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SAFE FOR DEMOCRACY

THE SECRET WARS OF THE CIA

JOHN PRADOS

Ivan R. Dee Chicago 2006 06-223 (01) FM.qxd 5/9/06 8:59 PM Page vii

Contents

Foreword ix Major Figures in the Book xiii Acronyms Used in the Book xxvii 1 The Gamut of Secret Operations 3 2 Cold War Crucible 28 3 The Secret Warriors 42 4 “The Kind of Experience We Need” 58 5 Covert Legions 78 6 Bitter Fruits 97 7 Adventures in Asia 124 8 “Acceptable Norms of Human Conduct Do Not Apply” 145 9 Archipelago 162 10 The War for the Roof of the World 184 11 “Another Black Hole of Calcutta” 204 12 The Bay of Pigs: Failure at Playa Girón 236 13 Cold War and Counterrevolution 273 14 The Secret War Against Castro 298 15 War in Southeast Asia 337 16 Global Reach 366 17 The Southern Cone 396 18 From “Rogue Elephant” to Resurrection 431 19 The Mountains of Allah 467 20 The Reagan Revolution 493 06-223 (01) FM.qxd 5/9/06 8:59 PM Page viii

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21 Bill Casey’s War 507 22 Project Democracy 539 23 Full Circle 572 24 The Struggle for Control 606 25 Safe for Democracy 640 Notes 649 A Note on Sources 675 Index 679 06-223 (01) FM.qxd 5/9/06 8:59 PM Page ix

Foreword

PUBLIC OPINION POLLS in many countries today portray the United States as the greatest threat to world peace on the globe, worse than terrorism or any other na- tion. This is an unfamiliar role for a country that has consciously articulated—and advanced—over many decades the notion that democratic values are the solution for many of the world’s ills. How strange it is that Americans, fond of the vision of the nation’s exceptionalism as seen in the image of the City on a Hill, their de- mocracy the admiration of the world, should find themselves an object of the world’s fears. The City is supposed to be a place of wonder and delight, even a state of grace. Its values are worth emulating, its freedom an example of achieve- ment for all. The Founding Fathers articulated the vision well, and at some point Ameri- can leaders translated that ideal into a mission to bring its values to the world. President Woodrow Wilson enshrined the mission into a policy to implant democ- racy and self-determination among peoples everywhere. His successors in the presidency, every one, have continued and enlarged that quest—which has led America into a variety of foreign adventures, with widely varying motives, ac- complishments, and failures. Those who fear America worry that the adventures themselves have supplanted the quest for democracy as the real content of United States policy. Critics of this policy argue that American presidents have pursued their prox- imate goals, defined in terms of U.S. power, while cloaking them in the language and trappings of universalist desire. This is not a new argument—and, one may hope, not a correct one. But at the moment millions of people in many lands be- lieve it, or something very like it. Their fears, and the extent of them, bode ill for American purpose in the world as well as for the feelings of Americans about their country and their government. One way to look at the world’s fears of America is to review U.S. actions on the world stage, where a major policy tool has been the secret operations of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), created after World War II. The agency quickly became the locos of open and covert efforts that have engaged many nations 06-223 (01) FM.qxd 5/9/06 8:59 PM Page x

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across the globe. Because of the strict secrecy of most CIA activities, it has been exceedingly difficult for historians and other observers to evaluate them. Even to- day information about the CIA remains shrouded in misinformation, is poorly un- derstood, or has remained inaccessible to researchers. The “need to know” has been used by government bureaucrats to restrict information and knowledge to a few, even in the case of events long past. In the sixty years since the formation of the Central Intelligence Agency, presidents have continually harnessed the agency in service of their foreign policy goals. Three decades ago the “problem” of the CIA appeared to be the agency’s status as a “rogue elephant”—unsupervised, tearing about the globe, acting at whim. By now it is evident that the agency and its cohorts were in fact respond- ing to presidential orders. This seems to make it much more urgent to attempt to tell the story of exactly what the CIA has accomplished. What has the agency con- tributed toward the success of larger U.S. policy goals, and the global quest for de- mocracy? Perhaps the problem is more one of the “rogue” president than it is about an out-of-control Central Intelligence Agency. The control and oversight of United States intelligence needs to be examined in specific contexts where the overseers concern themselves with covert operations. In the past the question of oversight has been viewed as one of congressional supervision of the intelligence commu- nity, but we can now see this is an inadequate approach. The truth is that White House mechanisms for control and supervision of intelligence activity predate those instituted by Congress. Each branch of government has had its own objec- tives and degree of success, or lack of it, in overseeing the CIA. Existing studies of presidential or congressional oversight ignore key facets of the problem and do not take into account the most recent developments. And CIA attempts to pursue operations beyond the limits of the oversight system highlight the need for fresh examination. The oversight question must not only be examined in much greater detail but must be reframed as a competitive process between two branches of government. Safe for Democracy does that. While it is impossible to say where oversight is headed, we can show where it has been and why it has generally not worked. This book surveys Central Intelligence Agency covert actions on four conti- nents. In the most recent version of their dictionary of terms, the Joint Chiefs of Staff define a “covert operation” as one planned or conducted so as to conceal the identity of the sponsor or permit a denial of involvement. To that category the U.S. military adds the “clandestine operation,” defined as one in which emphasis “is placed on concealment of the operation rather than on concealment of the identity of the sponsor.” Special operations are covert or clandestine, are carried out by military forces, and may combine elements of both varieties. All these form part of our terrain of inquiry. Aside from labels based on secrecy, covert actions may also be viewed along functional lines. The several types include political action, in which the objective is to influence opinion-makers or the politics of nations; psychological warfare 06-223 (01) FM.qxd 5/9/06 8:59 PM Page xi

