The Jewish Comic Book Industry, 1933-1954
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“THE WHOLE FURSHLUGGINER OPERATION”: THE JEWISH COMIC BOOK INDUSTRY, 1933-1954 By Sebastian T. Mercier A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of History – Doctor of Philosophy 2018 ABSTRACT “THE WHOLE FURSHLUGGINER OPERATION”: THE JEWISH COMIC BOOK INDUSTRY, 1933-1954 By Sebastian T. Mercier Over the course of the twentieth century, the comic book industry evolved from an amateur operation into a major institution of American popular culture. Comic books, once considered mere cultural ephemera or quite simply “junk,” became a major commodity business. The comic book industry emerged out of the pulp magazine industry. According to industry circulation data, new comic book releases increased from 22 in 1939 to 1125 titles by the end of 1945. Comic book scholars have yet to adequately explain the roots of this historical phenomenon, particularly its distinctly Jewish composition. Between the years of 1933 and 1954, the comic book industry operated as a successful distinct Jewish industry. The comic book industry emerged from the pulp magazine trade. Economic necessity, more than any other factor, attracted Jewish writers and artists to the nascent industry. Jewish publishers adopted many of the same business practices they inherited from the pulps. As second-generation Jews, these young men shared similar experiences growing up in New York City. Other creative industries actively practiced anti-Semitic hiring procedures. Many Jewish artists came to comic book work with very little professional experience in cartooning and scripting. The comic book industry allowed one to learn on the job. The cultural world comic books emerged out of was crucially important to the industry’s development. Comic strips, pulps, movies, and science fiction all inspired Jewish writers and artists. An exploration of the comic book industry’s working environment reveals how Jewish comic book writers, artists, editors, and publishers simultaneously created a space for themselves as Jews while developing successful comic book titles and characters. While many of them created an environment suitable to workplace camaraderie and collaboration, there were several areas of conflict. An investigation of these areas of conflict show how Jews responded to workplace disagreements, management exploitation, and battles over artistic credit. In particular, the practice of ghosting art remains a particularly contentious issue. Jewish writers and artists in the comic book industry did not form or join a labor union in order to protect their rights and interests. A consideration of this development shows that they stood in stark contrast to other industries with a large Jewish workforce. Finally, the examination of World War II through the comic book industry’s internal development provides a variety of different ways to unearth how the Jewish writers, artists, editors, and publishers shed their amateur roots and became a professionalized industry. This professional turn brought increased sales and increasingly mature content for an older readership. Many Jewish writers and artists feared being drafted into the military. However, those that were drafted came away from their experiences with a sense of pride and accomplishment. They could not foresee that their industry was coming under attack. Many comic book historians place the roots for the comic book industry’s cultural downfall in the 1950s. However, primary sources from the 1940s reveal that social critics and parents were already concerned about mature comic book content in the 1940s. Comic book publishers were slow to respond or outright ignored complaints from social critics and concerned parents. Copyright by SEBASTIAN T. MERCIER 2018 To Katie, with all my love v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Embarking on the dissertation path was one of the hardest things I’ve done in my entire life. There were several people who supported me through all of the blood, sweat, and tears. They deserve a giant thank you and are listed below. I’d first like to thank and acknowledge my committee. They took a chance on me and the subject material. Kirsten Fermaglich, my advisor, is simply the best. She was a constant source of support and one of the most sensible, wisest people I’ve ever collaborated with in school. Lisa Fine, Helen Veit, and Michael Stamm gave great feedback during my defense. The dissertation greatly benefitted from their suggestions. I’d also like to thank all of the people who helped me conducting research on Jewish comic book creators. The people over at TENT, especially Jeremy Dauber and Karen Green, believed in my project and introduced me to so many valuable resources and people. Paul Levitz and Danny Fingeroth were gracious enough to meet with me and talk about their industry. The research librarians at the University of Wyoming, Ohio State University, Columbia University, and Michigan State University all tolerated my unusual research requests and helped me narrow my search for materials. Friends and family were essential to finishing this project. Beth Dutridge-Corp, Sean Corp, and Trevor Saylor kept me sane and reminded me that good friends are what life is all about. I would also like to thank the Mercier and Murphy families for their love and support. They can finally stop badgering me about finishing my dissertation. My Dad never stopped believing in me. I am glad that he saw me finish my goal and am grateful for his love. My family adopted a vi cat Nadara when I was deep in the writing process. I thank her for keeping me going and providing her own special brand of love. I met and married my wife during this entire process. I cannot put into words how I feel about her. She did not really understand everything about this whole dissertation process but she unconditionally supported me throughout this entire adventure. Katie, I love you. Finally, I want to thank all of the Jewish comic book creators that were the inspiration for my dissertation. Your creations stand the test of time and will always give me comfort and joy. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………………………………………...……………… 1 Background of the Problem……………………………………………………………………...………..………... 2 Historiography………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 3 Statement of the Problem…………………………………………………………………………………………… 20 Significance of the Study……………………………………………………………………………………...…….. 22 Methodology………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 24 Chapter Outline……………………………………………………………………………………………………..…… 28 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………… 31 CHAPTER ONE: Origins, Jewish Families, New York City, and Economic Necessity…………………………………………… 33 Family Influence………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 38 Industry Nepotism………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 42 Economic Necessity…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 44 Street Life…………………………………………………………………………………………………………...………. 49 Art Education and Professional Development……………………………………………………..……... 54 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………… 62 CHAPTER TWO: The Influence of American Popular Culture on Jewish Writers and Artists…………..…………………. 64 Comic Strips………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 65 Pulp Magazines…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 70 Movies and Radio……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 72 Science Fiction……………………………………………………………………………………………………...……. 75 Reading and Writing Interests…………………………………………………………………………………….. 82 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 86 CHAPTER THREE: Jewish Social Interactions and the Workplace Environment in the Comic Book Industry………… 88 Age Gaps…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 90 Publisher Mandates and Standards…………………………………………………………………………….. 92 The Role of the Editor…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 97 Social Relationships…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 102 Working Environments……………………………………………………………………………………………… 103 Workplace Interactions…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 106 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 109 viii CHAPTER FOUR: Workplace Grievances, Contract Disputes, Lawsuits, in the Comic Book Industry………….……… 110 The Creative Talent and Publisher Perspectives on Comic Book Work…………….…….…… 112 Payment and Contracts……………………………………………………………………………………………… 114 The Case of Jack Kirby vs. Marvel Comics……………………………………………………………….….. 118 Other Contract Grievances………………………………………………………………………………………… 123 Artistic Credit and Ghosting…………………………………………………………………………………..….. 128 Radical Politics and the Failure of Unions in the Comic Book Industry…………………….…. 133 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………………………………………... 136 CHAPTER FIVE: World War II, the Comic Book Boom, Professionalization, and Warning Signs………………..…...…. 137 Appealing to Young Readers……………………………………………………………………….……………… 140 Professionalization of the Industry…………………………………………………………….……….…….. 143 The Comic Book Industry and the Draft……………………………………………………………………… 153 Wartime Experiences………………………………………………………………………………………………… 158 Defending Comic Books against Critics………………………………………………………………………. 160 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………………………………………... 165 CONCLUSION: The Cultural Backlash of the 1950s…………………………………………………………………………………...…. 166 APPENDIX…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 183 BIBLIOGRAPHY……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 185 ix INTRODUCTION “The topic of Jews, comics, and superheroes is simultaneously specific and amorphous. It’s a topic that, when looked at directly, almost