Irrigation Practices, State Intervention and Farmers’ Life-Worlds in Drought-Prone Tigray, Ethiopia Promoters: Prof. Dr. N.E. Long Hoogleraar in de ontwikkelingssociologie Wageningen Universiteit Prof. L.F. Vincent Hoogleraar in de irrigatie en waterbouwkunde Wageningen Universiteit Promotiecommissie: Prof. Dr. L. de Haan Katholieke Universiteit Nijmegen Prof. Dr. P. Richards Wageningen Universiteit Dr. Ir. P. van der Zaag Universiteit Delft Dr. Ir. D. Hilhorst Wageningen Universiteit Irrigation Practices, State Intervention and Farmers’ Life-Worlds in Drought-Prone Tigray, Ethiopia Woldeab Teshome Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor op gezag van de rector magnificus van Wageningen Universiteit, prof.dr.ir. L. Speelman in het openbaar te verdedigen op maandag 15 december 2003 des namiddags te vier uur in de Aula Woldeab Teshome Irrigation Practices, State intervention and Farmers’ Life-Worlds in Drought-Prone Tigray, Ethiopia ISBN: 90-5808-945-2 Copyright @2003 by Woldeab Teshome To Nishan, Eyobed and Belen Table of Contents xi List of Figures xi List of Tables xiii List of Boxes xiii List of Photos xiv Acronyms xv Glossary of Local Terms xvii Preface and Acknowledgements 1 Introduction 1 1.1 The Problem 3 1.2 Conceptual and Theoretical Approaches 3 Irrigation and irrigation management 4 Irrigation system as a sociotechnical system 6 Social construction 7 Social requirements for use 8 Social effects 9 The dynamics of State intervention: some central concepts 10 Agency and social actors 11 Life-Worlds 11 Livelihood and practices 12 Power and Authority 13 1.3 The research Question 17 1.4 Methodological Consideration 17 Selection of case study areas 18 Methods 19 Ethnographic interviewing 19 Participant observation 19 Household interviews 20 Secondary data collection 21 1.5 Organisation and Contents of Chapters 21 Notes 22 2 An overview of Agrarian Policies, Agricultural Planning and Irrigation 23 Development in Ethiopia 2.1 Introduction 23 2.2 The Country 23 2.3 The Imperial Regime 25 viii Agrarian policy and conditions 25 Drought and famine 31 Irrigation development and technology choice 32 2.4 The Derg Regime 33 Agrarian policy and conditions 33 Drought and famine 37 Irrigation development and technology choice 38 The war with TPLF and EPLF, and Land redistribution in Tigray 40 2.5 The EPRDF-Led Government 41 Agrarian policy and conditions 41 Drought and famine 42 Irrigation development and technology choice 43 2.6 Irrigation development and institutional arrangements in Tigray 44 Hintalo Wajirat Agriculture Department 46 Commission for Sustainable Agriculture and Environmental Rehabilitation of Tigray (Co-SAERT) 46 Handing over of micro-dams to water users 49 Local governance 50 Food-for-work program and public works 52 The credit institutions 52 2.7 Conclusion 53 Notes 55 3 Irrigation Practices and Environmental Security in Hewane Irrigation 57 System 3.1 Introduction 57 3.2 Physical Settings and the People 57 3.3 The Irrigation System 59 Water allocation 59 The water users 60 3.4 Historical Overview of Past Irrigation Management 61 Water management under the Imperial Regime 61 Water management under the Derg Regime 63 3.5 Land Redistribution and Reconstruction of Water Rights in Hewane 65 3.6 Current Water Management under the Tigray Regional Government 67 Water allocation and scheduling 67 Abo mai (father of water): the key role in water distribution 68 Canal cleaning and maintenance 70 Co-operative work in canal construction 70 Water conflict management 71 3.7 Struggles to Preserve Irrigated Land Area and Agricultural Land Quality 73 Shelenat dams construction 73 Soil erosion and slumping in Hewane 75 Soil and water conservation (SWC) measures 77 Bee keeping: the emerging livelihood practice 78 ix 3.8 Conclusion 81 Notes 84 4 Irrigation Practices in Gum Selassa Irrigation System 85 4.1 Introduction 85 4.2 Physical Settings and the People 85 4.3 Establishment of the Gum Selassa Irrigation System 88 Land reallocation study 88 Land redistribution and selection of irrigators 89 Farmers reaction to the land redistribution 90 4.4 The Construction of Gum Selassa Micro dam 92 4.5 Irrigation Governance and Authority Roles 93 4.6 Water Management Tasks 97 Water allocation 97 Water distribution 99 System maintenance 101 Conflict resolution 103 Soil salinity: the creeping problem 104 4.7 Cropping Pattern 105 4.8 Water Scarcity and Threatened Livelihoods 106 4.9 Conclusion 110 Notes 113 5 Irrigated Agriculture and Household Food Security 115 5.1 Introduction 115 5.2 Irrigated Agriculture in Gum Selassa and Hewane 116 Agricultural tasks and seasons 116 Crops cultivated in irrigated fields and yield 119 5.3 Household Production Dynamics 121 Organisation of labour 121 Saint days, holy days and religious