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and propaganda, which are tactical tools in many actions; support for military op- erations, an intermediate category between traditional covert action and military special operations—which consumes an increasing fraction of CIA effort; and paramilitary operations, which are covertly coercive. Safe for Democracy exam- ines activities along this entire spectrum. This book contributes important new detail to our understanding of many CIA operations, including those in Italy, Korea, Poland, Iran, Guatemala, Hungary, China, Tibet, the Philippines, Indonesia, Syria, Iraq, Cuba, Bolivia, the Congo, Ghana, Vietnam and Laos, Kurdistan, Chile, Angola, Afghanistan, and Nicaragua; and it provides a first-cut view of actions in Somalia, Bosnia, Iraq, and other most recent activities. Whenever possible I have related all these events to specific pres- idential decisions expressed through White House control mechanisms and mod- erated by congressional oversight procedures. To prevent the work from growing completely unmanageable, the secret wars in Vietnam and Laos have been treated in less detail than is possible—they could easily consume an entire book by them- selves—and the war against terrorism has been placed to one side except where it impinges directly upon our main subjects. The conclusions of this inquiry tend to bear out the critics. American under- cover actions have resulted in upheavals and untold suffering in many nations while contributing little to Washington’s quest for democracy. Despite considerable inge- nuity, technological wizardry, operational flexibility, and an impressively compe- tent cadre of secret warriors, the results of covert operations have been consistently disappointing. Yet the very drive to maintain and use these capabilities has had con- sequences—often unforeseen—both for America’s image around the globe and for constitutional control of the United States government by its own people. Secret warriors are known to argue the unique reasons for failure in specific actions but— except in secret studies unknown to the public until now—to resist broad overall evaluation. This book, however, does not stop short. Its content is not speculation, idle rumination, mindless ideology, or uninformed criticism. The evidence gathered in these pages is broad and deep. Covert operations have been a negative factor in the American pursuit of democracy throughout the world. I have written on these matters earlier in Presidents’Secret Wars, a book pub- lished in the late 1890s, and in fact the present work began as a revision of that book. Time had passed, and an updating seemed appropriate. But preparations for the project quickly revealed that a mere revision would be inadequate—sources have multiplied, the understanding of what constitutes a covert action has widened, and the terrain has shifted in other ways as well. The 1980s public con- cern about the CIA as rogue elephant obscured a great deal about the impact of agency operations on American foreign policy goals. Much of what we knew then has been modified by fresh evidence. It seems to me clear that the entire subject needed to be recast in terms of what matters today. A steady stream of newly declassified secret documents and a parade of mem- oirs of former CIA officials has enriched the record. Many things that once had to be inferred or addressed on the basis of interview material can now be described 06-223 (01) FM.qxd 5/9/06 8:59 PM Page xii

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from hard evidence. Further interviews have extended the envelope. Throughout this book pseudonyms for CIA officers have been replaced with real names where possible; actual code names of operations are supplied; project costs, assigned per- sonnel, and other details are revealed. The mountain of new detail on CIA opera- tions ranges widely, from the recollections of participants to the dates and contents of headquarters decisions, White House deliberations, and the proceedings of key meetings. Thus while some measure of text remains unchanged, most of Safe for Democracy is brand-new. It is the closest we can come at this juncture to a defini- tive history of U.S. covert operations. I have also widened the scope of the inquiry to include a larger slice of CIA political and propaganda activity, which was deliberately excluded from the ear- lier work. Thus the agency’s interventions in elections in a number of countries, its association with at least one major U.S. domestic controversy, and its active propaganda programs are explored in some detail. 06-223 (01) FM.qxd 5/9/06 8:59 PM Page xiii

Major Figures in the Book

(comprising primarily senior CIA officers, government officials, foreign individu- als, and intelligence officers who appear at more than one point in the narrative)

JAMES L. ADKINS: Paramilitary specialist who served with the Hmong in Laos and rose to lead the Nicaraguan Operations Group during the contra war. PRINCE TURKI AL-FAISAL: Chief of Saudi Arabian intelligence for two and a half decades, Prince Turki cooperate on several CIA projects, most notably Afghanistan and Nicaragua, before becoming Saudi ambassador to London and later to the United States. RICHARD ALLEN: National security adviser to President Reagan. ROBERT AMORY: Deputy director for intelligence at the CIA, 1953–1962. MANUEL ARTIME: Cuban exile leader at the Bay of Pigs, and again in the mid- 1960s after being released from a Cuban prison, when he took part in a CIA project to create a new exile force. GOERGE AURELL: Far East Division chief for the CIA, supervising covert action projects in Burma and China; station chief in the Philippines during political action there in the late 1950s. HOWARD T. BANE: CIA clandestine services officer who had roles in the Tibet proj- ect and, as station chief in Ghana, in CIA African operations. TRACY L. BARNES: Among the original secret warriors, Barnes served with the OSS and joined the Psychological Strategy Board staff, then later the CIA, playing major roles in covert operations in Guatemala and against Cuba. JOSE BASULTO: Cuban exile fighter who continued efforts against Castro for decades after the CIA gave up. RICHARD M. BISSELL: Special assistant to Allen W. Dulles, Bissell developed the U-2 and SR-71 aircraft for CIA, managed development of reconnaissance satellites, and played an increasing role in covert actions from Guatemala through the Bay of Pigs, rising to head the Directorate of Operations. 06-223 (01) FM.qxd 5/9/06 8:59 PM Page xiv

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GEN. WILLIAM BOYKIN: An operator for Special Forces Operational Detachment Delta during the Iran hostage rescue mission, Boykin’s career with Special Forces continued through the second Bush administration. THOMAS BRADEN: Special assistant to Director Allen Dulles and creator of CIA’s International Organizations Division. WILLIAM V. B ROE: Latin American Division chief who supervised the effort to keep Salvador Allende from assuming the presidency of Chile, Broe’s later actions helped create the legal case against Richard Helms for perjury before Congress on this same matter. JOHN A. BROSS: Longtime CIA officer involved with European operations, man- aging the DO for Allen Dulles, and senior adviser to Bill Casey. WINTHROP BROWN: American ambassador to India during the first part of the Ti- betan operation, and to Laos at the inception of the secret war there. DAVID K. BRUCE: After gaining an intelligence background by heading OSS oper- ations in the Euorpean theater, Bruce became a professional diplomat and ad- viser to presidents. He served as ambassador to London during the CIA op- eration against Guyana, and worked with the PFIAB. ZBIGNIEW BRZEZINSKI: National security adviser to President Jimmy Carter, 1977–1981. WILLIAM BUCKLEY: Paramilitary specialist who worked on Eastern Europe, the Bay of Pigs, Laos, and Pakistan; station chief in postwar Laos; deputy chief of counterterrorism staff until sent to Beirut as station chief, where he was kidnapped in 1984 and died under interrogation a year later. MCGEORGE BUNDY: National security adviser to President Kennedy and Johnson, 1961–1966. ADM. ARLEIGH BURKE: Naval officer who served as chief of naval operations and arranged cooperation for Indonesia and the Bay of Pigs; Burke also became a member of the Taylor Board that reviewed the conduct of the Cuban oper- ation. FORBES BURNHAM: Guyanese political leader who benefited from CIA covert op- erations carried out between 1962 and 1964, and continuing agency political action until 1968. GEN. CHARLES P. C ABELL: Seconded from the air force, Cabell served as deputy di- rector of central intelligence under Allen Dulles, 1953–1961, and had impor- tant roles in covert operations in Indonesia and Cuba. FRANK CARLUCCI: Exposed to covert action as a young diplomat in the Congo, Carlucci rose through work at many government agencies until being brought directly into intelligence work as deputy director of central intelli- gence in the Carter administration; he remained concerned with this activity in the Reagan-era Pentagon, and then as national security adviser to Presi- dent Reagan. HARRY L. CARR: British intelligence officer who directed covert operations against Russia in the Baltic and cooperated with CIA’s efforts in these areas. GEORGE CARROLL: Covert operations specialist who worked in the CIA project in Iran and later became baron heading the Far East Division. 06-223 (01) FM.qxd 5/9/06 8:59 PM Page xv

