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Social Networks Among Canadian Immigrant Women The Complexities of Structure and Agency: Social Networks among Canadian Immigrant Women by Catherine Holtmann MA, University of New Brunswick, 2009 MDiv, University of St. Michael’s College, 1994 BA, University of Winnipeg, 1987 Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate Academic Unit of Sociology Supervisor: Nancy Nason-Clark, PhD, Sociology Examining Board: John Kershaw, PhD, Forestry (Chair) Michael Haan, PhD, Sociology Margaret Conrad, PhD, History Koumari Mitra, PhD, Anthropology Elaine Perunovic, PhD, Psychology External Examiner: Jennifer A. Selby, PhD, Religious Studies, Memorial University This dissertation is accepted by the Dean of Graduate Studies THE UNIVERSITY OF NEW BRUNSWICK July 2013 ©Catherine Holtmann, 2013 Abstract This is a mixed methods study of ethno-religious immigrant women and their social networks during the early years of the settlement process. Immigrant women’s social networks are the locus of the interplay between structure and agency. The study uses a feminist intersectional framework to explore how immigrant women make strategic choices in the face of pressures from multiple structures. Statistical analysis of the Longitudinal Study of Immigrants to Canada shows that ethno-religious diversity as well as differences in main activities lead to variability in women’s mental health trajectories throughout the settlement process. The results of growth modeling indicate that Muslim immigrant women struggle to create the social capital necessary for overcoming structural barriers. The qualitative portion of the study is a comparison of Muslim and Christian women who settled in the Maritimes in the past decade. Eighty- nine immigrant women from twenty-seven countries took part in focus group discussions and individual interviews. Twenty-two service providers from community organizations were also interviewed. Analysis of the qualitative data focused on the impact of ethnic origins, as well as the particular stage in the settlement process, on immigrant women’s social networks. The qualitative findings provide a rich description of the resiliency and vulnerability of ethno-religious minority women. Settlement agencies, universities and Christian evangelical churches play key roles in the women’s creation of social capital in the early months and years. Christian immigrant women benefit from established institutional infrastructures in the region but there are differences in support according to ethnicity and denomination. Muslim women’s social networks are still in the early phase of formalization and one of the challenges they face is a wide range of ethno-religious ii diversity. The settlement experience offers religious immigrant women opportunities to learn that the interlocking structures of gender, ethnicity and class are movable and that together they can forge pathways in a new society through participation in social networks. iii Dedication I dedicate this dissertation to my grandmothers - Johanna Holtmann and Elizabeth Laping. Their legacies as German-Catholic immigrant women continue to inspire me. They were women of faith whose courage and perseverance played an important role in enabling their families to build new lives in a new land. As I write these lines, the peonies in my garden are coming into bloom and more than anything else these flowers remind me of my Oma Holtmann and her love of beauty. Oma Laping’s red Volkswagen bug was my first car and one of the earliest means that I used to follow my dreams. In very different ways, these two immigrant women taught their families about the importance of building relationships whether in the family, the local community, the church or a cultural society. iv Acknowledgments Financial support from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada, the Religion and Diversity Project, and the Nels Anderson Fund in the Sociology Department helped to make this research possible. I am grateful to all of the immigrants and community workers who participated in some way in my research. In particular I want to express my thanks to the women from around the world who chose to settle in the Maritimes and took the time to share their stories with me and introduce me to their friends. Without their cooperation this dissertation would not have been possible. I hope that their stories will contribute to a deeper appreciation of the challenges of the settlement process and the promise that diversity continues to hold for Canadian society when we really get to know one another and work together. The decision to embark on graduate studies in the Sociology Department at UNB is one of the best ones I ever made because it led me to work with Nancy Nason-Clark whose faith in my