associations 123 Women and irrigated agriculture 127 Access to agricultural inputs and market 129 5.4 The Practice of Woferit (sharecropping) 132 Woferit practice during the Imperial Regime 133 Current woferit practice in Hewane and Gum Selassa 134 Shared yield and household food consumption 141 5.5 Conclusion 142 Notes 144 6 Surviving in a Drought-Prone Region 145 6.1 Introduction 145 6.2 The 1984/85 Drought and Famine: the problem 146 Famine in memory 146 Repertoires of coping strategies with drought and famine: household responses in 1984/85 149 x 6.3 Food Aid in Hintalo Wajirat Woreda 152 Food-for-Work Program 152 Food Security Program 154 6.4 Livelihood Strategies in Gum Selassa and Hewane 155 6.5 Conclusion 160 Notes 164 7 Wielding and Yielding in ‘Participatory Development’: The arena of 165 coercive persuasion? 7.1 Introduction 165 7.2 Participatory Demonstration and Training Extension System 166 7.3 Enforcing the Sales of Chemical Fertiliser: Imposing technology? 167 Purchasing fertiliser 167 Wielders of ‘participatory development’ 171 The Agriculture Department and development agents (DAs) 171 The Tabia Administration 173 7.4 Coping with Uncertainties? 174 7.5 Yielding to Wielders of ‘Participatory Development’ 176 7.6 ‘Participation’ in Labour-intensive Public Works Programs 177 7.7 Providing Credit Service and the Debt Trap 180 7.8 Conclusion 184 Notes 188 8 Conclusions 191 8.1 Theoretical Reflections 191 8.2 Key Findings 193 On the question of agrarian policies, State intervention and irrigation development 193 On the question of the practices of irrigated agriculture and its value in the life-worlds of the irrigators 194 On the question of intervention by local government in everyday irrigation management and irrigated agriculture… 196 On the question of local coping strategies in respect to drought and famine… 201 8.3 Implications of the Study 202 8.4 Looking to the Future 203 8.5 On the Need for Further Research 204 Appendix 205 Bibliography 209 Summary 223 Samenvatting 227 About the Author 231 List of Figures Figure 1.1 Interlocking Relationships and Actors’ Strategic Actions in State 16 Irrigation Intervention: A Framework for Analysis Figure 2.1 Map of Ethiopia Showing Study Sites 24 Figure 2.2 Estimated Drought-Affected Population for Selected Provinces,1981-91 37 Figure 2.3 Commission for Sustainable Agriculture and Environmental Rehabilitation in Tigray (Co-SAERT) Organization Chart 47 Figure 3.1 Location Map of Hewane Irrigation System 60 Figure 4.1 Location Map of Gum Selassa Micro dam 87 Figure 4.2 Map of Gum Selassa Irrigation System 93 Figure 4.3 Plots Preparation and Water distribution to Individual Plots in Gum Selassa Irrigation System 100 Figure 4.4 Distributed, Estimated and Irrigated Land in Gum Selassa Irrigation System 107 Figure 7.1 Number of Farmers Who Purchased Fertilizer in Hewane Tabia 168 Figure 7.2 Farmers Who Purchased Fertilizer and Improved Wheat Seed in Hewane Tabia (1998-2002) 170 Figure 7.3 Fertilizer Sales in Tigray (1995-2002) 171 Figure 7.4 Retail Price of Fertilizer in ETB/quintal in Tigray Region (1997- 2002) 175 List of Tables Table 1.1 Type of Informants in Hewane and Gum Selassa Irrigation Systems 20 Table 2.1 Percentage of Tenants in Total Farm Population and Percentage of Total Area Cultivated by Tenants, 1963-67 26 Table 2.2 Wholesale Prices of Grain, Addis Ababa Grain Market* 35 Table 2.3 Ethiopia: Cereal Relief Food Aid Estimates and Distribution 1995- 2002 42 Table 2.4 Common Technical Problems of Micro-dams in Tigray 48 Table 3.1 Water Delivery Schedule in Hewane Irrigation System during the Imperial Regime (pre-1974) 62 Table 3.2 Irrigation of Mesno Plots by Crop/vegetable 68 Table 3.3 Number of Abo mais in Hewane Irrigation System by Diversions Served 69 Table 3.4 Size of Eroded Farmlands and Number of Farmers Affected in Korkora kushet, Hewane Tabia 76 Table 3.5 Soil and Water Conservation Activities in Hintalo Wajirat Woreda 77 Table 3.6 Number of Workdays People Participated in Soil and Water Conservation in Hintalo Wajirat Woreda 77 xii Table 3.7 Beekeepers Affected by Gully Erosion and Slumping in Korkora Kushet by Ownership of Bee colonies 79 Table 4.1 Breakdown of Land Holdings of Each Tabia in the Command and Reservoir Areas before the Construction of Gum Selassa Dam 88 Table 4.2 Distributed Land and Irrigated Plots in Gum Selassa Irrigation System 97 Table 4.3 Co-SAERT’s Estimation of Irrigable Land and Irrigated Land in Gum Selassa Irrigation System 98 Table 4.4 Proposed Cropping Pattern and Cultivated Area in Gum Selassa Irrigation System in Percentage 106 Table 4.5 Average Household Land Holding Before and After the Establishment of Gum Selassa Irrigation System 108 Table 5.1 Ownership of Oxen in Hewane by Kushet, 2001 116 Table 5.2 Average