendering & pressing (oldest)

Oils made from walnuts, almonds . 2. Steel expeller 0lives, sesame seeds and flaxseed pressing (recent) were first produced via rendering & pressing ~ 5-6,000 years ago . 3. Solvent extraction (recent) However, except for olives most oils were used for non-food purposes (lubrication, Illumination, medicine) O’Keefe SF. Cambridge World History of Food, Vol 1. Cambridge Univ Press, 2000, 375-97 Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: The Known – Foods That Were Not Consumed (Refined Vegetable Oils)

. High pressure steel expeller technology developed in the industrial era + new purification processes allowed non traditional oilseeds to be exploited (i.e. cottonseed – Wesson oil -- 1899) . The hydrogenation process was Steel Expeller for the first developed in 1897 which Extraction of Vegetable Oils allowed vegetable oils to become solidified to produce shortening and margarine . Yielding novel trans fatty acids Per Capita Change in Refined Vegetable Oils in the U.S. (1909-99)

Margarine Shortening Salad, cooking oils Total Vegetable Oils

30 25 20 15 10 5 0 1909- 1920- 1930- 1940- 1950- 1960- 1970- 1980- 1990- 19 29 39 49 59 69 79 89 99 Total vegetable oil consumption has increased 459 % since 1909 Salad, Cooking Oil consumption has increased 1340 % since 1909 Margarine consumption has increased 488 % since 1909 Shortening consumption has increased 237 % since 1909

. Vegetable oils are high in ω- 6 fatty acids (linoleic acid), but low in long chain ω-3 fatty acids (EPA, DPA, DHA) . Diseases linked to high ω-6 (linoleic acid)/ low long chain ω-3 fatty acids : . Metabolic Syndrome (Type 2 diabetes, CHD, dyslipidemia, obesity, gout, hypertension), cancers, autoimmune diseases, virtually all inflammatory (“itis”) diseases Humanity’s Evolutionary Food Plate

“My Plate” replaced the USDA Food Pyramid in June 2011 Cordain L et al. Plant-animal subsistence ratios and macronutrient energy estimations in worldwide hunter-gatherer diets. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;71:682-92 Recommendations for a Contemporary Diet Based Upon Paleolithic Food Groups

Fresh Veggies Fresh Fruits

Healthful Oils Nuts/Seeds Fish/Seafood Grass Produced Meats Thank You!