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ISSN: 2413-9580 Volume 4 Number 2 November 2015

KIU Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences

College of Humanities & Social Sciences, International University KIU Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences ISSN: 2413-9580

Aims and Scope Information on lecturer and student discounts, single Kampala International University (KIU) Journal of issue rates, local sales representatives, and advertising Humanities and Social Sciences (KJHSS) publishes in the Journal are also available on the site. empirical articles, critical reviews and case studies that Copyright © 2015 Kampala International University are of interest to policy makers, scholars and Apart from fair dealing for the purpose of research or practitioners in the area of humanities and social private study, or criticism or review, and only as sciences. The Journal puts particular focus upon issues permitted under the Copyright Act, this publication that are of concern to the third world. It is the goal of may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any the Journal to advance knowledge and debate in the form or by any means, with the prior written field of social studies by providing a platform through permission of the Publisher. which scholars and practitioners can share their views, findings and experiences. Given the diverse nature of KJHSS is indexed online at www.kiu.ac.ug. social studies, contributions are accepted from a wide Notes for Contributors range of disciplines and preference is given to articles Contributors should adhere to the following that integrate multiple disciplinary perspectives. requirements: Length: 4000 to 6000 words. Format: Contributions that examine developments at national, Times New Roman; size 12 and 1.5 spacing. Structure: regional and continental level are particularly welcome. Even though articles may have other subsections as All the manuscripts received are subjected to review, by may be thought necessary by the author(s), the the Editor and at least two peers. The editorial policy following should be conspicuous: Introduction; of KJHSS aims at giving authors timely and Methodology; Findings; Discussion; Conclusions; and constructive feedback and the Journal is particularly Recommendations. Tables, diagrams, figures and pictures interested in assisting able researchers but who may be should be in their appropriate places in the body of the inexperienced in the area of publishing to develop the article and attached, in their original, format (e.g. jpeg) quality of their work to a level where it is acceptable for as separate files. Abstract: Articles should be publication. accompanied with an abstract of not more than 250 Editorial Board words. Keywords: After the abstract, the author(s) Doctor Jude Ssempebwa (Editor) should outline the keywords in the article, on whose Doctor Chiselebwe Ngandwe, University of Zambia basis it can be classified. Doctor David Onen, University Referencing: All citations must be referenced and Doctor Elizabeth N. Kuria, Kenyatta University contributors should adhere to the latest edition of the Doctor Fawz Mulumba, International Network of APA format. Submission: Manuscripts should be e- Education in East Africa mailed to the editor at [email protected] as word Doctor J. L. Nkata, Management Institute, attachments. Contributors may note that, although Doctor Jane Onsongo, Catholic University of Eastern reviews may be accepted, priority will be given to Africa scientific papers that are original and follow an Doctor Jude Ssebuwufu, University interdisciplinary approach. Doctor Robert Esuruku, International Alert Peer review statement Ms. Jacqueline Nakaiza (editorial assistant) All the manuscripts published in KJHSS have been Professor J. C. S. Musaazi, subjected to blind review by at least two peers. Professor Joel Babalola, University of Ibadan Professor Maicibi N. Allhas, Cavendish University Disclaimer Professor Martin E. Amin, University of Yaounde I KIU and the Management Board of KJHSS make every Professor P. Bower, Charleston Southern University effort to ensure the accuracy of the information Professor Sumil R. Novembrieta, KIU contained in the Journal. However, the University Distribution makes no representations or warranties whatsoever as KJHSS is published bi-annually, in June and to the accuracy, completeness or suitability for any November. purpose of the content and disclaim all such Subscriptions (2015) representations and warranties whether express or Institutional rate: $150/£100; Personal rate: $10/£7. implied to the maximum extent permitted by law. Any Electronic access is available for members of views expressed in this publication are the views of the institutions with a print subscription. Further details on authors and are not necessarily the views of the Editor, subscriptions are available online at: KIU or their partners. www.kiu.ac.ug/kjhss. EDITORIAL

Since its inception in 2000, Kampala As drastic changes in the world system are International University (KIU) has steadfastly presenting unprecedented challenges that are committed to its mission “to respond to rendering traditional disciplinary and national societal needs by designing and delivering an boundaries futile, the management board of education guided by the principles and values the KJHSS hopes that the geographical and of respect for society, economy and disciplinary diversity of these contributions environment and to provide and develop a will promote discussion and appreciation of supportive research environment in which contemporary challenges from an scholars at every stage of their career can internationally comparative perspective, flourish”. Indeed, it is in pursuit of this mission thereby contributing to solution of the latter. that the University’s then School of In fact, the board looks forward to more Postgraduate Studies and Research (SPGS) submissions from scholars and practitioners launched the KIU Research Digest in 2007, as an on these and other areas—to develop the in-house multidisciplinary journal. Yet, fifteen discussion further. years into her existence, the University has Our sincere thanks go to our anonymous grown phenomenally, metamorphosing into a reviewers for their penetrating and collegiate, multi-country campus, system of constructive reviews. We are grateful that they organization. And as the University has take time off their busy schedules to advise on evolved, so has its research and publication the suitability of the many submissions strategy. Now in its fourth volume, and offered received for possible publication. Our authors as the KIU Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences also work very hard—addressing suggestions (KJHSS), the University’s journal has evolved for revisions and responding to editorial into an international outlet of peer-reviewed queries—so we thank them. Finally, we thank research in the humanities and social sciences the management and trustees of KIU for their with an international editorial board and indispensable support towards processes of diverse contributions from various parts of the the journal. continent. In this issue, contributions have been accepted from Ethiopia, , Malawi, Editor. Nigeria, Zimbabwe and Uganda. The contributions touch on issues across the broad spectrum of the humanities and social sciences including politics, economics, development, sociology, social administration, social work, education and climate change.

KAMPALA INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY JOURNAL OF HUMANITIES & SOCIAL SCIENCES

ISSN: 2413-9580, VOLUME 4, NUMBER 2, NOVEMBER 2015, P. 1

GEOSTRATEGIC CHALLENGES OF TERRORISM FOR INTEGRATION IN THE AFRICAN GREAT LAKES REGION

Pontian G. Okoth Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology, Kenya

Abstract. Globalization exerts huge favourable effects on modern society. However, the negative side of globalization is emerging. In a globalized world, security can no longer be thought of as a zero-sum game involving states alone. Today terrorism continues to have chain reactions with destabilizing effects—creating chaos, threatening societies and undermining the foundations of institutions. With the transnational security concept constituting globalization, mediated security of states against new, diverse and intensified transnational treats, regional bodies in Africa have been important in responding to these threats. However, the validity of regional integration has been seen by many scholars as lacking due to mistrust amongst partner states, some of these arising from institutional weaknesses resulting from challenges like the threat of terrorism. There is near unanimous agreement that regional integration has failed to produce effective frameworks within which poverty and underdevelopment can be mitigated. This article assesses the impact of terrorism on integration in the Great Lakes Region of Africa. It examines how terrorism has helped regional states to come together to cooperate against the vice on one hand, while on the other, it has posed a challenge to integration—through fuelling mistrust amongst partner states. The article discusses recommendations for an energized regional integration effort.

