Language Learning in Europe and Thailand As a Paradigm of Cultural Transition

LANGUAGE LEARNING IN EUROPE AND THAILAND AS A PARADIGM OF CULTURAL TRANSITION

Pornsan Watananguhn 1

Introduction: A Lesson from the Revolution of 24th June 1932

" I am determined to give my simultaneously, both insta·nt democracy absolute power to all of my people and prosperity to Siam. But as we now in the Kingdom of Si;im, but I do know, the Revolution did not lead to any not intend to give this supreme basic structural changes in Thai society. authority to any single person or to any groups of men for his or their The People 's Party 's understanding of own advantage." democracy suggests that their political consciousness had its roots in the These above words, spoken by King Rama westernization of the Siamese educational VII before he abdicated in March 1935, system, which took place in the reign of constitute the Majesty' s response to King Rama V (r.1868-1910). The core of Siam' s transition from absolute to the People 's Party, especially those who cons~itutional monarchy, a very dramatic had been trained in Europe, were convinced political event which was fostered by that so long as Siam remained an absolute groups of civilians and military officers monarchy, the country was unwesternized, of the Siamese Army. All of the military and therefore, undeveloped. To elevate officers and civilians were Western Siam to western standard demanded that trained. Many of the military officers had the old political system be replaced with a received training in Germany and France; new, democratic one. In the opinion of the while all of the civilians had been People 's Party, this charge would make the educated in France or England. people of Siam democratic and civilized.

The group, the so-called People's Party, Democracy in this sense emphasizes the 1 which c.arried out the Revolution of 24 h democratic form of the state rather than June 1932, believed that the abolition of its actual content. This idea of democracy the absolute monarchy would bring, as a ready-made product can be explained as an aftermath of the westernization of the educational system in the reign of King 1 Associate Professor Rama V, when the traditional Siamese Department of Western Languages concepts of knowledge and how to gain Faculty of Arts, Chulalongkorn University knowledge were completely transformed.

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Knowledge in the traditional Thai way In the year 1822, an English delegation led of thinking referred to knowledge of by John Crawfurd arrived in Siam. It was Buddhist precepts. Education, therefore, noted that: served a religious purpose. With educational reform, the idea of knowledge as religious "The negotiation was extremely content was replaced by the concept of difficult, as it could not be carried knowledge as worldly content which on without several interpreters. existed in the West. This change was John Crawford spoke in English decisive as it consequently transformed to his Malay interpreter. Then the the traditional concept of gaining conversation was translated into knowledge. More emphasis was placed Thai by another interpreter. The on the acquisition of worldly knowledge translation process of the answer such as mathematics, geography, science, from Siamese ministers took place in political science etc, which could be the same manner. This negotiation did obtained from books rather than from not bring about any treaty."2 experience. Accordingly, the concept of importing western civilization and The negotiation made Siam conscious of democracy, which culminated in the the importance of English as a means of political change of 1932, represents the communication. King Rama III (r. 1824- concept of Thai way of thinking that 1851), who was then in charge of foreign most of the Thais principally are not affairs, was also very impressed by the interested in reaching a real understanding discipline and uniforms of the Indian of the genesis of and philosophy behind soldiers who accompanied British-trained western culture and technology. It was, Crawford' s delegation. King Rama III and it is still more convenient for a Thai directed that his own guard be trained in to adopt western knowledge as a ready the western way.3 Further, His Majesty made product, which deprives one's own had a textbook on cannon firing translated initiative. into the Thai language and ordered many cannons and much ammunition for his This main idea of the paper will be army. His successor Rama IV (r. 1851- illustrated in the concept of learning 1868), ordered gunboats directly from foreign languages in Europe and Thailand England. His Majesty also arranged for as a paradigm of cultural transition, which the formation and training of troops also encompasses in the next example following the western military model. from Thai history.

"Kt:iowledge as Power" and 2 My translation. The History ofth e Ministry Foreign Language as a "Bridge to ofEducation 1892-1964, published on the Gain Power: An Experience from occasion of 72 years of the Ministry of Education. Bangkok: Kurusapa 1964, p. 6. the Delegation of John 3 The History ofth e Armed Forces during the Crawford" Rattanakosin Period, published in a book given at the funeral of Colonel Phraya Damgoeng-ronnapob at Thepsirin Temple 1967, pp. 23-27.