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PHILLIP CARVER: Clandestine services officer who transferred to the analytical side of the CIA after his cover was blown in an abortive coup in South Vietnam; Carver became the agency’s senior officer on Vietnam affairs. WILLIAM J. CASEY: A veteran of OSS operations, Casey made his fortune in busi- ness and served briefly on President Ford’s PFIAB; he headed Reagan’s 1980 political campaign organization and was rewarded with appointment as di- rector of central intelligence. FIDEL CASTRO: Revolutionary leader, then dictator of Cuba, who became the tar- get of many CIA operations. GEORGE W. CAVE: Clandestine services officer who opened the CIA station in Afghanistan in 1957, headed stations in Iran and Saudi Arabia, ran a unit to support the Iran hostage rescue mission, was deputy chief of NESA, and headed a policy coordination staff. In retirement Cave became involved in the Iran-Contra affair. HAROLD CHIPMAN: Covert operations specialist who worked on Cuban projects and Vietnam. DUANE R. (“DEWEY”) CLARRIDGE: Clandestine services officer from the Near East and South Asitan tribe, Clarridge served in Nepal, India, and Turkey, led the CIA station in Rome, then the Latin America Division and the Counterterror- ism Center. CLARK M. CLIFFORD: Adviser to Presidents Truman, Kennedy, and Johnson, Clif- ford helped draft the law that created the CIA, served on the PFIAB for some years, and was secretary of defense in 1968. RAY L. CLINE: Officer who held both operational and analytical posts at CIA, Cline served as chief of station on Taiwan during Chinese and Tibet operations, headed the Directorate of Intelligence during Mongoose and the Cuban Mis- sile Crisis, and later led the State Department’s INR. THOMAS C. CLINES: Paramilitary specialist who worked on Cuba operations and in Laos; in retirement became involved with “private benefactors” covert oper- ations with Nicaraguan contras. CHARLES G. (“CHUCK”) COGAN: Moving between African and Middle Eastern as- signments, Cogan was station chief in Jordan and headed the NESA division; he was involved in covert operations in the Congo, the Iran hostage crisis, and Afghanistan. WILLIAM E. COLBY: Director of central intelligence during the critical congres- sional investigations of the 1970s, Colby had risen through CIA ranks, work- ing on Soviet operations, the Italian political action, Vietnamese operations, and general Asian activities. MILES COPELAND: Covert operations specialist for the CIA in the Middle East, es- pecially in Egypt and Lebanon. THOMAS G. CORCORAN: Washington lawyer who represented Civil Air Transport when it was acquired by the CIA, and United Fruit in preparations for the CIA action in Guatemala. ALFRED T. COX: An experienced covert operator, Cox oversaw CIA’s interests in Civil Air Transport, served as chief of base in Hong Kong and on the para- 06-223 (01) FM.qxd 5/9/06 8:59 PM Page xvi

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military staff at headquarters before and during the Bay of Pigs, and led the Miami station at the beginning of Project Mongoose. JAMES M. CRITCHFIELD: CIA officer who had a major role in the creation of the German intelligence service, helped establish its connections with the CIA, and then moved into CIA Middle Eastern operations. WILLIAM J. DAUGHERTY: An agency hostage taken in Iran during his first tour, with this cover blown Daugherty served in headquarters management positions on covert operations staffs. ROBERT K. DAVIS: Clandestine services officer who arranged cooperation of Guatemalan authorities with the CIA’s effort to train anti-Castro exiles to in- vade Cuba; he later served as chief of station in Peru. PEER DESILVA: Operations officer who managed CIA initiatives against Russia in the Far East, served in Austria, and headed CIA stations in South Korea, South Vietnam, and Thailand, then became the first CIA special assistant for Vietnam Affairs. JOHN DEUTCH: Director of central intelligence in the mid-1990s. JOHN J. (“JACK”) DEVINE: An operations officer in Chile during the CIA covert ac- tion there, Devine rose steadily, leading the agency’s Iran operations group, its Afghan task force, stations in three Latin countries, Rome and London, and the Latin America Division, and served as associate deputy director for operations. LAWRENCE R. DEVLIN: Twice served as CIA’s station chief in the Congo, also as chief of station in Laos and head of the Africa Division. GEN. JAMES H. DOOLITTLE: Air force general who reviewed court activities for President Eisenhower, then served for many years on the advisory boards PBCFIA and PFIAB. ALLEN W. DULLES: A key figure in CIA history, Dulles served with the OSS, ad- vocated creation of a peacetime intelligence agency, became deputy director for operations, then deputy and director of central intelligence and led the CIA through the Eisenhower years and into the Kennedy administration. JOHN FOSTER DULLES: Lawyer and diplomat, brother of Allen, Dulles served as secretary of state under President Eisenhower and played a larger part in covert operations than previously acknowledged. RALPH A. DUNGAN: Political adviser to Presidents Kennedy and Johnson whose special interest in Latin America led to his posting as ambassador to Chile, where he became involved in CIA projects. SHEFFIELD EDWARDS: Chief of the CIA’s Office of Security, Edwards became in- volved in assassination plots against Fidel Castro. RUDY ENDERS: Paramilitary specialist and boatman, Enders made his mark as a maritime officer with the Miami base on Cuban operations; later in the Viet- nam War he rose to a senior field officer and by the 1980s headed CIA’s Spe- cial Activities Division, where he played a major role in the mining of Nicaraguan ports during the contra war. JACOB D. ESTERLINE: An important figure in CIA Latin American operations, Es- terline was deputy chief of the task force that carried out the Guatemala 06-223 (01) FM.qxd 5/9/06 8:59 PM Page xvii