(EAC) and discusses the need for sub regional Introduction integration. It hypothesizes that terrorism One of the significant features of the world continues to pose geostrategic challenges to economy and politics from the second half of integration efforts in the GLR of Africa. The the twentieth century to date has been the challenges presented are twofold with partner widespread creation of regional groupings. In states coming together on one hand through Africa, regional integration ideology which regional encompasses efforts by a group of countries to Cooperation to fight terrorism while on the promote their political, economic, social and other hand, the threat continues to hamper cultural integration and development began to regional integration efforts due to the existing take root in the early years of independence mistrust among partner states. The objectives circa 1960s. of the article are three – fold. First, to review However, there is near unanimous the chronology of regional integration efforts agreement that regionization in Africa has failed in the GLR vis-à-vis different Regional to produce effective frameworks within which Economic Communities (RECs). Second, to poverty and underdevelopment can be assess the existing threats of terrorism to the mitigated. These failures have largely been region with efforts to address these threats. attributed to mistrust and insecurity among Third, to discuss the existing geostrategic partner states coupled with the failure to put in challenges the threats of terrorism pose to place solutions to the problems of political regional integration efforts in the GLR. conflicts including terrorism. In human The article begins by defining and thereafter history, terrorism is widely recognized as the highlighting the main conceptual and most famous enemy of humankind and the theoretical approaches to terrorism and cruellest of crimes against humanity. As history regional integration. It proceeds to account for will itself admit, terrorism is annihilation with integration efforts in the region, existing far reaching and destructive consequences. terrorism threats alongside attempts to combat This article examines integration efforts in the threats amidst the existing geostrategic the Great Lakes Region of Africa (GLR) as an challenges, from which conclusions and alternative development strategy with recommendations are derived. emphasis on the East African Community

KAMPALA INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY JOURNAL OF HUMANITIES & SOCIAL SCIENCES

ISSN: 2413-9580, VOLUME 4, NUMBER 2, NOVEMBER 2015, PP. 3 - 18

Okoth: Geostrategic Challenges of Terrorism for Integration in the Great Lakes Region

Conceptual and Theoretical Framework underlying reasons for domestic terrorism are diverse, with the only commonality that The exact extent of the GLR of Africa is individuals become frustrated with the status problematic. The geographic standpoint quo and gradually begin to implement a includes the countries of Burundi, the campaign of systematic violence, often against Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), civilians, as part of a strategy to put pressure Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda, which on the government of the day and to highlight share the tectonic Great Lakes either within its incapability to govern (ibid). State terrorism them or as a natural border. The sub region as part of domestic terrorism is when state consists of Central and Eastern African States actors (police, military, etc.) resort to acts of grouped around the following lakes: terror against their own nationals, often Tanganyika, Kivu, Albert, Victoria, Turkana through a third force, frequently to justify and Nyasa. The security dimension, on the harsher reaction against political opponents. other hand, indicates the GLR to also include Some examples include violent crimes in the Zambia, Malawi, Sudan, Mozambique, Somalia cities including burglary, hijacking, poaching in and Ethiopia. For the purpose of this article, the game parks, banditry and robbery as well regional integration is examined focusing on as cattle rustling in some parts of the region both the geographic and security standpoints. (Koufa, 2001). Regional integration is a strategic International terrorism on the other hand compromise among economies with different comprises acts –instigated by a third party that economic and political characteristics (Derlin have clear international consequences. These and French – Davis, 1999). It imposes acts include incidents when terrorists cross responsibility to members for the problems of national borders to strike foreign targets or other member states. Terrorism is one such select victims or targets because of their problem. Though studies on regional connections to a foreign country (for example integration continue to stress economic forces diplomats or local executives). According to as a basis of regional integration (Miyagawa, Anderson (1998), transnational terrorism is 2006), others have viewed regional groupings “…the use, or threat of use of anxiety – as a basis of countering global political, cultural including extra normal violence for political and economic hegemony. In GLR integration, purposes by any individual or group, whether in addition to establishment of a strong acting for or in opposition to established regional economy, is expected to help member governmental authority, when such action is countries curb regional conflicts including intended to influence the attitudes and terrorism. Despite the recurrent nature of this behaviour of a target group wider than the over-reaching and over-arching phenomenon, immediate victims and when, through the it is still ill-defined and open to nationality or foreign ties of its perpetrators, misinterpretation, misuse and moral through its location, through the nature of its justification. Though it is not easy to define institutional or human victims, or through the terrorism except from a descriptive point of mechanics of its resolution, its ramifications view, attempts to provide a definition tend to transcend boundaries”. give it time and spatial frame. Terrorism is a Despite greater emphasis being placed on historical phenomenon that can be identified transnational terrorism, Dekmejian (2007) with the violent nature of the French expresses the transnationalisation of domestic Revolution of 1789 (Montbrial and Klein, terrorism by explaining why groups and 2006:582). Besides being a ubiquitous individuals spread their reach beyond domestic occurrence that transcends cultural, religious, terrorism. By reaching beyond their domestic economic and political contexts, it is a threat origins, anti-state terrorist groups can also to political stability, international security and develop a transnational outreach. Some sub human wellbeing. Terrorism is simply a threat national terrorist groups in an attempt to to individual and collective human rights. confront a regime make strategic choices to Terrorism or the threat of terrorism can be transnationalise their operations against those domestic or transnational. regimes’ embassies, diplomats, soldiers, or Domestic terrorism has been defined as even citizens located in other countries. By “acts of terrorism that are confined to national shifting the arena of violence from the national boundaries and do not include targets or to the transnational level, these groups seek to agents from abroad” (Botha, 2008). The maximize their coercive leverage, heighten the

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KIU Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences targeted country’s vulnerability and insecurity common interests cooperate to solve tasks and and increase its costs while creating an create improved conditions in order to international forum for their cause. maximize economic, political, social, and While terrorism is an historical experience, cultural benefits for each participating county today it has been exacerbated by the (Lee, 2003:22). Several regional groupings have globalization process. Globalization itself has been formed in the GLR including the united opposition to it and those benefiting Common Market for Eastern and Southern from it (Leblond, 2005; Matli 2000; Ama & Africa (COMESA); the Inter-Governmental Yao, 2004). It has threatened isolated entities Authority on Development (IGAD); the and social spaces integrating every society into Southern African Development Community the global fold. Ease of access to information, (SADC); and the East Africa Community transport and communication and weaponry (EAC). Such cooperative efforts have taken manufacture, makes it less tasking to identify various forms ranging from a systematic one’s enemies, mobilize against them, and framework of cooperation done on a attack them (ibid). Within the context of continuous basis to deal with problems of regional integration, responses to terrorism are common concerns, to sporadic kinds of sometimes “responses to a regional security cooperation. In the GLR of Africa, interstate threat” or sometimes as mutual acts of sharing cooperation predates colonialism. The region burdens by member states. that covers the traditional interlucustrine area Analysing the potential threats of terrorism saw existing kingdoms including Bunyoro– to regional integration will, therefore, help to Kitara Empire, and later Buganda, Nkore understand existing pitfalls to regional Mpororo, Karagwe, Tooro and Urundi, enjoy integration and work out mechanisms to curb good trade relations with the Katangese the threat of terrorism. Without prejudice to (forming the present-day Democratic Republic other possible perspectives and theoretical of Congo) and parts of Bahr el Ghazel (present viewpoints, this article employs two day Southern Sudan) (Rwengabo, 2009). perspectives. The Lagos Plan of Action (LPA) adopted in The first is to view a regional community as 1980 by the Organization of African Unity an entity which responds to common (OAU), and subsequent continental problems wherever and whenever faced with Development Plans were adopted with the aim the threat of terrorism and working within of forming, within twenty years, a united existing agreements and legal frameworks African economic bloc with common tariffs, (Anangwe, 2006). An integrated region is an parliament, and eventually a common currency authority above state authorities. While (Kiraso, 2009). The Abuja Treaty, which came traditionally states enjoy sovereignty on into force in 1994, provides for a gradual matters of domestic import, it is assumed here integration process, which would be achieved that with regional integration, state hegemony through coordination, harmonization and is subjected to regional hegemony (ibid). progressive integration of the activities of Tripartite agreements signed in this direction existing and future Regional Economic are communicative of this reality. However, Communities (RECs). The RECs referred to in caution needs to be taken that no region has so the Abuja Treaty were regarded as the building far integrated with state sovereignty withering blocs of the African Economic Community away and regional sovereignty by replacing and include the Economic Community of state sovereignty (Asante, 1997). This brings in West African States (ECOWAS), (SADC), the a second view of a regional community as a Economic Community of Central African socio-political union of members and friends. States (ECCAS), (COMESA), and the Arab This perspective aims at viewing regional Maghreb Union (AMU) (ibid). responses to threats of terrorism in any The African Union Constitutive Act (2000) member country as acts of mutual concern which established the AU to replace the old resulting from and signifying concern for a OAU, and the new blueprint for Africa’s member of the region. socio-economic development – the New Partnership for Africa’s Development Efforts towards Regional Integration in (NEPAD) adopted in 2001, both operate on the GLR the objectives of the African Economic Regional cooperation has been defined as a Community (AEC) such that by the year 2030, process whereby neighbouring countries with Africa would be “A United and integrated