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This is the origin of the present-day Royal means of attaining western ideas and ThaiArmy.4 thinking.6

The fact that Burma, for centuries a "Knowledge is power" as Francis Bacon traditional enemy of Siam, became a said about 400 years ago reflecting the colony of Britain in 1886 during the reign process of intellectual enlightenment in of King Rama V, and the arrival of a few Europe at that time. In the meantime, the French gunboats at the mouth of the intellectuals in Europe gradually changed Chao-Phraya River in 1894 made Siam from monks to laymen. It can be said aware of the threat the West posed to the that Siam, a hundred years ago, also went political independence of the Kingdom. through a fairly similar experience. The only difference being perhaps that western The People 's Party was also seduced by technology was born within its own the power of western technology. During culture and society, whereas science in 1 the Revolution of 24 h June 1932 it Thai society was imported from abroad. practiced its own version of gunboat diplomacy warning one of the leading The educational reforms of King Rama V princes, Prince Boripat, that gunboats involved both the sending of members of would be used to prevent his escape from the Royal Family and some civilians to the capital.5 study in Europe and the evolution of the idea of gaining knowledge from overseas It was the world political situation and bringing it back to Siam. A prince that induced King Rama V, or King who took part in the reforms expressed his Chulalongkorn, (r. l 868-1 910), to undertake views thus: extensive educational reforms. Already King Rama IV had been aware of the "As western technology was not realities of 19th century colonialism, the made in Siam, it had to be transferred contributions of the christian missionaries, into our country. A foreign language particularly in the field of medicine, and (in this case English) does not have the superiority of western technology. His any value by itself, but should be Majesty was convinced that English was considered as a device or a bridge, indispensable as an access to western and the teacher as a means of knowledge, technology and power. Thus, importing western knowledge. 7 the study of English became an important

6 Bertha Blount. McFarland of Siam. New York: Vantage Press Inc. 1958, p. 45. In: Supannie Kanchanathiti: The Role of Missionaries in Thailand from King Rama Ill 4 ibid., p. 36. -King Rama V., M.A. Thesis, Department of 5 See: Satuean Suppasophon. The Life and History, Graduate School, Chulalongkorn Struggle ofPhraya Songsuradet, published by University 1964, p. 95. the Sub-Committee for the Book Production of 7 Wit Witsatavet. The Philosophy ofThai the Project 60 Years of Democracy. Bangkok: Education 1868-1932. Bangkok: Funny Creative Publishing, 1992, p. 98. Publishers 1983, pp. 66.

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The fact that Thailand could not produce It could be said that western languages did its own technology but had to import not play a significant role in the history it from the west, emphasized the idea of language learning in old Siam. The of acquiring western knowledge and Novice School, founded by the French technology as instant knowledge. This Catholics in the year 1668 in the reign of idea led to what I call a consumer King Narai the Great during the A yutthaya mentality of learning, whereby Thais period, was the only western language · believed they could import, consume, and school worthy of mention in old Siam. instantly absorb Western knowledge Although not popular among the Thais, without any consideration of the origin or the Novice School was supported by King goals of the imported knowledge or its Narai for reasons of diplomacy and compatibility with Thailand's own cultural politics. The first boarding school in background. Efforts by King Rama VI Siam, it was based on a French model (1910-1925) and some government officers where foreign languages, Latin, French, to modify western knowledge and technology and lessons on Christianity were based on Thai traditions were in vain. systematically taught. 8

We can justifiably speak here of the goal This school did not last long as the of importing knowledge from the western political and military influences of the world as a hope for instant knowledge. French Catholics brought them into This is the idea which was in evidence conflict with the Siamese authorities at some 60 years later, during the Revolution the end of the reign of King Narai. These of 24th June 1932, when revolutionary conflicts, which served to discredit and leaders aspired to bring instant democracy reduce the power of the French in Siam, to Thailand. also decreased roles of French and Latin as foreign languages.9 Let us cast a look back at the traditional Thai way of gaining knowledge or learning As previously mentioned, Thai society in foreign languages and compare it to the the old days ideally aimed at creating education reform initiated by King Rama men with religious precepts. Here, the V. In traditional Thai culture, education educational concept corresponded with was conducted in monasteries by Buddhist the religious concepts of Buddhism. Such monks. While this kind of learning aimed practices and beliefs were not unknown at giving literacy to Thai males, its main in Europe in former times, where the purpose was to create "good Buddhists." On the whole, a "good Buddhist" believed 8 See: Pornsan Watananguhn. Foreign in the "principle of Karma", understood Language Learning in Thailand - Concept that life was nothing but suffering and was Method - Theory, Part I: A Historical taught the way to relieve this suffering. Backward (1656-1908), in Festschrifl, The aims of monastery education were, Chulalongkorn University-30 Years German therefore, essentially ethical and religious, Section. Bangkok: Duang Kamon, 1987, with Pali as a linguistic vehicle for attaining pp. 120-127. (in German) this peaceful religious life. 9 Kachon Sukapanit. Documents in the Reign of King Narai. In: The Facts from the Past. Bangkok: Klet-Thai, 1975.