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covert operation, and led the task force that carried out the Bay of Pigs; he served as chief of station in Panama and deputy chief of the Western Hemi- sphere Division, and headed CIA’s Miami base. DESMOND FITZGERALD: A primary figure in covert activities from the early 1950s to the mid-1960s, FitzGerald rose to head the CIA Directorate of Operations. JOHN KENNETH GALBRAITH: American ambassador to India who opposed the CIA project in Tibet and helped President Kennedy decide to restructure this en- deavor. ROBERT M. GATES: Officer from the analytical side of the CIA who rose through the ranks to become deputy director for intelligence, then DDCI under Bill Casey; he left to become deputy national security adviser during the first Bush administration but returned as director of central intelligence until re- tiring in January 1993. LLOYD GEORGE: Far East Division chief for the CIA during the Korean War. JUSTIN F. GLEICHAUF: A CIA analyst, Cleichauf ran the refugee reception center in Miami that interviewed Cuban exiles for intelligence purposes. GEN. ANDREW GOODPASTER: Staff secretary to President Eisenhower, Goodpaster became a key figure, with Gordon Gray, in helping the president keep track of CIA activities. GORDON L. GRAY: A key figure in U.S. intelligence history, Gray served as secre- tary of the army, helped establish the Special Forces, led the Psychological Strategy Board, consulted for President Eisenhower, became Eisenhower’s national security adviser, and worked on the PFIAB for more than a decade. ERNESTO (“CHE”) GUEVARA: Argentinian doctor and early Castroite leader in Cuba, Guevara attempted to export revolution to Africa and Latin America and be- came a special target of the CIA. ALBERT HAKIM: Iranian businessman who helped with the Hostage Rescue mission and later became involved in a series of ventures with Richard V. Secord that ensnared them in the Iran-Contra affair. SAM HALPERN: Covert operations specialist with the CIA’s Far East Division, later executive assistant to the deputy director for operations. COL. ALBERT HANEY: Chief of station in Korea during the Korean War, Haney later headed the task force that carried out the Guatemala covert action project. W. AVERELL HARRIMAN: Adviser to presidents and U.S. diplomat, Harriman as- sisted Truman, Kennedy, and Johnson, attempting to negotiate an end to the AIOC crisis in Iran in the early 1950s and the civil war in Laos in the early 1960s, both of which formed episodes in the secret war. JOHN L. HART: A covert operator in the classic CIA mold, Hart worked on Soviet op- erations, headed the Tibet branch of the FE Division during that operation, and later served as station chief in South Vietnam at the height of the war there. WILLIAM K. HARVEY: Covert operations specialist who led the CIA base in Berlin through much of the 1950s, returned to headquarters to run the agency’s as- sassinations unit, then headed the task force that carried out Project Mon- goose and later the agency’s station in Rome. 06-223 (01) FM.qxd 5/9/06 8:59 PM Page xviii

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JOHN HASEY: Operations specialist in Laos who built ties to Gen. Phoumi Nosa- van, complicating U.S. policy, and then worked briefly in the Congo. COL. JACK HAWKINS: Marine officer seconded to CIA as chief of the paramilitary branch of the task force that carried out the Bay of Pigs invasion; later deputy to the head of the Pentagon office responsible for cooperation with the CIA. HENRY D. HECKSCHER: A major figure in CIA operations, Heckscher served in Berlin during the 1953 riots there, worked on the Guatemala covert operation, and headed CIA stations engaged in covert operations in Laos, Japan, and Chile. RICHARD M. HELMS: A key figure in CIA history, Helms rose through the ranks of OSS and SSU to CIA, heading the German Division, the Operations Direc- torate, and the intelligence community as a whole for Presidents Johnson and Nixon. PAUL B. HENZE: A psychological operations specialist, Henze worked as an analyst and deputy division chief for Radio Free Europe, a case officer and station chief in Turkey and Ethiopia, and on the Brzezinski NSC staff. ADM. ROSCOE H. HILLENKOETTER: Director of central intelligence from the Berlin Blockade to the onset of the Korean war, Hillenkoetter presided over the cre- ation of the OPC and its integration into the CIA sytem. PAUL HOLDEN: Chief pilot for Civil Air Transport’s detachment assisting the French in Indochina, Holden went on to fly for the CIA in its Indonesia project. RICHARD HOLM: A paramilitary officer who served in Asia and Africa, notably in Hong Kong, Laos, and the Congo; later he led the Counterterrorism staff, sta- tions in Brussels and Paris, and advised on the Directorate of Operations post–Cold War reorganization. FRANK HOLOBER: A Far East Division officer, Holober worked on operations against mainland China and led the task force carrying out the CIA project in Tibet. LAWRENCE HOUSTON: General counsel to the CIA from its inception through the early 1970s, his cautionary views on the legal authorities for covert opera- tions were never adequately taken into account. GEN. JOHN E. HULL: Army general who advised CIA analysts in the early 1950s; trusted by President Eisenhower and appointed second chairman of the PBCFIA. E. HOWARD HUNT: Among the major figures in CIA political action, Hunt played roles in psychological warfare and covert operations in Albania, Guatemala, and Cuba, headed agency stations in Latin America, and became involved with the Nixon White House in the Watergate scandal. FRED IKLE: Undersecretary of defense for policy in the Reagan-era Pentagon, Ikle’s hard-line views contributed to the Casey covert action offenseive. ADM. BOBBY RAY INMAN: Officer with a long background in naval intelligence, In- man had been an attaché in Sweden, was involved with the Pueblo affair, headed naval intelligence, and had been deputy director of DIA before head- 06-223 (01) FM.qxd 5/9/06 8:59 PM Page xix

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ing the NSA, from which he was appointed to become deputy director for central intelligence. C. D. JACKSON: A propaganda and psychological warfare expert, adviser to Presi- dent Eisenhower, and executive for the Time-Life Corporation; he conducted the review that led to the termination of the Psychological Strategy Board. WILLIAM H. JACKSON: Participated with Allen Dulles in an important early review of U.S. intelligence operations, then served as deputy director of central in- telligence under Walter B. Smith, helping with the creation of the Directorate of Operations. CHEDDI JAGAN: Guyanese political leader who became the target of CIA covert op- erations, 1962–1964. ROBERT J. (“RED”) JANTZEN: Clandestine services officer who worked in India and Singapore; legendary as station chief in Thailand, Jantzen also led the CIA sta- tion in Canada and in retirement became associated with the Nugan Hand Bank. GORDON L. JORGENSEN: Senior clandestine services officer who led stations in both Laos and South Vietnam, among others. THOMAS H. KARAMESSINES: Among the first generation of CIA officers and an as- sociate of Richard Helms, Karamessines led CIA stations in Vienna and Athens, then rose to deputy director for operations, the post he held during the National Student Association affair, at the high point of the Vietnam War, and during the Chilean covert action. COL. JAMES KELLIS: Detached from the air force to CIA, Kellis worked in covert operations in Greece and Korea and other Far East Division activities. GEORGE KENNAN: Professional diplomat whose work furnished the basis for the U.S. Cold War doctrine of “containment,” and who made important contri- butions to the creation of the OPC. JAMES R. KILLIAN: Scientist and adviser to President Eisenhower, Killian had a key role in the early development of the U-2 aircraft, on the basis of which he was appointed first chairman of the PBCFIA. JOSEPH CALDWELL KING: Headed the CIA operations division for Latin America from its creation through the Kennedy administration. LYMAN D. KIRKPATRICK: A mover in the creation of the Directorate of Operations, Kirkpatrick served as executive assistant to Walter B. Smith, chief of the Of- fice of Special Operations, as CIA’s inspector general his evaluation of the Bay of Pigs failure would be highly controversial. HENRY A. KISSINGER: Though Kissinger would have a peripheral Cold War role as a consultant to the Eisenhower and Kennedy administrations, he had a quite direct role in intelligence activities as national security adviser, 1969–1975, and secretary of state, 1973–1977. E. HENRY (“HANK”) KNOCKE: An officer from the technical intelligence side of CIA, Knocke had been special assistant to McCone and Helms; he led ana- lytical staffs and the Foreign Broadcast Information Service, was CIA liaison to the Rockefeller and congressional investigations, and finally became deputy director for central intelligence. 06-223 (01) FM.qxd 5/9/06 8:59 PM Page xx