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Okoth: Geostrategic Challenges of Terrorism for Integration in the Great Lakes Region

Africa” (See vision of the AU, 2004). At the contained a policy action matrix that was dawn of the new millennium, African leaders meant to facilitate implementation. However, showed a renewed interest in regional implementation was held back by the integration through the creation of NEPAD in prolonged and protracted negotiations on the 2001 (Mukamunana and Moeti, 2005). EAC Customs Union Protocol. Nevertheless, The Permanent Tripartite Commission for the eventual conclusion of the Customs Union East African Cooperation was first formed in put EAC ahead of many other similar 1967 as the EAC but collapsed in 1977 due to economic blocs in Africa. The Secretariat political differences. Following the dissolution together with other organs and institutions of of the organization, former member states the Community namely; the East African negotiated a Mediation Agreement where the Court of Justine (EACJ), the East African three member states of Uganda, Kenya and Legislative Assembly (EALA), the Inter Tanzania agreed to explore areas of future co- University Council of East Africa (IUCEA), operation and to make concrete arrangement the East African Development Bank (EADB), for such cooperation. This was later to lead to the Lake Victoria Fisheries Organization the establishment of the Permanent Tripartite (LVFO) and the Lake Basin Commission Commission for East African Co-operation on (LBC) were created to undertake various November 30, 1993 (Okoth, 2004; EAC functions related to the development of the http:www, 2010). EAC (ibid). Full East African cooperation efforts began The EAC has to date signed Memoranda of on March 14, 1996 when the Secretariat of the Understanding on cooperation on various Permanent Tripartite Commission was regional integration issues with several other launched at the Headquarters of the EAC in regional blocs. Harmonization of policies Arusha, Tanzania. On 22 January 1999, the between overlapping regional blocs has been Heads of State of Tanzania, Kenya and ongoing and the COMESA yellow card for Uganda resolved to sign the Treaty re- intra EAC and COMESA transportation put establishing the EAC by the end of July 1999. to use. The COMESA African Trade The Community was to take over from the Insurance Agency (ATIA), which cushions Permanent Tripartite Commission of East investments from political risks, is also used in African Co-operation (Okoth, 2004). the EAC. Work on harmonization and In addition to a decision to re-establish the rationalization of commitments under EAC by the end of 1999, other issues raised at COMESA, SADC, IGAD, and the Indian the EAC Summit of January 1999 included Ocean Commission (IOC) is still ongoing setting up a mechanism to deal with the region (ibid). and postponement in admission of Rwanda The EAC as one of the major regional and Burundi to the EAC. The signing of the bodies in the GLR has had a long history that Declaration of Principles in November 2004 started with the building of a common service, signalled the beginning of a new phase for the the East African Railways in 1895; entire GLR. The principles enshrined in this establishment of the Customs Collection Dar es Salaam Declaration reflected the key Centre in 1900; the East African Currency issues of concern within the four thematic Board in 1905; the Court of Eastern Africa in areas which included peace and security; 1909; the Customs Union coming into force in democracy and good governance; economic 1919. The East African Income Tax Board was development and regional integration; and later established together with a Joint social and humanitarian issues. Moreover, the Economic Council in 1940 and formation of Declaration clearly identified the root cause of the East African High Commission was in conflict within the region and recognized the 1948 while the establishment of the East fact that, due to the regional implications of African Common Services Organization was conflicts within and between states, solutions in 1961 and the East African Community and strategies for conflict prevention and created in 1967 but collapsed in 1977. management should also take on a regional Later, the agreement to revive the East dimension in order to be truly effective African Cooperation Treaty was signed in 1992 (ICGLR, 2006). and the secretariat established in Arusha in The second EAC Development Strategy 1996. Following the transformation of the (2001- 2005) was ambitious and covered a wide cooperation into a Community in 2000, the range of areas and activities. The strategy Community launched its first development

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KIU Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences strategy in April 2001 and the East African implementation in the security sector. Other Customs Union Protocol signed in March groupings in the region include: the Economic 2003 (Kisaro, 2009). Community of the Great Lakes Countries Member states to the revived EAC Treaty (ECGLC) (in French CEPGL [Communaute’ agreed to establish an East African Economique des Pays des Grand Lacs]) a sub- Community, starting with a Customs Union. regional organization with multiple vocation The Treaty establishing the EAC in July 2000 created by the signing of the agreement of created an organization that did not fit any of Gisenyi in Rwanda on September 20, 2006 that the then existing region arrangements listed aims at ensuring the safety of members states earlier (ibid). Institutions involved in areas of including Rwanda, Burundi and the DRC cooperation including the East African (ICGLR Report, 2006). The International Legislative Assembly; the East African Court Conference on the Great Lakes Region of Justice and cooperation in sectoral fields, (ICGLR) was set up against the back drop of such as trade, investment and industrial the war in DR-Congo (2002-2006), with the development, infrastructure, tourism and assistance of the AU, UN and bilateral donors. wildlife management, health, education, The ICGLR aims at implementing the security, science and technology, agriculture and stability and development pact signed in standardization and quality assurance: December 2006 by eleven heads of state from coordination and harmonization of Angola, Burundi, Central Africa Republic macroeconomic, monetary and financial (CAR) the DRC, Kenya, Rwanda, Republic of policies including free movement of capital; Congo, Sudan, Uganda, Tanzania and Zambia cooperation in defence and security matters (Ibid). have been ongoing (ibid). Although there is existence of the above EAC member states are supposed to go mentioned regional sub groups in the GLR, through a process of monetary policy the slow pace of integration still remains a harmonization with a view to achieving concern to partner states. This is in addition to macroeconomic convergence. In order to a summit that was held in 2004 to set up a assess progress towards this objective, a committee to examine ways and means of fast number of convergence criteria have to be tracking the EAC Political Federation. The formulated. However, due to low political above achievements notwithstanding, analysts commitment, some countries have been contend that the momentum of the EAC reluctant to fully implement integration integration efforts towards a single market and programmes on a timely basis. In some cases, investment areas has been slow. Fast tracking changes in the socioeconomic and political attempts at regional integration in the region dynamic within the member states involved like other parts of Africa have been a failure have also militated against implementation of (Asante, 1997; Ojo, 1999; Cheru, 2002; Lee, regionally agreed programmes, especially 2003). This has been occasioned by among where socioeconomic sacrifices are concerned others lack of enforcement machinery and (Anangwe, 2006). sanction mechanisms as well as capacity Integration efforts this far have also constraints in areas of governance in addition revealed weaknesses that will need to be to other institutional constraints. These addressed in order for this development hurdles continue to render terrorism a big strategy to succeed. The most notable among challenge to the integration process. In general, these being relatively young and fragile regional integration has failed to meet its democracies; terrorism and or threats of objectives of achieving faster economic terrorism amidst less than fully-harmonized growth and development as expressed in the national and regional policies, plans as well as foundation treaties. laws and regulations; unbalanced infrastructure and limited institutional Existing Terrorism Threats capacities (Rwengabo, 2009). EAC Protocol on Early Warning Over the past decade, transnational Terrorism Framework for Disaster Management and has emerged as a serious threat to peace and Preparedness, and a strategy for anti-terrorism security across Eastern Africa (Botha, 2008). are all still under negotiation. The meetings of Clear connections exist between the war on the EAC Chiefs of Police and Defence have terror, and governance in Africa, as elsewhere. facilitated speedy policy making and Terrorist groups continue to benefit from