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subordination of the mind and intellect communication. 10 In India, the land of to the spirit of Christianity was praised. Lord Buddha, Buddhism was reabsorbed Although the monasteries and the Catholic by Hinduism after Buddha's death about priests represented the religious world in 2500 years ago. Because Pali and Latin the same way that Buddhist monks did in were not spoken in everyday life, both Siam, the roles of European churchmen languages had to be systematically taught and the Latin language were very different. asforeign languages. Buddhist monks and Pali did not serve as absolute symbols of the classical Indian This fact is vitally important, for it implies world, whereas Latin, as the cultural and the new social status of both Indo-germanic scholarly vehicle for European thinking languages as so-called dead languages, reflected the hegemony of Christianity and and above all, it implies the dominance of represented an inroad into the ancient the deductive teaching method for Pali classical world. Unlike European scholars and Latin lessons, based on the model of who could attain "learned scholar status" traditional grammar and translation. by studying classical literary works in the In Europe in the 4th century, Donatus' original languages of Greek and Latin, language learning method of mastering the Thai people never engaged in the study grammatical rules of Latin was supported of Pali as a means to access the cultural by the idea of the Scholastics that Latin supremacy of India. The gradual phasing grammar was logical. As a result, the out of Vulgar Latin, i.e. Latin at the end of study of language meant the study of the Ancient Roman Empire, which began logical thinking. 11 In Siam, Pali or Sanskrit around the year 600, and the political was learned as a means to understand the independence of new states in Europe led Buddhist Holy Scripture, just as Greek to the emergence of different nations in and Hebrew were taught in Theological 12 Europe. In the 8th and 9th centuries there Colleges in Europe. already existed, besides Latin, various Romance languages such as Italian, The teaching of scripture implied recitation Spanish, Portuguese and French. In the and memorization. To master Latin and high Middle Ages, Latin possessed a new Pali meant not only to master the social status. On the one hand, it was still grammatical rules of the respective a means of communication within the languages in terms of Metalanguage, Catholic Church and among scholars, civil but also to be adept in translation. The servants and representatives of the higher

classes. On the other hand, for the common 10 people in Europe, Latin had to be acquired. Szulc, Aleksander. Die Fremdsprachendidaktik - Konzeptionen -Methoden - Theorien. Thereby, Latin gradually lost its function Warszawa: Panstwowe Wydawnictwo as the language of communication and was Naukowe 1976, p. 12. considered as the language of scholarly 11 The idea that all languages principally have the same logical structure led to the emergence of the theory of universal grammar in 17th century Europe. See also Szulc A., ibid., p. 18. 12 Watson, K. Education Development in Thailand. Hong Kong: Dah Hua Printing Co., first published 1980, S. 71.

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method of rote learning was used both in The Genesis of Foreign Language Europe and traditional Siam to teach these Learning in Thailand in the 19th skills. and 20th Centuries During the Middle Ages in Europe, the concept of foreign language learning As mentioned earlier, the history of was based on the model of traditional language learning in Europe is similar to grammar, whereas the teaching method that in Thailand in its aims, philosophical was absolutely intuitive. In the 17th concepts and the focus on rote learning century, this teaching model for Latin and translation based on traditional based on the model of traditional grammar grammar. The start of the 20th century, still persisted. 13 It is interesting to note however, represents a point of transition that this kind of language teaching model that merits a comparative consideration. has totally governed the teaching of In Europe, there emerged a modern foreign languages up to the third decade linguistics based on the linguistic theories of the 20th century. of Ferdinand de Saussure, and resulting in the birth of Structuralism and the revival We can conclude from this that the of inductive language learning. On the acquisition of Latin and French, as they whole, it can be said that these linguistic were taught by the French Catholics in contributions have been decisive stimuli the Novice school, was certainly influenced for the recognition of the functional use of by the methods of teaching Latin and language in real communication. But the followed the model of traditional grammar. introduction of modern education based on a European model has not totally Another interesting note on the study of modernized language learning in Thailand, Pali and Latin is that the objectives for where traditional methods remain acquiring these ·languages were very influential. As a result of this legacy, a different. Pali became a language studied conflict has arisen between the facile mainly for religious objectives while Latin adoption of the natural methods of second became indispensable for anyone who language learning endorsed by the wished to call himself a scholar. Education communicative approach for foreign in this western sense was necessary for the language teaching in the 1970s and acquisition of political power. Pali and remnants of the old modes of learning Sanskrit were learned as a means to attain originally connected with Pali. Traditional literacy.14 learning and the older method of deductive learning have complemented each other, . while the traditional method of rote learning based on traditional grammar still persists.