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WILLIAM LAIR: Paramilitary specialist with long service in Thailand, Lair proved instrumental in enlisting Thai help for the CIA project in Laos, where he su- pervised Hmong operations until the late 1960s. PAT LANDRY: An agency paramilitary specialist, Landry conducted field missions during the Indonesian operation and later played a vital role in Laos as deputy, then chief of the unit that ran the Hmong partisan army. GEN. EDWARD G. LANSDALE: Air force officer detached to CIA and later in Penta- gon assignments cooperating with the agency, Lansdale had primary roles in CIA covert operations in the Philippines, South Vietnam, and China. BRIAN LATELL: Agency analyst on Latin American affairs whose reports on Haiti became controversial for the CIA. JAMES R. LILLEY: Clandestine services officer who served in the Far East, in par- ticular Hong Kong, was deputy chief of station in Laos, and became the first CIA station chief in Communist China, to which he returned as U.S. ambas- sador. FRANKLIN A. LINDSAY: Agency officer who headed the European Division of OPC and the DO, left to become a corporate executive, and headed a consultant study on covert operations for the Nixon administration. JAY LOVESTONE: A key CIA labor operative. JOHN MACGAFFIN III: Among the CIA’s Middle East specialists, MacGaffin worked against Soviet spies in Beirut and elsewhere, ran the agency’s base in New York, became chief of a post–Cold War Central Eurasian Division and then associate deputy director for operations before moving to the FBI as an intelligence adviser to its director. GEN. JOHN MAGRUDER: Led secret operations for the OSS and later was chief of the Strategic Services Unit: Magruder played a formative role in the creation of the CIA and later served as Pentagon representative on the board super- vising the Office of Policy Coordination. HUBER MATOS: A Cuban leader who later turned against Fidel Castro, believing he had betrayed the revolution; he was imprisoned for two decades and after his release made common cause with anti-Castro exiles, including involvement in the CIA contra war against Nicaragua. ROGER MCCARTHY: Paramilitary officer who worked on many projects in the Far East, including China, Indonesia, and Tibet; worked as a trainer on Saipan and later headed the CIA’s Tibet task force. GEN. ROBERT A. MCCLURE: Founder of peacetime psychological warfare organi- zations within the U.S. Army. JOHN A. (“ALEX”) MCCONE: Senior official under Presidents Eisenhower—for whom he led the Atomic Energy Commission—then Kennedy and Johnson, whom McCone served as director of central intelligence; he returned to in- dustry, joining the board of the ITT Corporation, and played a further covert action role when the CIA acted in Chile. ROBERT C. (“BUD”) MCFARLANE: A former Marine lieutenant colonel, McFarlane was detached to serve on the NSC staff under President Ford, returning later 06-223 (01) FM.qxd 5/9/06 8:59 PM Page xxi

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as deputy and then national security adviser to President Reagan. After leav- ing government he became involved in the Iran-Contra affair. JOHN N. (“JACK”) MCMAHON: With a background in technical intelligence, McMa- hon early worked on U-2 operations, on reconnaissance satellites, and on electronic interception before becoming an administrative coordinator, serv- ing on the Intelligence Community Staff, then as deputy director for opera- tions; he rose to deputy director for central intelligence. STEWART METHVEN: Covert operations specialist who first recruited Vang Pao in Laos, later worked on irregular warfare projects in South Vietnam and headed the CIA station in Zaire during the Angolan project. CORD MEYER: An agency political action specialist, Meyer headed psychological operations staffs or CIA’s International Organization Divisio from the mid- 1950s to the early 1970s, paying special attention to activities of the “Ra- dios,” then served as station chief in London. ROBERT MURPHY: American diplomat, PBCFIA member, and adviser to President Eisenhower. ROBERT J. MYERS: A station chief for the Office of Special Operations on Taiwan during the Korean War years, Myers rose to deputy chief of the Far East Di- vision early in the Vietnam War. GAMAL ABDEL NASSER: Egyptian army officer who took power in a 1952 coup and cooperated with the CIA early on, only to become a target later as the U.S. opposed his efforts to create a multinational Arab movement and an alliance of nonaligned countries. PAUL H. NITZE: American official who succeeded George Kennan as head of the State Department’s Policy Planning Staff and remained at the center of na- tional security decisions until the Reagan administration. JAMES NOEL: Clandestine services officer who became the last CIA station chief in pre-Castro Cuba and later ran networks for the Bay of Pigs task force. OLIVER L. NORTH: Marine officer detached for service on the Reagan NSC staff who became a prime mover in the Iran-Contra affair. ROBERT OAKLEY: American diplomat whose political-military work repeatedly brought him into the arena of CIA operations in the Middle East, Afghanistan, and Somalia. CARMEL OFFIE: Controversial character in early operations by the Office of Policy Coordination, CIA European activities, and later its labor operations. THOMAS A. PARROTT: Officer detailed from the CIA to the NSC staff to handle staff work for the 5412 Group and its successors, the Special Group (Augmented) and the 303 Committee. WILLIAM B. PAWLEY: Businessman and friend of President Eisenhower, Pawley used his Latin American networks to participate in CIA covert actions in Guatemala and Cuba. JACK PFEIFFER: An agency historian, Pfeiffer later conducted extensive classified research to compile the CIA’s four-volume official history of the Bay of Pigs. 06-223 (01) FM.qxd 5/9/06 8:59 PM Page xxii