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Okoth: Geostrategic Challenges of Terrorism for Integration in the Great Lakes Region globalization and decentralize operation, resolution and ramifications that transcend diversify supply and funding mechanisms, and national boundaries (Dempsey, 2006). use technologies to connect operatives or Moreover, terrorist groups continue to exploit “home-grown cells” across the globe. vulnerabilities such as porous national borders, Furthermore, these groups continue to expand weak governance, limited law enforcement their operations to encompass new capacities, fragile governments and local partnerships, including transnational criminal grievances to generate permissive conditions organizations and armed groups (Dempsey, for violent extremism and militancy to emerge 2006). or flourish. As such, this has not only Today transnational terrorism is having a challenged the authority of the partner states, chain reaction with destabilizing effects and but the entire progress of integration efforts as continues to create chaos, threaten societies states strive to provide the necessary security and undermine the foundations of institutions and progress on development objectives (Le Sage, 2007). Meanwhile, the war on terror (Chikwanha, 2007). is a governance issue at two levels. At one level, The IGAD member states have been the bad governance, or the lack of effective victims of terrorism and remain vulnerable governance, has given rise to terrorism. Even (LeSage, 2007). A 2005 IGAD assessment where terrorism is not home –grown, bad revealed that the GLR is Vulnerable due to governance, such as corruption or lack of state fragility and failure in Somalia, the high professionalism in the security forces are levels of political instability and intolerance making it easier for foreign – trained terrorists between governments and their opposition to carry out their activities (Koufa, 2001). groups (Anangwe, 2006). Again in 2007, at an The GLR is faced with both domestic and AU meeting in Algiers, the region was noted as transnational terrorism and in some cases the most vulnerable to terrorist activities domestic terror has gone beyond domestic (ICGLR Report, 2006). Challenges to the origins with anti-state terrorist groups authority and legitimacy of the state are developing a transnational outreach. In increasingly leading to utilization of terrorist contrast to international terrorism where state methods by several negative forces. actors commit acts of terrorism, autonomous Terrorist incidents have increased risk non-state actors, irrespective of support from premium through lower investment and lower sympathetic states, have carried out acts of economic growth. Several other factors transnational terrorism with examples continue to make East Africa vulnerable to including the Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA) in terrorist attacks including the easy access to the Northern Uganda and FDLR in eastern region through porous borders and a vast Congo. By shifting the arena of violence from coastline, violence as politics creates the transnational level, some of these groups opportunities for terrorism to flourish and have sought to maximize their coercive proximity to weak and failed states of DRC leverage, heighten the target country’s and Somalia (Koufa, 2001). vulnerability and insecurity, and increase its The ongoing insurgency in Somalia made up costs while creating an international forum for of several major groups with terrorist ties is a propagating their cause. Terrorist threat to the region. Terrorist groups operating organizations vary widely, ranging from large, in Somalia include Harakat al Shabab, a state- like organizations to small, decentralized decentralized and violent Somalia Jihadist and self – directed networks. Terrorist movement that aspires to create a financing requirements reflect this diversity, fundamentalist Islamist Emirate across the varying greatly among organizations. Horn of Africa. Second, is Hizbul Islamia, a Financing is required not just to fund specific loose amalgamation of other militant Islamist terrorist operations but to meet the broader movements in southern Somalia and with the organizational costs of developing and support of al Shabab and Hizbul Islamia maintaining a terrorist organization and to leaders such as Awies and Hassan al Turki, al create an enabling environment necessary to Qaeda’s East Africa cell (AQEA)continue to sustain their activities (Basile, 2004; Nayef, use Somalia as a safe haven (Muyangwa, 2010). 2007). The AQEA undertook the 1998 bombings of Terrorism is transnational through the US embassies in Kenya and Tanzania, nationality or foreign ties of its perpetrators simultaneous attacks on Kenya’s coast in 2002 and its location, victims, mechanics of against the Paradise Hotel and a failed effort to

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KIU Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences shoot down an Israeli charter airliner full of means alternate to military incursions to pacify tourists, and a failed attempt in 2003 to attack Somalia; empower jobless and desperate youth the US embassy in (ibid). who could otherwise be available for the al In addition al Qaeda leaders, including Shabab missions; use of grass root-based Osama bin Laden and Ayman Al Zawahiri, rather than state-orchestrated counter- have threatened to attack UN and AU terrorism strategy (Gamachu, 2011: 12). These peacekeeping forces in Somalia and Sudan. views are shared by Uganda’s opposition The increased recruitment of foreign fighters politicians. They advocate a renewal of by al Qaeda and al Shabab from the Somalia Uganda’s regional cooperation in order to diasporas, from across Africa, and from other confront terrorism threats to the country - not terrorist groups globally, is an additional via the perpetual provocation and flexing of source of concern (ibid). Al Shabab has Uganda’s presumed military might (Zake, demonstrated the ability to conduct a range of 2011: 12). terrorist operations from assassinations to However, whatever the case, whether one is sophisticated and spectacular double suicide advocating a pro-government or anti- vehicle bombings. Al Shabab claimed government position on Uganda’s role in responsibility for the July 11, 2010 Kampala Somalia, there is no question regarding the twin bombings (Candia, 2010:2). It had already need to help Somalia to stabilize. This is for the made public threats against Uganda and reason that since the people of Somalia have Burundi, the two GLR countries that have failed to determine their own destiny for the contributed troops to peace missions in past twenty years, out of moral and Somalia (Agencies, 2010:16). humanitarian responsibility, the neighbours in There is no doubt that the threat of the GLR should assist to organize them. In terrorism emanating from Somalia is real, and other words, this should be a collective equal to that from Afghanistan. As in responsibility of the states in the GLR rather Afghanistan, few days go by without an act of than leaving the entire burden to Uganda and terrorism targeting civilians. Similar too is the Burundi (Kayumba, 2010:15). Thus, it is in the magnitude in which they cause damage to their interest of the GLR countries to act together people. Somalia today is a much more against acts of terrorism emanating from the dangerous place for Somalis, for the GLR and failed state of Somalia. for the rest of the world than it has ever been The government of Eritrea is known to (ibid). provide direct material and possibly financial What are not similar, however, are the aid to terrorist groups, and has been threatened global responses. Somalia was left to five with designation as a “state sponsor of thousand Ugandan and Burundian soldiers (as terrorism” by the Unites States for these at July 2010) supporting a very weak activities (Le Sage, 2007). Kidnapping for government living in a citadel inside ransom for both locals and foreigners Mogadishu. What is at their disposal is a (particularly aid workers and journalists) has “shoot back when attacked” policy and an also proven lucrative. Kismayo has been a attempt to hold the fort until the rest of the critical source of revenue for these groups, and world comes to help. Four years after they remains a venue of acute competition for that arrived, they still hold fort with no sign of the reason (ibid). world coming to their aid (ibid). There exists a strong correlation between Although the troops of both countries corruption and money laundering in the region increased to eight thousand by early December that continues to pose problems in the region. 2010 (Khalif, 2010:14), they remain The techniques used to launder money are inadequate. This especially in face of increased essentially the same as those used to conceal attacks on them by the al Shabab and Hizbul the sources of and uses for, terrorist financing. Islam fighters who were angered by president Funds used to support terrorism continue to Museveni’s brief visit to Mogadishu early originate from legitimate sources, criminal December 2010 (ibid). activities, or both. In addition to benefiting To the Somali militants and their supporters from weak banking oversight in the developing who question Uganda’s rationale behind its world and the unlikely direction of reduced military intervention in Somalia, Uganda is capital market integration, al Qaeda continues better of avoiding further attacks by resorting to take advantage of a financial structure close to inter alia: use of diplomatic and political to home; the Islamic banking network (Basile,