13 Szulc, A., ibid., p. 11. The interrelation between the Thai learning 14 Compare Wyatt, D.K. The Politics of tradition and older imported learning and Reform in Thailand: Education in the Reign teaching concepts is reflected in many ofKing Chulalongkorn. New Haven: Yale textbooks on the Thai language. The University Press, 1969, pp. 16-17. famous classical Thai grammar of Phraya

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Uppakit Silapasarn (1918) and Kamchai Ladies from upper-class families who had Thong/or (1925), which combine the learned English at Siam's first boarding granunars of Pali and English, are among school, Wanglang School, founded in the the best examples.15 In other words, the reign of King Rama IV and now called focus of these texts is on the teaching and the Wattana Wittaya Academy, were learning of grammar, as was the foreign appointed to give an enthusiastic reception language learning tradition in Europe until to diplomats from Europe. The learning the third decade of the 20th century. of English was still confined to certain social groups, and the language was usually There is no doubt that the root of the taught in Protestant or Catholic schools by pedagogical concept of all foreign languages native speakers. taught in Thailand, including German, is based on that of English. Generally Before the Second World War, women of accepted as the most important foreign well-to-do families wer.e often sent to language, English has played an important acquire English in Penang. Men either role in Thailand since the 19th century. went to Europe or America, or they studied This is due to socio-cultural and political English or French at private Protestant or reasons resulting from western colonialism Catholic schools in Bangkok. It was not at that time. until the 1960s that English began to be taught officially from the 5th grade as the lH Thailand, foreign languages have been first foreign language in Thailand. taught by native speakers from the very beginning, not only during the reign of The communicative approach to teaching King Narai the Great around 1668, but English, first officially introduced in also at schools founded by missionaries in Thailand by the Ministry of Education the reign of King Rama IV (r. 1851-1868). in 1976, was rather controversial, 16 not Thus, the influence of foreign teachers has only because of the incongruity of the been felt since the beginning of foreign pedagogical concept and the teaching language education in Thailand. Not only methods, but also because of the contrast was it more effective to learn a foreign between the selected textbooks and the language with native speakers, but foreign qualifications of the teachers. Most Thai teachers were also simply indispensable teachers teaching English continued to as Thais had not mastered any western focus on granunar and writing skills. The foreign languages. Nor did they have Ministry of Education also implemented any experience in how to teach those similar curricula and a similar approach for languages. all foreign languages taught in Thai schools. The curriculum of 1990 declares

15 Compare: Benchawan Suntrarakul. The Development of Textbook for Thai. 16 Sam-ang Hiranburana. Evaluation of the Ramkamhaeng University Press 1975, and Project to Develop English Learning in the Uppakit SilapaSa.rn, Phraya. The Thai Language. Secondary School 1981-1983. A research Bangkok: Thonburi Rung Wattana Publisher project for the Ministry of Education, Bangkok 1971, p. 7. 1985, p. 146. (in Thai)