xxii Major Figures in the Book

DAVID A. PHILLIPS: An agency psychological warfare specialist, Phillips was im- portant in radio propaganda during the Guatemala and Cuba operations, and headed CIA stations in Latin America and the task force that carried out the 1970 covert action in Chile. ADM. JOHN POINDEXTER: Deputy, then national security adviser to President Reagan. THOMAS POLGAR: A European operations specialist for CIA, Polgar worked in Ger- many in the early 1950s and on Hungarian operations, and headed stations in Latin America and South Vietnam, where he became the last CIA station chief. ALLEN POPE: Air force pilot who joined Civil Air Transport for its airlift support- ing the French in Indochina, Pope flew for the CIA project in Indonesia, where his shootdown essentially terminated the operation. LUIS POSADA CARRILES: Cuban exile fighter initially with the Bay of Pigs; respon- sible for bombings in Mexico City and of a Venezuelan airliner, and a partic- ipant in the “private benefactor” airlift in Nicaragua. ANTHONY (“TONY PO”) POSHEPNY: CIA field officer who worked on covert opera- tions in Indonesia and Tibet and became an agency base chief in Laos. RAFAEL QUINTERO: Anti-Castro Cuban exile, active from before the Bay of Pigs through Project Mongoose and the Artime Brigade, right through to the 1980s contra war against Nicaragua. MANUEL (“MANOLO”) RAY: Cuban exile politician at the Bay of Pigs and in Mon- goose. JOHN REAGAN: Paramilitary officer who served in Korea, Japan, on the Tibet proj- ect, in Vietnam, and headed the station in Pakistan at the outset of the Afghan project. ROBERT REYNOLDS: Miami base chief for the Bay of Pigs operation. JOHN H. (“JOCKO”) RICHARDSON: CIA covert operations specialist, Richardson headed agency stations in Austria, South Korea, and South Vietnam, and had a key role in the antecedents to the military coup in which Ngo Dinh Diem was killed. STEPHEN W. RICHTER: Clandestine services officer who worked with Iranian agent networks and, as chief of the Near East and South Asian Division, presided over covert operations in Iraq in the mid-1990s, later rising to head a DO technology management group. WILLIAM A. (“RIP”) ROBERTSON, JR.: CIA field operator or contract officer in Guatemala, the Bay of Pigs, Project Mongoose, and Vietnam. FELIX I. RODRIGUEZ: Cuban exile fighter and CIA contract officer; starting from before the Bay of Pigs, Rodriguez worked for the agency on Project Mon- goose, in Bolivia, in Vietnam, and on Nicaraguan “private benefactor” oper- ations from El Salvador in the 1980s, where he also was a consultant to the Salvadoran air force. KERMIT (“KIM”) ROOSEVELT: An early covert operations expert, Roosevelt spe- cialized in the Middle East and played key roles in Egypt and Iran, and as a DO official had some involvement in Guatemala. He retired to work for oil companies. 06-223 (01) FM.qxd 5/9/06 8:59 PM Page xxiii

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HARRY S. ROSITZKE: An important Cold War covert operations manager, Rositzke headed the CIA’s Soviet Bloc Division during actions against Russia and later oversaw the Tibet operation as station chief in India. WALT W. ROSTOW: Psychological warfare consultant to PSB, later deputy national security adviser and State Department Policy Planning chief 1961–1966, and national security adviser 1966–1969. DEAN RUSK: Secretary of state for Presidents Kennedy and Johnson, 1961–1969. JOSE (“PEPE”) SAN ROMAN: Cuban exile brigade commander. NESTOR SANCHEZ: A Latin America specialist, Sanchez served as deputy station chief in Guatemala during the CIA operation there and was with the Miami station during Mongoose, serving as case officer for a Cuban operative in one of the Castro assassination plots; he led CIA stations in Guatemala, Venezuela, and Madrid before heading the Latin America Division; in 1981 he moved to the Pentagon with Frank Carlucci, becoming deputy secretary of defense for Inter-American affairs, with a role in the Nicaraguan secret war. ARTHUR M. SCHLESINGER, JR.: Historian and adviser to President Kennedy, espe- cially on Latin American affairs, Schlesinger had roles in covert operations against Cuba and Guyana. JAMES R. SCHLESINGER: An official whose background lay in defense analysis, Schlesinger served briefly as director of central intelligence in 1973 before being appointed secretary of defense. GEN. RICHARD V. S ECORD: Air force special operations expert with important roles in the Laotian paramilitary operation and the Iran hostage rescue, and later a “private benefactor” in the Nicaraguan contra operation and the sale of weapons to Iran. TONY SFORZA: Clandestine services officer who served in Cuba before Castro, in Mongoose, with the CIA station in Mexico City, and undercover during the Chilean project that led to the assassination of Gen. Rene Schneider. THEODORE (“TED”) SCHACKLEY: Clandestine services officer who rose through the agency to become associate deputy director for operations; Shackley ran Pol- ish operations from Berlin base, went to Miami station to lead field opera- tions for Project Mongoose, headed the CIA stations in Laos and South Viet- nam, and the Chilean destabilization operation as chief of the Latin America Division. GEN. WALTER BEDELL (“BEETLE”) SMITH: Army general who led the CIA from 1950 to 1953, creating the Directorate of Operations by merging the OPC and OSO; supervised the OPC during its major covert actions. ANASTAZIO SOMOZA: Nicaraguan director who collaborated with the CIA on covert operations in Guatemala and against Cuba. ADM. SIDNEY W. SOUERS: First director of central intelligence under President Tru- man, later his first staff chief for the National Security Council. EDWARD A. STANULIS: Former army officer and CIA paramilitary expert, Stanulis planned initiatives to counter Fidel Castro, then became a senior officer on the task force that prepared the Bay of Pigs operation. 06-223 (01) FM.qxd 5/9/06 8:59 PM Page xxiv

xxiv Major Figures in the Book

JOHN H. STEIN: An officer who served in Zaire at the end of the CIA operation there, became chief of station in Cambodia during the war, then in Libya, and later rose to become deputy director for operations. ADLAI E. STEVENSON: U.S. ambassador to the United Nations during the Bay of Pigs invasion and the Cuban Missile Crisis. GORDON STEWART: OSS and SSU veteran, longtime chief of CIA operations in Germany, leader of the DO’s foreign intelligence staff, later a senior agency estimator and the CIA’s inspector general. GEN. RICHARD G. STILWELL: Headed CIA Far Eastern operations during the Ko- rean War period and proved instrumental in the agency’s acquisition of its first air proprietary; Stilwell also played an important role in the evolution of U.S. Special Forces. JOHN STOCKWELL: Paramilitary specialist who served in Vietnam and Laos and later led the CIA task force for the Angolan project. RICHARD F. STOLZ: A clandestine service officer who specialized in Russian oper- ations, Stolz worked in Germany and Bulgaria, led stations in Moscow, Rome, Yugoslavia, and London, and headed the Soviet Division; he came out of retirement to lead the Directorate of Operations. HOWARD STONE: A CIA covert operations specialist, Stone worked on the Iranian coup project, headed the agency’s station in Syria attempting to mount a sim- ilar initiative, and later became station chief in Nepal during the final phase of the Tibet project. ADM. WILLIAM O. STUDEMAN: An intelligence specialist who had headed that de- partment for the navy, Studeman became deputy and briefly acting DCI dur- ing the interregnum between James Woolsey and John Deutch. GEN. MAXWELL D. TAYLOR: Army general and chief of staff in the late 1950s, Tay- lor later became a key adviser to Presidents Kennedy and Johnson, heading the board that reviewed implementation of the Bay of Pigs operation, and chairing the Special Group (Augmented) until he left to become chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. ADM. RUFUS L. TAYLOR: Deputy director of central intelligence under Richard Helms, Taylor had headed naval intelligence and had a long background in communications intelligence. GARFIELD THORSRUD: Air operations specialist for the CIA, Thorsrud played im- portant roles in CIA projects in Indonesia and Tibet, and headed airfield op- erations for the Bay of Pigs. HANS V. T OFTE: Covert operations specialist in China, Korea, Guatemala, and later deputy chief of CIA Domestic Contact Division. B. HUGH TOVAR: Clandestine services officer who led the CIA station in Indone- sia at the time of the 1965 coup there, and later the station in Laos at the height of the paramilitary effort there. RAFAEL TRUJILLO: Dictator of the Dominican Republic, Trujillo became the object of CIA planning for a covert operation in 1960–1961. GEN. LUCIEN K. TRUSCOTT: Deputized from the army as CIA Director Walter B. Smith’s special representative in Germany, Truscott had a key role in Euro- 06-223 (01) FM.qxd 5/9/06 8:59 PM Page xxv