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Okoth: Geostrategic Challenges of Terrorism for Integration in the Great Lakes Region

2004). This global financial network has strong peuple Congolais (FAPC) of Jerome Kakwavu, relationships throughout the third world, Mouvement Revolutionaire Congolais (MRC) notable tax havens, and most importantly most of Bwambale Kakolele and CNDP (Regional of the developed world. Al Qaeda is no Intelligence Report, 2010). different from other terrorist organizations, Countries in the region like Rwanda are arms smugglers, and drug traffickers in its use prone to the threats of terrorism from armed of Islamic banks. As the leading financial groups like Forces Democratiques du Rwanda institutions of areas of the world rich with oil (FDLR/FOCA) and Rally for Unity and and natural resources, Islamic Banks are the Democracy (RUD- URUNANA). Meanwhile, primary channel for investment and RDF dissidents and the Coalition of transactions in the Middle East and many Democratic Forces (CDF) together with some other parts of the developing world (ibid). Western interests and in alliance with In addition to the above groups operating in international terrorist groups like al Shabab the Horn of Africa are other terrorist linked continue to target innocent lives. groups in the region including the Ex- FAR (FDLR/FOCA) carried out numerous attacks Interahamwe and recognizes the additional in Rwanda from its bases in Eastern DRC threat posed by other armed groups in the between 1994 and 2000 and has continued to Eastern Congo who continue to pose a threat attack innocent civilians in the DRC (ibid). The to both the DRC and Rwanda. The armed FDLR has proven to be a deadly terrorist forces of Rwanda(FAR) was the army of the group, not forgetting how it targeted tourists ethnic Hutu- dominated Rwandan regime that in Bwindi National Park in 1999 and the carried out the genocide of 500,000 or more grenade attacks in Rwanda that left eight Tutsis and regime opponents in 1994. The people dead (IGGLR Report, 2006) are some Interahamwe was the civilian militia force that of the examples. carried out much of the killing (Regional While al-Qaeda and al-Shabab have not Intelligence Report, 2010). The groups merged been able to establish bases in Rwanda, there and recruited additional fighters after they are nonetheless reports of them trying to forge were forced out of Rwanda into the (DRC, alliance with Rwanda negative groups, to then Zaire) in 1994. They became known as attack Western interests, as well as those of the Army for the Liberation of Rwanda (ALIR) Uganda and Burundi (Regional Intelligence which is the armed branch of the PALIR or Report, 2010). Another dissident group, the Party for the Liberation of Rwanda. In 2001, Coalition of Democratic Force (CDF) based in ALIR –while not formally disbanded – was DRC is reported to harbour intentions to supplanted by the Democratic Font for the destabilize Rwanda through terror related Liberation of Rwanda (FDLR) (Finnstrom, activities (ibid). 1999). Though directly descended from those There are many challenges in the Horn of who organized and carried out the genocide, Africa that are far more important than identified FDLR leaders are not thought to international or domestic terrorism. Zartman have played a role in the killing. They have (2003) identified Somalia as one of two cases worked to build bridges to other opponents of of “clear collapse” in “Sub-Saharan” Africa in the Kigali regime including ethnic Tutsis (ibid). the early 1990s, while Dorff (1999) treats it as Other groups include the irregular the defensive case in his study of strategies for Congolese armed groups particularly the Mai- copying with state failure. Political Mai /PARECO, an allied militia group and marginalization, social and economic others in particular the LRA continue to wreak inequality, endemic poverty, pervasive havoc in Eastern Congo. Other armed groups corruption, poor governance, extremist include Allied Democratic Forces/National ideology, and lack of tolerance are greater Liberation Army of Uganda (ADF/NALU) threats that aid and abet terrorism. that have been operating in Eastern Congo; After seizing power in Sudan in 1989, the National Forces of Liberation (French: Forces National Islamic Front and its allies in the nationales de liberation, FNL the Palipe Hutu- military invited Osama bin Laden to establish FNL also known as the party for the a presence in the country (Basile, 2004). Liberation of the Hutu people, a rebel group in Between late 1989 and late 1991, al Qaeda Burundi which fought in the Burundi Civil moved most of its best trained and War for the Hutu ethnic group; the people’s experienced fighters, numbering between Redemption Army (PRA), Forces Armees du 1,000 and 1,500 to Sudan. With indications of

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KIU Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences secession of Southern Sudan, the north has legitimate funds which can be used to fuel indicated plans to revert to sharia rule. Al terrorist plots (ibid). Qaeda has had cells in Kenya since Wadih el- The ‘hawala’ system is used by legitimate Hage, who had served bin Laden’s personal persons and terrorists to move money around secretary and had US citizenship through the world without the detection of the global marriage, arrived at Nairobi to run the al banking system (Medea group, 2007). Similar Qaeda operation in 1994 (Le Sage, 2007). to the Islamic banking system, it is governed Eventually arrested by the Federal Bureau of by sharia law, but accounts are not kept, nor Investigation (FBI), he was convicted in the are financial instruments provided. The US on terrorism charges in 2001. Abu Hafs legitimate hawala network has not yet been and other al-Qaeda operatives began planning regulated, which makes it an opportune in 1994 for the 1998 embassy bombings. channel for al-Qaeda to use in transferring Kenya has been ground zero for international funds internationally (ibid). The growth of terrorist attacks. radical Islam in East Africa in recent decades In a nut shell, from the mid – 1990s, East manifested itself in the spread of Salafi and Africa together with Yemen, which is part of Wahhabi ideologies, which put pressure on the same geostrategic region, has been a central traditional and Sufi practices, and in the theatre of al Qaeda operations. The harmony emergence of extremist and terrorist groups documents on Somalia suggest that al-Qaeda’s influenced by those ideologies. Salafism has primary objectives in Somalia appear to have made inroads among educated elites, been to establish working relations with Somali traditional and Sufi practices continue to militants and to establish training camps in the predominate among the mass of the Muslim Ogden region of Ethiopia and in Somalia population. Somali Islam, for instance, is (ibid). Kenya’s border with Somalia, for strongly characterized by the traditions and instance, is thinly populated and largely syncretic practices, such as the duco inhabited by ethnic Somalis. Although there (intercessory prayer after salaat in the mosque), are nominal customs check points at the main the ecstatic digri ceremonies, the siyaaroor entry points, the rest of the border is rarely pilgrimages to the tombs of saints (practiced in patrolled and there are many smuggling routes particular by Sufis) and the celebration of (ibid). Mawliid (the Prophet Muhammad’s Birthday). The waters adjacent to the Horn of Africa These practices are strongly opposed by Salafis have become one of the most piracy-prone and Wahhabis. They are thus a recipe for maritime areas in the world with minimal terrorist attacks (ibid). maritime and coastal surveillance. The In assessing East Africa’s conduciveness to informal sector (in some cases institutionalized terrorism, a distinction must be made between by corrupt customs, border and police the existential threats to different countries in officials) offers terrorist networks the region. Although outsiders might succeed opportunities to launder money, transport in co-opting a local group, the segmentation of funds and carry out the financial transactions social groups and the nature of social that they need to operate. Terrorist groups in relationships would limit their capacity to Eastern Africa continue to depend on direct extend their influence. This makes Kenya and financial contributions from their supporters– Tanzania more conducive to the development either those living locally, across the region, or of terrorist networks, even if Somalia becomes abroad (Basile, 2004). Where formal financial a refuge for some of them. transfers are vulnerable to monitoring, the use of alternative remittance systems and cash Regional Efforts to curb the Threat of couriers has been substituted (ibid). Charities Terrorism have proven particularly vulnerable to abuse-- in most instances, individuals within a Given the primary role of states in countering charitable organization are involved in the terrorism, cooperation among member states diversion of funds for illicit means; only rarely has been undertaken mostly via bilateral, or in is an entire charity instrumentalized as a front- some cases, “plurilateral” channels. Member organization to raise and move terrorist states of the AU have long espoused the need finance. In other cases, facilitators and /or to counter terrorism at both the individual and operational members of terrorist groups are collective levels. This concern led to the engaged in business activities that generate adoption of the Convention on the Prevention

