UNESCO-JASTIP Joint Symposium on Intra-Regional Water Security and Disaster Management 15-16 November 2017, Quezon City, Philippines

“Understanding potential conflicts among sectors due spatial and seasonal water use and availability in , ”

Eva Mia Siska Supervisors: Prof. Dr. Kaoru Takara Assoc. Prof. Takahiro Sayama

1 Contents of presentation

• Problem Statement • Study context • Methodology • Results

o Water demand

o Water supply • Conclusions

2 Economic growth and water reallocation

Population Growth  Urbanization

Industrialization  Economic diversification

Hydrological variation have bigger impact during dry season More people, water consumptive Different water users Hydrological variation have less lifestyle with higher impact during dry season economic value (more cash per drop)

Less population, modest lifestyle (less water per capita) Modern water supply More farmers, Higher lifestyle, Clean water more crops per competition year between tourism and locals

Less water user, simpler water management, less conflict

6,000 Larger area same water amount

4,000 3 2,000 Water withdrawal in the world (km /year)

0 (Shiklomanov, 1993) 1900 1940 1950 1960 1970 1975 1980 1990* 2000* *) Estimation 3 Agriculture Industry Municipal Reservoirs Economic growth and water reallocation

• Industrialization and urbanization are currently taking place in most of developing countries in the world. Inevitably, water transfers to the growing urban centers and inter-sectorial water allocation are likely to happen (Komakech, Van Der Zaag, & Van Koppen, 2012; Wang, Fang, & Hipel, 2003);

• “Water is too often devoted to economically inefficient, low return (usually agricultural) uses and that reallocation to more efficient, high return (usually urban) uses would increase total economic welfare.”(Molle, 2006);

• Water reallocation due to limited amount of resources has been known as source of conflicts among sectors;

• Water scarcity condition creates higher vulnerability for conflict due to water transfer which may escalates to destruction and fights among water users Study Context : Bali, Indonesia

Suara Pembaruan Newspaper (September 2015)

1. Area : 5,634.40 km2 1) 2. Population (2014): 4,104,900 2) 3. 8 regencies and 1 city Merdeka.com (September 2014)

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of Bali Province

2013 16.82% 29.89% 15.56%

2003 21% 30% 14%

1993 22% 30% 14%

1987 47% 19% 10%

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

Agriculture, Livestock, Forestry and Fishery Mining&Quarrying Manufacturing Industry Electricity, Gas and Water Supply Construction Trade, Hotel&Restaurant Transport&Communication Financial,Ownership and Business Services Services 5 Sources: 1) Bali Provincial Government; 2) Bali Statistical Agency Study Context : Bali, Indonesia

Number of tourists visiting Population (1979-2013) Paddy fields (Harvested Bali Island 4.5 Area) in Th. Ha (1982-2013) 350,000 4.0 200 300,000 3.5

250,000 Millions 3.0 150 200,000 2.5 150,000 2.0 100,000 Population Growth Rate (2000-2010): 2.14 100 50,000 1.5 - 1.0 50 0.5

0.0

Sep-92

Jan-82

Sep-84 Jan-98

May-11

Jan-90 Jan-06

Sep-08 0

Sep-00 1979 1987 1994 1999 2004 2009

May-95 May-87 May-03 1982 1988 1995 2000 2005 2010 • This study takes an example of rapid development in Bali as one of the world’s tourist destinations • The shifting water distribution from agriculture which is mostly owned by the locals to tourism industries about 85% of which is owned by non-Balinese (MacRae, 2010) is one of the examples of a conflict ridden process; • Research on water conflicts in Bali were mostly discussed through social and political perspectives (Cole, 2012; Tarigan, Dharmawan, Tjondronegoro, & Suradisastra, 2014; Trisnawati, 2012); • Very little research were published about the scientific reasons behind these conflicts;

• The objective of this study is to understand conflicts between sectors in Bali by comparing the spatial and seasonal variabilities of water uses and availability. Water Resources and infrastructure

Rainfall Dams : (total storage 14.37 million m3) 3 1,500 • Palasari Dam (Jembrana Regency) - 8 million m

1,250 • Telaga Tunjung Dam () - 1 1500 2,500 1,750 3 1,750 million m , 2,000 2,750 2,000 2,250 • Gerokgak Dam () -3.75 million 2,250 3,000 3,250 m3 and 1,750 3,000 2,500 3,000 • Benel Dam (Jembrana Regency) -1.62 million m3 2,750 2,250

2,000 1,750 (Ministry of Agriculture, 2017).

