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Master Høibjerg “Somos Melillense!” Borders and boundaries in a Spanish city in Morocco Gard Ringen Høibjerg Master's thesis Department of Social Anthropology University of Oslo May 2016 ii “Somos Melillense!” Borders and boundaries in a Spanish city in Morocco Master's thesis Gard Ringen Høibjerg Department of Social Anthropology University of Oslo iii © Gard Ringen Høibjerg 2015 “Somos Melillense” - borders and boundaries in a Spanish city in Morocco Gard Ringen Høibjerg http://www.duo.uio.no/ Trykk: Reprosentralen, Universitetet i Oslo iv Abstract This dissertation is based on a 5,5 month fieldwork in Melilla, a Spanish city in northeastern Morocco. The city is about 13 km2, and had a population of 85,497 in 2014. Melilla was conquered in the extension of “la reconquista”, where the Spanish Monarchs defeated the last stronghold of Al-Andalus, the Kingdom of Granada. Initially, the city was conquered to defend the Iberian Peninsula against a new invasion from North Africa, and until the late 19th century, the city was mainly a military fortress. The city was rapidly populated from the early 20th century. From 1912-1956, the city was part of the Spanish Protectorate in Morocco, and during this time, a new conflict broke out between the Spanish and the surrounding Rifian tribes. The politics of Melilla has long been one of exclusion, as the Muslim inhabitants were not granted Spanish citizenship until the mid-80s. Today, the city has become famous as a migration hub, and a six meter high fence surrounds the whole city. In this thesis I will explore some theoretical concept with the empirical material I collected in Melilla. I have made a separation between borders and boundaries. Borders will be defined as the outer edges of the territorial unit called the nation-state, whilst boundaries are defined as surrounding ethnic and social groups. This separation is however done to see how they cooperate and are intertwined. A boundary is the point where two things become different, and all borders are consequently boundaries, but not vice versa. The point where two things becomes different has proven to be difficult to pinpoint, and this thesis is an attempt to trace the negotiations that happen in the border – boundary nexus. Today, Melilla is facing a demographic shift, where the Spanish Muslim will convert from being a minority into becoming the majority population in Melilla. In this thesis, I will explore the relationship between international mobility, Spanish nationalism in the margins of the nation-state, and the way ethnic reconfigurations are handled in the face of a demographic shift. The mechanisms for inclusion and exclusion on the Spanish – Moroccan frontier are influenced by a mixture of historical periods and events, and recent identity politics. Keywords: Melilla, Spain, Morocco, Borders, Boundaries, Migration, Nationalism, Franco, Identity, History v vi Acknowledgments Through this thesis I am exploring how borders and boundaries exists in relation between two or more entities, and how such entities rarely exists in a vacuum. During the long hours spent writing this thesis it has at times seemed as if I was doing this undertaking all by myself, but the result would have been very different without all the help and guidance I have gotten during the process. I have to thank all the people I met in Melilla and Nador, without whom I could not have written this thesis. I am very thankful for all the help and guidance I have received from my supervisor Thomas Hylland Eriksen, and for letting me be part of the Overheating project. The feedback I have gotten from the other members of the project has also been hugely helpful. I wish to thank Daniel Koski-Karell, who conducted fieldwork in Melilla before me, and who has given me advice before, under and after my fieldwork in Melilla. Also, I am thankful to Tony Sandset for both theoretical input and not so theoretical input. I also need to thank all my co-students, and my friends. A special thanks to Tiffany for existential crisis management during my fieldwork, and to all those who have read through chapters of my thesis and given valuable feedback: Maiken, Sigrid, Joakim (aka Young Gitle) and everyone who have attended seminars where I have presented parts of my thesis. vii Trevor Nickolls: Warmun Mandala (c) Trevor Nickolls/BONO The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Research Council under the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) / ERC Grant Agreement n. [295843]. viii Table of Contents Abstract.................................................................................................................................................v Acknowledgments..............................................................................................................................vii Chapter 1. Reflections on fieldwork in Spanish – Morocco................................................................1 Research questions and method.......................................................................................................3 The field – the establishment of Melilla..........................................................................................5 Recent history and politics...............................................................................................................8 Informants, challenges and ethics..................................................................................................10 Previous literature..........................................................................................................................14 Dissertation outline........................................................................................................................15 Chapter 2. Theoretical scaffolding.....................................................................................................18 Borders...........................................................................................................................................19 Boundaries.....................................................................................................................................21 Bodies............................................................................................................................................25 Summary of framework.................................................................................................................31 Chapter 3. Crossing borders...............................................................................................................32 The border, power and territorial integrity....................................................................................33 Spaniards in Morocco – the hiking group......................................................................................36 Moroccan citizens and day visas; work and leisure.......................................................................40 Migrants – life in limbo.................................................................................................................43 Chapter summary...........................................................................................................................49 Chapter 4. Spain at the margins..........................................................................................................51 Everyday life in Melilla, and one evening.....................................................................................52 A note on (Spanish) nationalism....................................................................................................55 Border people.................................................................................................................................59 Turning their backs against Morocco............................................................................................61 Franco is dead, long live Franco....................................................................................................64 Chapter summary...........................................................................................................................69 Chapter 5. Spanish Muslim, Rifian, Amazigh or Moroccan?.............................................................71 From temporary citizens to Spanish Muslims...............................................................................71 History, territory and identity.........................................................................................................76 The paradoxes of Amazigh identity...............................................................................................81 Chapter summary...........................................................................................................................86 Conclusions........................................................................................................................................88 Future studies......................................................................................................................................92 Literature............................................................................................................................................93 Illustrations Illustration 1: Population growth in Melilla. Graph by author.............................................................6 Illustration 2: Ethnic outlines in Melilla. Illustration by
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