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Okoth: Geostrategic Challenges of Terrorism for Integration in the Great Lakes Region and Combating of Terrorism by the 35th establishing the AU particularly the principles Assembly of Heads of State and Government enunciated in article 4, and in the of the O.A.U. in Algiers in July 1999. In the operationalization of NEPAD and the Dakar Declaration against terrorism, adopted Conference on Security, Stability, by the African Summit of October 2001, Development and Co-operation in Africa Member States reaffirmed their unequivocal (CSSDCA) (Ibid). rejection of terrorism (Mbogo, 2010). Member states have signed, ratified and Aspects of prevention and /or mitigation of undertaken to fully implement the Algiers transnational organized crime and terrorism Convention on the Prevention and Combating are being addressed particularly through of Terrorism and where necessary, seek the several sub-regional organizations (ICGLR, assistance of other member states or the 2009). Bilateral and multilateral arrangements international community to amend national for prevention are highly recommended legislation so as to align such legislation with among member states. Existing sub- regional the provision of this Convention (Chikwanha, fora that are operational could be further 2007). Interaction amongst various expanded to accommodate more members. institutional players engaged in counter – Good examples of prevention mechanism terrorism and terrorism prevention activities are the existing sub-regional meetings between namely: legislative authorities; security forces; chiefs of police in Eastern Africa (EAPCCO), judicial authorities; financial authorities; southern Africa (SARPCCO) and central investigative authorities; police, border Africa (CCPAC). At one such meeting of surveillance and customs authorities; the EAPCCO that concluded in Mombasa on 25th military; civil protection services, etc. is August 2005, the sub-regional ministers in ongoing. charge of security authorized the Chiefs of GLR member states have already Police to implement their plans of action in undertaken to enhance border control and combating cross – border crimes in areas surveillance, as well as the necessary means to including motor vehicle thefts, cattle rustling, prevent the forgery and falsification of travel illicit trafficking in drugs and firearms, and identity documents, ensure that identity trafficking in human beings, particularly documents contain advanced security features women for sexual exploitation, joint that protect them against forgery; issue operations and continuation of training for the machine – readable travel documents that global threat posed by terrorism (ICGLR, contain security features which protect them 2009). against forgery; keep a Passport Stop list The EAC has gone further in aspects of containing information of individuals whose prevention through the Joint Exercise Trend applications would require special attention or Marker meeting held in Nairobi 1-10, who may not be issued with travel documents September, 2005 and whose theme was on (Intelligence Report, 2010). proactive response to terrorism. National laws and legislations relating to bail Joint Terrorism Task Forces (JTTFs) have and other criminal procedural issues so as to been created for exactly this purpose. In give effect to the requirements of expeditious Eastern Africa, as around the globe, terrorist investigation and prosecution of those organizations often operate with support from involved directly or indirectly in the crime of individuals and organizations outside the terrorism and institution of counter terrorism country where a terrorist attack is being units have been put in place in most states in prepared. International cooperation – either the region (Anangwe, 2006). This is intended bilaterally or through multinational initiatives to harmonize the standards and procedures such as the International Criminal Police regarding proof for terrorism – related crimes, Organization (INTERPOL) or its African promote specialized training and reinforce the regional affiliates such as the East African capacities of the judiciary as well as conclude Police Chiefs Cooperation (EAPCCO) and extradition and mutual legal assistance Southern African Regional Police Chiefs agreements, where necessary, and adopt the Cooperation Organization (SARCCO) is being legislation that would enable member states to utilized in the fight against terrorism (ICGLR, cooperate effectively. 2009). The concerted response reflected in this Implementation of Anti Money Laundering Plan of Action is situated in the context of the Strategies in Eastern and Southern Africa Anti provisions contained in the Constitutive Act Money Laundering Group (ESAAMLG) to

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KIU Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences combat money Laundering by implementing and Rwanda to re-establish and make the Financial Action Task Force (FATF). operational quickly the joint verification Forty Recommendations is being studied by commission (JVC) established by the two partner states for implementation to combat governments to investigate reported security money laundering and terrorist financing, and transgression. The United States of America its regional counterpart, the East and Southern accepted the two parties to participate in the Africa Anti – Money Laundering Group JVC (ibid). (ESAAMLG) (Muyangwa, 2010). This effort The Ngurdoto–Tanzania Agreement which includes coordinating with other international was signed on 8th September 2007 between organizations concerned with combating Uganda and the DRC addressed several key money laundering, studying emerging regional issues that were the source of disagreement typologies, developing institutional and human between the two countries in the region (ibid). resources capacities to deal with these issues, Most notably, they agreed to form a joint and coordinating technical assistance where boundary commission to more clearly define necessary (ibid). the portion of their border that crossed over A Combined Joint Task Force of Horn of Lake Albert as well as stipulations to move all Africa headquartered at Camp Lemonier in Congolese refugees at least 90 miles away from Djibouti, encompassing members from all the the border to deter any refugees from joining major U.S. services – Marine, Air Force, Army any Congolese rebel group exacerbating the and Navy has been providing resources to border dispute. Tripartite Plus member states make the task force a multinational initiative. noted the continued threat of other negative In this regard, IGAD, EAC and SADC have forces in Eastern Congo, in particular the LRA all prioritized combating terrorism through (ICGLR Report, 2009). In order to prepare for their various mechanisms on peace and and coordinate military action against negative security. In 2006, IGAD with support from the forces, member states welcomed regular Institute for Security Studies in South Africa meetings of the Chiefs of Defence Staff and and funding from European donors, took the the provision of the intelligence to the lead in developing its own IGAD Capacity Tripartite plus Intelligence Fusion Cell. They Building Program against Terrorism (ICPAT) also supported the recommendation of their to provide training and research (ICGLR Chiefs of Defence Staff to establish a Joint report, 2006). Through participation of Planning Cell (JPC) with the view to facilitating countries in the Tripartite Plus one group they the elaboration of common strategies in the can identify and prevent terrorists from region with strict respect for the sovereignty of operating in their countries. Senior officials of each member states. Delegations decided that member states of Tripartite plus Joint the Chiefs of Defence Staff (CHODS) should Commission, facilitated by the United States of prepare at their next meeting in January a America, met in Addis Ababa on December 4, detailed plan for the establishment of this cell 2007 to discuss a range of mutual concerns in for presentation to the ministers at the next continuing efforts to achieve lasting peace and meeting of the Tripartite Plus. They further security in the GLR (ibid). Representatives of agreed that the CHODS, in consultation with the Republic of Uganda reaffirmed their the facilitator, recommend how best to common objective to eliminate the threat to integrate the Tripartite plus Integration Fusion regional peace and security mechanisms, Cell with the JPC (ibid). including the negative forces and agreed to Senior Tripartite Plus officials confirmed strengthen regional security among the four that each of their government had ratified the member states. The Tripartite plus One came “Pact on Security, Stability and Development up with several recommendations to end in the Great Lakes Region” signed in terrorism including the Nairobi Communique December 2006 by the eleven member whereby governments of the DRC and the countries of the International Conference on Republic of Rwanda pledged full the Great Lakes Region (ICGLR). implementation of this communiqué that lays out a common approach to ending the threat Challenges Terrorism Poses to Regional posed to both Rwanda and the DRC by the Integration Ex-FAR/ Interahamwe. In addition, delegations of the Tripartite Plus member IGAD member states have been the victims of states welcomed the commitment of the DRC terrorism and remain vulnerable. A 2005