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pean operations through the early and mid-1950s and served as trou- bleshooter for President Eisenhower. BRONSON TWEEDY: Old-line CIA officer who supervised the Congo operation as Africa Division chief. THOMAS A. TWETTEN: Clandestine services officer who served in Cairo, headed the station in Jordan, the Office of Technical Services, was deputy and then chief of the NESA Division, and associate, then deputy director for operations, re- tiring as station chief in London. AL ULMER: Operations officer with wide experience, Ulmer headed CIA stations in Vienna and Madrid, and the Far East Division, supervising covert opera- tions in Indonesia, Japan, and the Philippines. GEN. HOYT S. VANDENBERG: Air force general who directed the Central Intelli- gence Group and managed the creation of the CIA. TONY VARONA: Cuban exile politician active during the Bay of Pigs project and later CIA anti-Cuban efforts; he involved his organization in plots to assassi- nate Castro. JOHN WALLER: Covert operations specialist who worked in the Near East Division primarily, including in Turkey and on the coup project in Iran; deputy chief of the Africa Division during key operations of the 1960s and later the CIA’s inspector general. GEN. VERNON A. WALTERS: By virtue of his linguistic abilities, Walters long hov- ered at the edges of intelligence work, executing special missions for many presidents before Nixon made him deputy director of central intelligence; as President Reagan’s ambassador to the United Nations, Walters again played a role in the Casey covert action offensive. JUDGE WILLIAM WEBSTER: A career lawyer who was FBI chief when President Reagan selected him to be director of central intelligence. EDWARD WELLES: Congo task force chief. DAVID WHIPPLE: CIA field officer who served in Europe, Africa, and the Far East for almost three decades. WHITING WILLAUER: An official of the CIA proprietary Civil Air Transport, Willauer was appointed ambassador to Honduras to help with the Guatemala operation and later served as State Department overseer of the CIA’s Cuba task force. EDWIN WILSON: Covert operations specialist whose commercial deals in retire- ment became a U.S. headache. DONALD H. WINTERS: Deputy chief of station during the CIA operation in Chile, Winters rose through the ranks as a Latin American specialist; had a role in the Nicaraguan secret war as station chief in Honduras, then Panama. FRANK G. WISNER: Founder and head of the Office of Policy Coordination, he di- rected the transition to the Directorate of Operations, then led CIA covert op- erations through the late 1950s. Subsequently chief of station in London. R. JAMES WOOLSEY: A lawyer with little intelligence background except as a con- gressional staffer or U.S. negotiator, Woolsey’s appointment was politically opportune for President Clinton. 06-223 (01) FM.qxd 5/9/06 8:59 PM Page xxvi 06-223 (01) FM.qxd 5/9/06 8:59 PM Page xxvii

Acronyms Used in the Book

ABN Anti-Bolshevik Bloc of Nations (organization of anti-Communist groups) AF CIA African Division AFL American Federation of Labor AFL-CIO American Federation of Labor–Congress of Industrial Organiza- tions AFSCME American Federation of State, County, and Municipal Employees AID U.S. Agency for International Development AIFLD American Institute for Free Labor Development AIOC Anglo-Iranian Oil Company AOG CIA African Operations Group (Angola task force) AMCOMLIB American Committee for Liberation from Bolshevism ARC U.S. Air Force Air Resupply and Communications Wing ARDE Nicaraguan contra political/military group (Alianza revolucionaria democratica) BBC British Broadcasting Corporation BDPS Lithuanian partisan movement (Benderas Demokratinio Prasi- priesinimo Sajudas) BND CIA Board of National Estimates BNL Banca Nazionale del Lavoro (Italian bank) BOSS Bureau of State Security (South African intelligence service) CAT Civil Air Transport (CIA proprietary) CATF CIA Central America Task Force CCRAK Combined Command Reconnaissance Activities Korea CDNI Committee for the Defense of National Interests (Laotian political movement) CDP Christian Democratic Party (Chile) CI Counterinsurgency CIA U.S. Central Intelligence Agency CIC U.S. Counterintelligence Corps 06-223 (01) FM.qxd 5/9/06 8:59 PM Page xxviii

xxviii Acronyms Used in the Book

CIDG Civilian Irregular Defense Group CIG U.S. Central Intelligence Group CORDS U.S. Civil Operations and Rural Development Support (pacifica- tion unit) CPPG NSC Crisis Pre-Planning Group CPSU Communist Party of the Soviet Union CTC CIA Counterterrorism Center DCI CIA Director of Central Intelligence DDCI CIA Deputy Director of Central Intelligence DDI CIA Deputy Director of Intelligence DDO CIA Deputy Director for Operations DEA U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration DGI Cuban government intelligence service (Direccion general de itel- ligencia) DI CIA Directorate of Intelligence DIA U.S. Defense Intelligence Agency DNI U.S. Director of National Intelligence DO CIA Directorate for Operations DP Displaced Person DRA Democratic Republic of Afghanistan DRE Cuban exile group (Directorio revolucionario estudiantil) DRVN Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) EXCOM Executive Committee of the National Security Council EXCOMAIR CIA Executive Committee for Air Proprietaries EXIM U.S. Export-Import Bank (international trade finance unit) FAR Cuban government armed forces (Fuerzas armadas revolucionarias) FBI U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation FDN Nicaraguan contra armed force (Fuerza democratica nicaraguense) FDR Franklin Delano Roosevelt FE CIA Far East Division FLI Front for the Liberation of Iran FECOM U.S. Far East Command FNLA National Front for the Liberation of Angola (Portugese acronym) FOG U.S. Foreign Operations Group (a military clandestine unit) FRD Cuban exile political front (Frente revolucionario democratico) FSLN Nicaraguan Marxist political party (frente sandinista de liberacion nacional) G-2 Military intelligence (U.S. Army, also Cuban government intelli- gence) HMS Her/His Majesty’s Ship HPSCI House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence ICJ International Court of Justice IG CIA Inspector General INA Iraqi National Accord (Alawi exile faction) 06-223 (01) FM.qxd 5/9/06 8:59 PM Page xxix