abilities and guidance have been invaluable. I look forward to many more years of scholarly collaboration and friendship with her and our colleagues in the RAVE Project, Barbara Fisher-Townsend and Steve McMullin. I would also like to thank the other members of my doctoral committee - Larry Wisniewski and Lucia Tramonte - for their support of my work and helpful feedback along the way. My many conversations with Angela Wisniewski, a fellow doctoral candidate, also helped to keep me moving forward. Finally, my family - Jochen, Dominick and Mattias Schroer have been very patient as I studied statistics, learned to use new technologies, agonized about social problems, and laboured to get the words on the page. Thanks, guys! v Contents Abstract ………………………………………………………………………… ii Dedication ……………………………………………………………………… iv Acknowledgments ……………………………………………………………… v Table of Contents ………………………………………………………………. vi List of Tables …………………………………………………………………… ix List of Figures …………………………………………………………………… x Part One: Sociological Foundations …………………………………………….. 1 1. Introduction ………………………………………………….................. 1 2. Theoretical Framework ………………………………………………….. 11 2.1 Structure and Agency ……………………………………………….. 13 2.2 Feminist Intersectional Theory ……………………………………… 22 2.3 Lived Religion …………………………………………………......... 25 3. Literature Review ………………………………………………….......... 34 3.1 Canadian Immigration ………………………………………………. 34 3.2 Immigrant Religion ………………………………………………….. 45 3.3 Religion and Gender ………………………………………………… 48 3.4 Research Questions ………………………………………………….. 60 3.5 Mixed Methods Approach …………………………………………... 61 Part Two: Ethno-Religious Immigrant Women in Canada …………………….. 64 4. Quantitative Data and Methods …………………………………………. 64 4.1 Ethnic Diversity Survey …………………………………………….. 66 4.2 Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada …………………….. 68 4.3 Statistical Methods ………………………………………………….. 70 4.4 Outcome – Mental Health …………………………………………… 74 4.5 Predictors of Change in Mental Health ……………………………... 77 4.6 Growth Modeling ……………………………………....................... 79 4.6.1 Interpreting the Results of Growth Modeling …………………. 83 4.7 Descriptive Statistics ………………………………………………... 86 5. Changes in Immigrant Women’s Mental Health During Settlement - 90 Findings of the Quantitative Analysis …………………………………... 5.1 Pre-migration Predictors of Changes in Mental Health …………….. 90 5.2 Post-migration Predictors of Changes in Mental Health …………… 107 5.3 Discussion …………………………………………………............... 112 Part Three: Muslim and Christian Immigrant Women in the Maritimes ………. 123 6. Qualitative Data and Methods ………………………………………….. 123 6.1 The Maritime Context ……………………………………………… 125 6.2 Ethical Considerations ……………………………………………… 133 6.3 Qualitative Data Collection Methods ………………………………. 136 vi 6.3.1 Focus Groups ………………………………………………….. 138 6.3.2 Interviews …………………………………………………....... 140 6.4 Qualitative Analytical Methods …………………………………….. 141 6.5 Description of Qualitative Sample …………………………………. 145 7. The Influence of Ethnic Origins – Findings of Qualitative Analysis ….. 151 7.1 Major Themes for Immigrant Women of all Ethnic Origins ………. 152 7.2 Muslim Ethnic Origins Groups …………………………………….. 155 7.2.1 West Asian Muslim Women …………………………………. 158 7.2.2 Arab Muslim Women ………………………………………… 164 7.2.3 South Asian Muslim Women ………………………………… 172 7.2.4 African Muslim Women ……………………………………… 179 7.2.5 East/Southeast Asian Muslim Women ………………………. 183 7.2.6 South American Muslim Woman ……………………………. 190 7.2.7 Comparison of Muslim Ethnic Origins Groups ……………… 193 7.2.8 Summary: Strengths and Vulnerabilities of Muslim Immigrant Women …………………………………………………......... 196 7.3 Christian Ethnic Origins Groups …………………………………… 199 7.3.1 East/Southeast Asian Christian Women ……………………… 202 7.3.2 Eastern European Christian Women …………………………. 215 7.3.3 South American Christian Women …………………………… 220 7.3.4 African Christian Women …………………………………….. 226 7.3.5 Western European Christian Woman ………………………… 231 7.3.6 Comparison of Christian Ethnic Origins Groups …………….. 233 7.3.7 Summary: Strengths and Vulnerabilities of Christian Immigrant Women …………………………………………… 237 7.4 Discussion ………………………………………………….............. 240 8. The Impact of the Length of Time after Arrival - Findings of the Qualitative Analysis …………………………………………………..... 251 8.1 Major Themes …………………………………………………........ 252 8.2 Christian Immigrant Women ………………………………………. 255 8.2.1 Christian Women in the First Three Years after Arrival (Early Group) ………………………………………………….......... 258 8.2.2 Christian Women Between Four and Six Years after Arrival (Mid Group) …………………………………………………. 284 8.2.3 Christian Women Seven or More Years after Arrival (Late Group) ……………………………………………….. 302 8.2.4 Comparison of Early, Mid and Late Groups of Christian Immigrant Women
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