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Okoth: Geostrategic Challenges of Terrorism for Integration in the Great Lakes Region

IGAD assessment revealed that the region is integration. The principle of sublimity has vulnerable due to state fragility and failure in been endorsed but it has not been fully Somalia, the high levels of political instability operationalized in terms of shared regional and intolerance among governments and their values, policies, strategies, regulations, and opposition groups. practices (Muyangwa, 2010). The existence of Challenges to the authority and legitimacy young and fragile democracies, inadequate of the state can lead to utilization of terrorist involvement of key stakeholders(especially the methods (McCarthy, 1999). Terrorist incidents grassroots), inadequately operationalized increase risk premiums. This can lead to lower regional – shared vision, less than fully- investment and lower economic growth. harmonized national and regional policies and Several other factors make East Africa plans as well as laws and regulations have all vulnerable to terrorist attacks. increased weaknesses as states work towards Integration in Africa may be understood as integration (McCarthy, 1999). a result of, and response to, global political and Other challenges that have served to economic hegemony. While other parts of the increase the threats of terrorism include the world have made strides towards regional, relatively young and weak national financial supra-regional and continental integration in systems, slow pace of implantation of an effort to counter this hegemonic influence decisions made at the regional level, poor and through subservience to a unidirectional world unbalance infrastructure, limited financial order, Africa remains a hotbed for global resources and budgetary constraints, and hegemonic contestations (Kherbi, 2005). limited institutional capacities, including Membership to a regional bloc gives members follow-up and monitoring and evaluation mutual, political and diplomatic audacity to mechanisms (Harnish, 2010). These cannot be feel concerned with “colleagues” security sufficient in effectively monitoring and concerns. This makes a problem in one curtailing terrorism financing. At country country the problem for the whole region. A levels, implementation of the Financial Action survey of the literature suggests that attempts Task Force recommendations and the anti- at regional integration in Africa have been a money laundering bills are still in draft form. failure (Asante, 1997; Ojo.1999; Cheru. 2002; This lack of effective monitoring by the Lee. 2003) based in part on the failure to reap financial systems in individual states has the benefits of integration and globalization. proved a hindrance to regional integration Terrorism is one of the challenges responsible efforts as some partner states are still cagey for this phenomenon in the GLR. about opening up fully to what they would see Insecurity in Africa can be attributed to as terror related challenges (ibid). various conditions spanning Africa’s colonial Insecurity in the region takes many forms and post – colonial politics and economics; with a pervasive climate of lawlessness as governance challenges; and global foreign evidenced by increasing levels of piracy off the forces at play in the region as well as other Somali coast, cross border smuggling between ethno political conflicts (Finnstrom, 1998: Kenya and Sudan, and between Kenya and Gersony, 1997; Mamdani, 2001). As Shaw Somalia (ibid). The cross border nature of the (2003) has shown, these conflicts are diverse in raids complicates redress mechanisms in the their causes and consequences, and they are process of collaboration with neighbouring increasingly interrelated as well as regional in countries (ibid). This has proved a big character. Terrorism as a conflict in any one of challenge to different partner states in the the EAC countries has far reaching effects on GLR as they work towards regional how that country relates with the entire region integration. Terrorists also derive funding in one way or the other. Terrorism, like other from a variety of criminal activities in failed conflicts everywhere in Africa, transcends states and other safe havens (Basile, 2004). ethnicity and physical borders and this has Another challenge is that linked to the always complicated the magnitude of these differing ideological differences by the conflicts (Anangwe, 2006). governments which are becoming a cause of In the GLR, the relationships between concern. The management of civil society regional and national policies and strategies groups in partner states is also not have not been addressed adequately for synchronized which is looked at by others as a effective combating of terrorism which has challenge as some are used to aid terrorism been a major challenge for states to engage in (Harnish, 2010). Civil society groups have to

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KIU Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences adhere to the countries’ constitutions and Conclusion and Recommendations hence control may not be possible under an In summary, though regional cooperation and integrated bloc. Despite signed memoranda of integration have emerged as a widely understanding among countries, these have recognized feature of international politics in been largely at bilateral level and differ from the last two decades, the geostrategic country to country. With other countries challenges paused by terrorism in the GLR and hosting refugees from the entire region, other regions of Africa have increased the accusation of supporting dissidents has not failure to obtain political commitment to this been ignored. This has seriously hampered regional development agenda. The threat of integration efforts in the region. proliferation of terrorism and related Other challenges that make the threat of organized crime into national economies still terrorism real is the increase of several pause a great challenge. With terrorist groups religious inclinations of the citizens of benefiting from globalization and increasing different states. Missionaries in collaboration their abilities to decentralize operations, with the British government and officials were diversify supply and funding mechanisms, and very active in some countries leading to more use technologies to connect operatives or converts to Christianity. During the twentieth “home- grown cells”, several countries in the century, Islam played a major role in the GLR have not worked towards regional struggle against the British and their Egyptian integration at the expected pace. Even others allies. For example, Islamic movements like have been cagey about opening up borders the Madhist played (and are still playing) an with the existing threats of terrorism. This has important role in Sudanese nationalist increased the mistrust among the different movements (Muyangwa, 2010). Each of these countries of the GLR. movements had, and still has a “secular” In conclusion, terrorism still plays a major political party as its wings. The history of Islam role in regional integration in the GLR. The in Eastern Africa is very important in benefits of regional integration, and indeed explaining the contemporary place of Islam in globalization, remain a critical part of Africa’s this part of Africa. From Egypt and from workable development strategy. It is both a across the Red Sea, migration southwards was reason for cooperation and at the same time it along historical process by Egyptians as well as has worked to curtail speedy integration pastoralists from across the Red Sea (ibid). processes in the region. The need for effective With some countries more inclined to Islam management of terrorism in the region is, makes the challenge more real. therefore, of paramount importance. Existing legal frame works in partner states The era of isolated tiny national economies have worsened the threat of terrorism. had to give way to strategic alliances that Harmonization of legislation and institutions harness knowledge and-resource-based dealing with Organized Crime, Money comparative advantage through integration. Laundering and terrorism has not been There is urgent need by member countries to possible and is still lacking despite different sign, ratify and implement the existing countries signing deferent protocols to fight protocols including the Algiers Convection on terrorism and prosecute perpetrators the Prevention and Combating of Terrorism (Dempsey, 2006). The issue of corruption still and, where necessary seek the assistance of reins high in some states than in others and all other member states or the international these have been a challenge in the fight against community to amend national legislations so terrorism. In addition to these threats, is the as to align such legislations, with the provision threat of proximity to the Horn of Africa. of this Convention. Insufficient information exchange among Furthermore, regional countries should fast regional states on suspects of terrorism and of track the operationalization of the anti-money existing groups and cells is another challenge. laundering bills which in some countries are Many countries in the region have not shared still in draft form. For this to happen, fully the existing intelligence information initiatives that combat corruption and which not only complicates the war on terror, organized crime should be put in place. A but also impedes regional integration efforts. culture of zero tolerance to corruption should There is also no joint and regularly updated be a matter of priority in all partner countries data bank on terrorist entities, personalities in the region. This is very vital in pushing a and sympathizers on a timely basis (ibid). head the counter terrorism drive.