Rainfall Station Ngurah Rai Mean monthly rainfall period 1990-2014

500 428 450 400 331 1500 350 288 300 226 250 P (mm/y) P 200 144 143 150Rainfall (in mm) 72 77 100 45 33 31 50 13 0

Month , Clean water is supplied by Regional Drinking Water Companies (PDAM), which are managed by each regency/city. Alternative water supply Shallow wells (less than 12 m) Deep wells (max. 60 m with less than 100 m3/month) Rivers , , Data source: Isohyet Map: JICA Rainfall Data: BMKG Location map of PDAM JICA . 7 Water Crisis and Conflicts

Info-graphic in local newspaper (Bali Post) about Bali Water Deficit

Water crisis has been the media headline for the past decade in Bali.

J F M A M J J A S O N D

Water crisis because of damage in Water crisis because of lack of water infrastructure due to floods/landslides source

8 Social Science

Complains from community: I have to walk more than 2 km to find water during season”(Bali Post, 2015) “The water in this “cubang” (water storage) is still enough before the peak of dry season, but after the peak, discharge decreased and we have to buy clean water (from water tank). This situation happened since a long time ago”(Bali Post, 2016c) Complains from farmers:

“ Drought happened because volume of water in irrigation channel is small”(Bali Post, 2017), “I cannot do farming anymore. There is no water. I lost my source of income.”(Bali Post, 2016b). Some conflicts of water has been escalated from the crisis (Strauß, 2011; Tarigan et al., 2014) and some even lead to destruction of public property such as road and pipes (Bali Post, 2011b, 2011c). Conflicts happened between farmers and PDAM and fights among local population over clean water.

9 Water Balance Calculation

• Period of calculation: 1994 to 2013 (20 years – monthly for every regency)

Water Use: Water Availability: 1) Agriculture 1) Rivers 2) Domestic vs. 2) Springs 3) Tourism 3) Groundwater

Water use Data Standard

Domestic Population data 1 person = 100 l/d (National population census) (Indonesian National Standard/SNI) Tourism • Number of hotel rooms (unit in m3/room/year) • Monthly occupancy rate • 4-5 star = 1,424 (only occupied room were counted) • 1-3 star = 949 (Bali Province Statistical Agency) • Non-classified = 548 Agriculture • Harvested Area (Bali Province *) next slide Statistical Agency) • Rainfall data (Ministry of Public Work rain gauges) • Climatic data (BMKG climatic stations) Agriculture water use

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN 1 15 1 15 1 15 1 15 1 15 1 15

kc 1.1 1.1 1.08 1.05 1 0.95 - - 1.1 1.1 1.08 1.05 I 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 LP - - - - 3.33 6.67 3.33 - - - - - WLR 1.67 1.67 1.67 1.67 - - 1.67 1.67 1.67 1.67 1.67

JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC 1 15 1 15 1 15 1 15 1 15 1 15

kc 1 0.95 - - 1.1 1.1 1.08 1.05 1 0.95 - - I 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 LP 3.33 6.67 3.33 - - - - - 3.33 6.67 3.33 - WLR - - 1.67 1.67 1.67 1.67 1.67 - - 1.67

• Units: kc (-), I (mm/d), LP (mm/d), WLR (mm/d), DR (mm/d), E (-) • All constants were based on JICA et al. (2006) ET + I + LP + WLR + 0.7DR for <=23.33 mm, = 0.6 – 3.33 IW = c E for >23.33 mm, = 0.8 – 6.00 0.5 • Formula obtained from JICA et al. (2006) • IW = Irrigation Water

• ETo= Potential Evapotranspiration obtained by Penmann-Monteith equation Water Availability Rivers • Estimated from daily river discharge of major 31 river catchments; • Estimation method provided by Ministry of Public Works of Indonesia. (based on a water balance equation using daily rainfall and evapotranspiration) including related coefficients suitable for Bali’s settings.

Springs

• Based on data inventory of springs’ yield from Ministry of Public Works data. • The spring water availability is calculated with the following equation: j n SW (m,r)  Qs ( j,m) j 1

• SW = spring water ; Qs is max. yield, n= is number of springs in one regency.