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communicative competence17 the number effectiveness of this approach is quite two learning objective: "The target of questionable, because some teachers foreign language learning for beginners persisted in using grammar oriented is to develop and practise the four skills. lessons, while some tried to follow the Pupils should be able to use the target instructions of the Goethe Institute, and language for communication appropriately, others opted for a middle path, using and knowledge of the country in which the mixed methods. language is used should also be taken into consideration. These four skills should I learned a tremendous amount from my provide a foundation for learning the experiences at the Goethe Institute. The foreign language at an advanced level." different teaching methods used by the (curriculum 1990, in Thai). Thai teachers of German at the Institute show the different interpretations of "Communicative or Non - the communicative approach in Thailand. Communicative" Lessons? - A It is clear that Thai interpretations of communicative competence are conditioned Critical Remark about German by the specific language learning needs of Lessons at the Goethe - Institute, Thai students in Thailand. The theoretical Bangkok concept of communicative competence18 was first developed from language My practical experi~nce with the philosophy and pragmatics by the German communicative approach came from my sociologist Jurgen Habermas. It has been involvement as a German teacher at the widely discussed, especially in the field of Goethe Institute in Bangkok during the psycholinguistics. The concept has also years 1985-1992. According to the policy been adapted for practical use in foreign of the Goethe Institute at that time, the language teaching, both in Europe and else objective of German lessons was to develop where. The communicative competence as communicative competence. This meant a learning method is interpreted differently that the lessons were to be conducted only by different foreign language teachers. in German and in such a way that they The English Language Institute of helped students practice or reinforced oral Chulalongkorn University views it as a communication skills. Errors were to be mixture of four skills - listening, speaking, ignored as long as the learner's utterances reading and writing. However, what could be understood. This depended on this method means at Thai universities the judgement of the teachers. The offering German courses is still unclear. The dominance of the communicative approach in foreign language learning in 1 7 The main objective of the current curriculum of 1996 by the Ministry of Education is functional cognitive. (Information from the 18 See, Jiirgen Haberrnas. Vorbereitende conversation with Assist. Prof. Dr. Sudapom Bemerkungen zu einer Theorie der Laksanieyanavin from the Department of kommunikativen Kompetenz. In: Linguistics, Chulalongkom University, who Habermas,J./Luhmann, N. Theorie der worked with the Ministry of Education and Geseflschaft oder Sozia/techno/ogie. was responsible for this curriculum.) Frankfurt 1971, pp. 101 -141.

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Thailand in the last few years can perhaps and finally the "communicative approach" be explained as a lack of awareness of the since 19 8 9, reflected in the regional origin of this linguistic theory. As far as textbooks Viel Spafl mit Deutsch (3 studies in psycholinguistics in Europe are volumes). The latter were developed concerned, research on the communicative jointly by Thai German teachers and the approach has dealt with second language Goethe-Institute in Munich and are based acquisition of adult immigrant workers.19 on cultural comparisons between Thai Concretely speaking, the communicative and German. Another textbook in this joint - approach was originally related to second venture project - Lesen macht Spafl - language acquisition in the environment focuses on reading techniques. of the country of the target language. An overview of German lessons at the As previously mentioned, the methodologies university level in Thailand presents a involved in the teaching of English and heterogeneous picture. This, in my opinion, German in secondary schools have been is the result of two main variables in governed by concepts of learning introduced mutual relation: the university concept by the Ministry of Education, especially of education regarding German and the after 1976, when communicative competence structure of the science, on the one hand, was declared an official learning objective. and the essential academic requirements But learning German as a second language of teaching and research in the field of in Thailand is not only determined by the psycholinguistics and the teaching of policy of Ministry of Education. More German at Thai universities, on the other. decisive has been the close involvement of the Goethe Institute in Bangkok However, speaking will never become since early 1960s.20 Schools where German indispensable for the acquisition of German is taught have adopted various textbooks and Germanistik-studies in Thailand for and teaching methods used by the Goethe the following reasons. First, at the university Institute: the translation - grammar oriented level the study of German comprises much lessons of Schulz-Griesbach during the more than learning the practical use of the 1960s, the audio-lingual teaching methods language, it comprises literary, cultural of Braun Nieder Schmoe in the 1970s, and linguistic components.

Second, since research on language-learning 19 Example of empirical projects in Europe psychology based on the learning and concerning the communicative concept in the teaching situation in Thailand is still at the second language acquisition include: beginning phase, it may be appropriate to Heidelberger Forschungsprojekt "Pidgin ask whether Thais should have foreign Deutsch" {1975); Second Language Acquisition by Adult Immigrants. A Field language teaching methods based on their Manual. The European Science Foundation own philosophical concepts. 1982. 20 The Goethe-Institute Bangkok was Today, native speakers still play a significant established in the year 1960 with the help of role in the teaching and learning of the two DAAD (German Academic Exchange German language. We owe special thanks Service) Lectors. See: 25 Jahre Goethe to the Goethe-Institute for providing Jnstitut Bangkok 1960-1985.