Acronyms Used in the Book xxix

INC Iraqi National Congress (Chalabi exile faction) INR Bureau of Intelligence and Research (State Department intelligence unit) IOB Intelligence Oversight Board IOG CIA Iraq Operations Group (also Iran Operations Group at a dif- ferent time) ISA U.S. Intelligence Support Activity (a military clandestine unit) ISI Inter-Services Intelligence (Pakistani military intelligence agency) ITT International Telephone and Telegraph Corporation IVAG U.S. International Volunteer Air Group JACK Joint Activities Commission Korea JCS U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff JKF John Fitzgerald Kennedy KGB Soviet intelligence and security service (Russian acronym) KHAD Afghan Government secret policy agency (Afghan acronym) LBJ Lyndon Baines Johnson LCI Landing Craft Infantry (amphibious ship designator) LS Lima Site (Laotian Airstrip designator) LSD Landship Ship Dock (amphibious ship designator) MACSOG MACV Studies and Observation Group MACV U.S. Military Assistance Command Vietnam MIT Massachusetts Institute of Technology MNR Bolivian political party (Movimiento nacional revolutionario) MON CIA Memorandum of Notification (presidential finding) MPLA Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (Portugese acronym) MRR Cuban exile group (Movimiento de recuperacion revolucionario) NATO North American Treaty Organization NE CIA Near East Division (of the Directorate for Operations—Near East and Africa until 1959) NESA CIA Near East and South Asian Division (of the Directorate of In- telligence) NHAO U.S. Nicaraguan Humanitarian Assistance Office NIA U.S. National Intelligence Authority NIC CIA National Intelligence Council NID National Intelligence Daily (CIA publication) NIE CIA National Intelligence Estimate NIO CIA National Intelligence Officer NIST National Intelligence Support Team (community-wide) NKVD Soviet intelligence and security service (Russian acronym) NLF National Liberation Front (Vietnam) NLHX Laotian community party (Neo Lao Hak Xat) NOG CIA Nicaraguan Operations Group NSA National Student Association NSA U.S. National Security Agency 06-223 (01) FM.qxd 5/9/06 8:59 PM Page xxx

xxx Acronyms Used in the Book

NSAM National Security Action Memorandum NSC U.S. National Security Council NSDD National Security Decision Directive NSDM National Security Decision Memorandum NSPG NSC National Security Planning Group NSSM National Security Study Memorandum NTS Russian exile group (Natsionalno Trudovoi Soyuz) NVDA National Volunteer Defense Army (Tibetan rebel movement) OAS Organization of American States OCB NSC Operations Coordinating Board OPC CIA Office of Policy Coordination ORIT Latin American labor group (Organizacion regional inter-Americano de Trajabadores) OSO CIA Office of Special Operations OSO U.S. Department of Defense Office of Special Operations OSS U.S. Organization for Strategic Services OUN Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (Ukrainian acronym) PARU Police Aerial Resupply Unit (Thai Special Forces) PBCFIA President’s Board of Consultants on Foreign Intelligence Archives PDF Panama Defense Forces PDPA People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan PERMESTA Indonesian rebel movement (Piagam Perjuangan Semesta) PFIAB President’s Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board PLA People’s Liberation Army (Chinese armed forces) PLO Palestine Liberation Organization PNC People’s National Congress (Guyanese political party) PP CIA Political and Psychological Warfare Staff PPP People’s Progressive Party (Guyana) PRC People’s Republic of China PSB NSC Psychological Strategy Board PSI Public Services International RFE U.S.. Radio Free Europe RIAS Radio in the American Sector (U.S. radio outlet in West Berlin) RIG NSC Restricted Interagency Group RL U.S. Radio Liberty RLG Royal Laotian Government SACSA U.S. Special Assistant (to the Secretary of Defense) for Counterin- surgency and Special Activities SAD CIA Special Activities Division SADF South African Defense Forces SALT Strategic Arms Limitation Talks SAM Surface to Air Missile SAOG CIA South Asia Operations Group (Afghanistan task force) SCC NSC Special Coordinating Committee 06-223 (01) FM.qxd 5/9/06 8:59 PM Page xxxi

Acronyms Used in the Book xxxi

SDECE French intelligence service (Service de documentation exterieure et de contre-espionage) SEAL Sea-Air-Land soldiers (U.S. Navy special forces) SEATO Southeast Asia Treaty Organizations SGU Special Guerrilla Unit (CIA combat unit of Hmong warriors in Laos) SIS Secret Intelligence Service (British intelligence service, aka MI-6) SNIE CIA Special National Intelligence Estimate SOE Special Operations Executive (British) SOF Special Operations Forces SOG Special Operations Group (Unconventional warfare command Korea) SPG CIA Special Procedures Group SSCI Senate Select Committee on Intelligence SSU U.S. Strategic Services Unit STTGI Stanford Technology Trading Group International (a Secord-Hakim company) TUC Trades Union Council UCLA University of California, Los Angeles UF Unified Force (Guyanese political party) UN United Nations UNITA National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (Portugese acronym) UNO Nicagaruan contra political front (union democratica nicaraguense) UNPFK United Nations Partisan Forces Korea UPA Ukrainian Partisan Army USAF United States Air Force USIA United States Information Agency USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics WEI Western Enterprises Incorporated (CIA cover agency on Taiwan) WH CIA Western Hemisphere Division WIGMO Western International Ground Maintenance Organization WIN Polish partisan movement Freedom and Independent (Wolnosc I Niepodleglosc) 06-223 (01) FM.qxd 5/9/06 8:59 PM Page xxxiii

A standing force . . . is a dangerous, at the same time that it may be a necessary provision. On the smallest scale it has its inconveniences. On an extensive scale, its consequences may be fatal. On any scale, it is an object of laudable circumspection and precaution. A wise nation will combine all these considerations; and whilst it does not rashly preclude itself from any resource which may become essential to its safety, will exert all its prudence in diminishing both the necessity and the danger of resorting to one which may be inauspicious to its liberties.

—James Madison, The Federalist, No. 41