Groundwater • Estimated groundwater availability of a regency/city used based from JICA’s revision on the calculation from the Integrated Urban Infrastructure Development Program-Bali (IUIDP-Bali) Project. • The recharge volume of each regency is calculated based on the proportion of each geological formation in the respective regency and the rainfall in the area and the exploitable limit is 10% of the recharge. Annual Water Use (Bali)

1994 Water use in Bali (1994-2013) 2013 (in million m3) 1,700 300 AGR TOTAL 92% DOM AGR 1,600 250 7% 89% DOM 1,500 200 9% TOU TOU 1,400 1% 2% Agriculture 150 1,300 • Total water use increased by 0.01 billion m3 (0.54%) in

100 20 years; Total and agriculture and Total 1,200 and Domestic tourism Domestic • Domestic Water Use increased by 0.04 billion m3 3 Tourism 50 • Tourism Water Use increased by 0.01 billion m 1,100 • Agriculture Water use decreased by 0.04 billion m3

1,000 0 Water transfer: 1994 1999 2004 2009 Agriculture to Domestic (82%) and Tourism (18%)

13 Spatial Water Use (9 Regencies/City)

1994 Domestic 2013 Total 1994 In million m3

<7 7-14 14-21 Domestic water use 21-28 increased in most part >28 of Bali and the highest in in Badung and Legend 1994 2013 Tourism adm_bali_kab 3 3 In million m InT1994 million m <100 <4 100-200 4-8 Badung 200-300 Overall the highest 8-12 300-400 water use is still in 12-16 >400 >16 Tabanan area

2013

1994 Agriculture 2013 Legend adm_bali_kab In million m3 T2013 <80 Gianyar 80-160 160-240 240-320 >320

14 Legend 1994 Tourism seasonalMAY Seasonal Tourism.csv.May water use < 0.18 Legend 0.18 - 0.36 MAY 0.36 - 0.54 In million m3 Seasonal Tourism.csv.May0.54 - 0.72 < 0.18 0.72 - 0.90 0.18 - 0.36 0.90 - 1.09 0.36 - 0.54 1.08 - 1.26 0.54 - 0.72 1.26 - 1.44 0.72 - 0.90 > 1.44 0.90 - 1.09 1.082013 - 1.26 1.26 - 1.44 1.7 > 1.44 1.6 2013 1.5

1.4 Millions 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.0 1994 0.9 0.8

In the peak periods, water used 1.05 times higher than the average. This value is lower in 2013 than in 1994 15 1994 Agriculture seasonal

water useLegend MAY In million m3 Seasonal agri 13.csv.May < 20 20 - 40 40 - 60 60 - 80 > 80

2013 Tabanan Regency 100 90 1994 80 70 Millions 60 50 40 30 2013 20 10 0

In 1994, peak happened only in Tabanan and Buleleng but in 2013 it also happened in Gianyar 16 Seasonal Water Availability

1.6

1.4

1.2

3 1.0

0.8

in billionm in 0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0

1994 2003 2013

• Annual water availability in Bali is ranged between 3.5 billion m3 to 7.1 billion m3. • Most of water resources (76%) comes from rivers, 18% from springs and 6% is from groundwater (exploitable limit) • The comparison of seasonal water availability in 1994, 2003, and 2013 (above picture) shows yearly and monthly variation of water availability. The lowest water availability is from August to October.

17 Water use vs. water availability

Water Use/Availability Stress Level

<0.1 Low 0.1 – 0.2 Moderate 0.2 -0.4 High >0.4 Extreme 18 Conclusions

• Most water crisis which were reported in the local newspapers during July to October were caused by lack of water resources while those which were reported during February to April were caused by damage in water infrastructures (due to landslides or floods). Some of the reported crisis were escalated to conflicts and destructions of public properties (Bali Post, 2011b, 2011c, 2016) happened in Badung (July 2011), Karangasem (July 2011), Gianyar (October 2017), Klungkung (November 2016), and Tabanan (October 2009). All of these conflicts happened when water stress level in extreme condition.

• This study suggested that even though the Bali’s GRDP shows a change in regional income from agriculture to tourism, but agriculture water use was only slightly decreased (2.73%) from 1994 to 2013. It even shows increasing trend since 2003. As the original income for the Balinese, this may cause conflicts between farmers and other sectors. It should be therefore well regulated in terms of timing and location based on available water resources. Accurate information with scientific evidence on spatial and temporal availability of water as well as suggestion on planting schedule should be communicated through proper method such as through the traditional subak system.

19 Conclusions

• Urbanization and tourism development happened in Badung Regency and Denpasar City and water was reallocated from agriculture sector (decreased by 62.78 million m3) to tourism and domestic (increased by 33.83 million m3). Furthermore, these regencies have in nature smaller water availability compare to other regencies (9% of all Bali). This situation makes these regions prone to conflict due to hydrological variation especially in prolonged dry period. • The use of relatively stable water sources such as springs and groundwater should be therefore regulated and monitored in a better way to avoid uncontrolled use during dry period. On the other hand, assessment on the sustainable limit of the use of these resources particularly for these regency and city should be done more carefully to allow access during dry period. 20 Acknowledgement

21 Thank you…..

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