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trammg and teaching-learning materials Thailand, there are still some basic for school teachers. However, this assistance requirements of the learning situation here. has one disadvantage: it deprives Thai teachers of the incentive to develop their (i) We must particularly bear in mind that own teaching methods. In addition, the the acquisition of German in Thailand trend in foreign language learning at Thai occurs in a country in South-East Asia; universities is towards language for special properly speaking, it takes place outside purposes, emphasizing specific skills such the country of the target language, where as English for Business or German for direct, everyday contact with the language Hotels. As a result, cultural content in and social contact with native speakers foreign language learning has declined. 21 are seldom possible. This limited access to authentic language has an effect not The current emphasis on the acquisition only on the learning process, but also of certain specific skills disregards the on the learner's communicative needs, authentic learning situation and reflects attitudes, motivation and therefore, a lack of interest in reaching a real learning success. understanding of the genesis of and concepts behind western culture and (ii) The acquisition of German in Thailand technology. This attitude, in my opinion, is principally the acquisition of adult could create a lack of awareness of the learners over 16 years of age, and not of value of one's own culture, as shown in children, as German is a second foreign various examples from Thai history. language taught in secondary schools in Thailand. Here, I would like to emphasize Findings and Outcome that communicative competence as a cognitive ability for a discourse analysis is out of the question for the reason that this In the rest of this paper I propose to ability is already available in the course of present a comprehensive view of the the acquisition of the mother tongue (L l).22 teaching and learning of German in Thailand under conditional circumstances. (iii) There are several models of language Then, I will conclude by offering an overall acquisition. In our case, the acquisition judgement of the concept of pedagogic of German as a second foreign language strategies used in teaching German in occurs mainly in a formal school setting, Thailand. where the basic psychological precondition should be considered: the effect of the In spite of the heterogeneity of the various mother tongue (L 1) and first foreign factors in the acquisition of German in

21 Pornsan Watananguhn. Germanistik in 22 Compare: Pornsan Tmangraksat. Der Thailand - Einige Aspekte aus thailandischer Erwerb der deutschen Tempusjlexion bei thai Sicht. In: Deutsch als Fremdsprache - liindischen Erwachsenen, Situation eines Faches, hg. von Lutz Gotze Europaische Hochschulschriften Reihe XXI Bonn-Bad Godesberg: Verlag Diirr 1987, S. Linguistik, Vol. 42., Frankfurt am Main, 20-33. (in German) Bern, New York: Lang Verlag 1985. (in German)

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language, English, on the second foreign Germanistik at university certainly has a language, German. 1bis model of classroom different academic objective from a Thai learning complement with the spontaneous tourist in Germany.23 acquisition of German through informal learning outside the classroom and/or The fact that the communicative approach through private enterprises, which require was originally intended for second language different learning groups and have different learners living in the environment of the objectives. Hence, these heterogeneous target language means, therefore, that it is backgrounds are determining factors that more appropriate as a technique for the suggest distinctive learning concepts as acquisition of foreign language used in well as methods. natural, everyqay life or for the acquisition of foreign language from childhood. 24 Past For reasons of space it is not possible to experience has shown that adults, whose give a more detailed discussion of the learning psychology is totally different determining factors. Studies consisting of from that of children, require a clear general and crucial factors that determine explanation of German grammatical the exact course of language acquisition/ structure. Thai English teachers have also learning are familiar to most psycholinguists had the same experience. 25 Grammar and foreign language teachers. Theories oriented lessons should not be totally of foreign language learning are widely rejected for this kind of instruction discussed in literature but they are rarely conforms with the traditional Thai learning considered in terms of their practical attitude. It is about time to pay attention application. to our own language learning problems and to develop an independent learning Conclusion concept. Among the teaching and learning methods imported from the West, the benefits of linguistic competence are often In our case, the complexity and heterogeneity underestimated or ignored. of German language acquisition in Thailand justify the assumption that the aim of learning German should not be generalized as a common goal for all types of learning and for all target groups. 23 Also see: Chetana Nagavajara. Literary Study and Higher Education. ASAIHL Lecture Ideally, authorities from the Ministry of of the Year 1982. In : The Teaching of Education, curriculum planners, textbook Literature in ASAIHL Universitites. Published writers, as well as school and university by the University of Hong Kong 1983, S.xiii. German teachers should work together to (in English) 24 formulate the objective of foreign language Jean Piaget. Le developpement de la notion learning. de temps chez /'enfant, Paris: PUF, 1946. Also see: Wolfgang Klein, Zweitspracherwerb, Eine EinfUhrung, 2. Auflage, Frankfurt am Moreover, formal and informal study of Main: Athenaum, 1987, pp. 16-26. German must be considered separately 25 This information is quoted from the as distinct learning types and properly conversation with Associate Prof. Dr. Sam designed. A pupil who aims to study ang Hiranburana on the 21. 4.1990.

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