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Okoth: Geostrategic Challenges of Terrorism for Integration in the Great Lakes Region

There is also urgent need for effective challenge is weak administrative structures collaboration among partner states to (Bisiika, 2010: 15). The AU should, therefore, effectively share intelligence data, arrest, examine how regional power blocs like IGAD, prosecute and repatriate suspects for possible EAC, ECOWAS and SADC can take the lead prosecution and, where necessary, seek in the resolution of conflicts in a particular assistance for amendments to national region. This can be done with the AU making legislation so as to comply with the provisions a strong stand against election theft, military of these instruments; encourage interaction coups, corruption and other vices, plus of among various institutional players engaged in course the mobilization of the international counter-terrorism and terrorism prevention community to adopt the African position on a activities. particular case. Otherwise the Somalia case GLR countries should also put in place would not have gotten this far whereby the mechanisms that strive to combat domestic failed state now exports terrorism which is a terrorism. These initiatives could be in form of major threat to regional integration efforts in streamlining the various regional cooperation the GLR. initiatives. Religious fundamentalism should also be curbed through joint programmes by References all member countries with a view to countering terrorism in the region. Agencies, Washington, 2010 “What does the Border policing and control among partner attack mean for Africa?” The states must be synchronized and regular (Kampala) July 16. sharing of information on terrorism should be Ama, C. S. and Yao, A. 2004. Globalization and the norm in addition to other legislative and Social Policy in Africa. Dakar: judicial measures. Partner countries need to CODESRIA. speed up the implementation of the FATF and Anangwe. A. 2006, “International Terrorism the AML bills most of which are still in draft and East African Sub-Regionalism: form. The next step should be to expedite Developing a sub-regional Tourism Industry implementation through greater resolve, speed in the Face of War.” African Journal of and effectiveness in translating the good International Affairs. CODESRIA Vol. 7. Pp. intentions into concrete, implementable and 81-97. results-orientated actions that can be Anderson, J. 1998. Understanding Terrorism: monitored. Challenges, Perspectives and Issues. New York: Proliferation of terrorism personalities from Columbia University Press. the region should be handled through Asante, S.K.B. 1997. Regionalism and Africa’s community policing initiatives which have Development: Expectations, Reality and been successful in some of the countries in the Challenges. London: Macmillan. region like Rwanda. Lessons learnt should be Basile, M. 2004. “Going to the Source: Why al shared and applied across the entire region. Qaeda’s Financial Network is likely to There should be put in place initiatives that withstand the current war on Terrorist serve to fast track the economic cooperation Financing”. Studies in Conflict and Terrorism. efforts in the region which should be building Vol. II No. 1 pp. 169-185. steps for a historic regional integration in form Bisiika, Asuman, 2010, “Africa must define its of a confederation. role in Global Security.” The , Information on terrorism conduits like the August 5. Islamic banking systems and the “hawalas”, Botha, A. 2008. Understanding Terrorism in should be closely monitored and regulated and Africa: Building Bridges and overcoming the Gap. any suspicious transactions shared across the IIS Publications. entire region freely. In the same vein, the legal Candia, Steven. 2010 “Death Toll reaches 74”. frameworks across the region should be The New Vision July 13. synchronized to effectively combat terrorism. Cheru, F. 2002. African Renaissance: Roadmaps to Finally, the Somalia case should awaken the Challenges of Globalization. London: Zed African leaders to create a sustainable Books. continental framework under which member Chikwanha, B. 2007 The Anatomy of Conflicts in states can review national, regional and the East African Community (EAC): linking continental politics and security based on Security with Development. Dar es Salaam. geostrategy. This is because Africa’s strategic

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Dekmejian, R. H. 2007. Understanding Terrorism Leblond, P. 2005. “Globalization and World and Political Violence. Washington, D C: C Q Security”, International Studies Review 7. Press. pp. 642-644. Derlin, R. and French – Davis, R. 1999. Lee, M. C. 2003. The political Economy of Towards an Evaluation of Regional Integration in Regionalism in Southern Africa. Land Latin America in the 1990s. London: downe: University of Cape Town Press. Routledge. Le Sage, A. 2007. “Terrorism Threats and Dorff, R. 1999. “Responding to the Failed Vulnerabilities in Africa”. In African Counter State: The Need for Strategy”. Small wars and Terrorism Cooperation: Assessing Regional and Insurgencies. Vol. 10, No. 3, pp. 63-64. Sub regional Initiatives. Washington, DC: East African Community (EAC) NDU Press. http://www.refernceforbusiness.com/ency Mamdani, M., 2001. “Understanding the Crisis clopeadia/Dev-Eco/East-african- in Kivu”. Report of the CODESRIA Mission to community-EAC.htm/ixzz14xNoMS7P the Democratic Republic of Congo. Dakar: viewed on 21.12.2010. CODESRIA. Finnstrom. S. 1999. “Living with Bad Mbogo, Stephen. 2010. “East African Region Surroundings: War and Uncertainly in Gets Serious About Counter-Terror Northern Uganda”. Working Papers in Cooperation”, CNS News.com, Nairobi Cultural Anthropology, Uppsala, Department Kenya. of Cultural Anthropology, Uppsala McCarthy, C. 1999. “Regional Integration in University. Sub Saharan Africa: Past, Present and Gamachu, Buraanu. 2011, “Why al-Shabab Future “. In Oyejide, A. Ndulu, B. and Targeted Uganda, the America of Africa?” Greenway, D. (Eds.) Regional Integration and The Daily Monitor, January 3. Trade Liberalization in Sub-Saharan Africa, Gersony, R. 1997. “The Anguish of Northern Volume4: Synthesis and Review. London: Uganda: Results of a Field Based Macmillan. Assessment of Civil Conflict in Northern Medea Group. 2007. Internet Banking, Hawala Uganda”. Report Submitted to the United States and Terrorism: The Dynamics of Islamic terrorist Embassy. Kampala: US Embassy. Groups. Ground Work for Institutional Harnish, T. 2010. The Terror threats from Somalia: Fraud. London: Zed Press. The Internationalization of Al-Shabab. Miyagawa, M. 2006. “Comment on Free Trade Washington, D C: the American Enterprise Agreements and the Prospects for Regional Institute. Integration in East Asia”. Asian Economic ICGLR Report. 2006. Sub-Program of Action for Policy Review, 1, 324-25. Promotion of Interstate Cooperation on Peace and Montbrial, P., and Klein, W. 2006. The History Security. Project Number 1: 2:2. of Terrorism: From Antiquity to Kayumba, David. 2010. “Museveni is right Al-Qaeda. Los Angeles: California Press about al-Shabab”. The New Vision, August 3. Foundation. Khalif, A. 2010. “Somali Militants angry at Mukamunana, R. and Moeti, K., 2005. Museveni’s Stop-Over”. The Daily monitor, “NEPAD and Africa’s Development: An December 2. Overview of Challenges and Strategic Kherbi, A. 2005. “An African Perspective of Option”. Paper Presented at the NEPAD the Global Fight against Terrorism” A International Trade and Investment Paper presented at a Symposium organized Conference Held in East London, South by the National Defence University (NDU) Africa, 25-27 May, 2005. November 15-16, Fort Lesley Mc Nair, Muyangwa, M., 2010. “Combating Terrorism Washington, DC. Financing in Eastern and Southern Africa”. Kiraso, B. 2009. “EAC Integration and the Report on ACSS Counter Terrorism Enabling Peace and Security Architecture”. Financing Conference Held on 9-14 May, Paper Presented at the EAC Peace and Sheraton Hotel, Kampala, Uganda. Security Conference, October 5, 2009, Nayef, Al-Rodhan, 2007. The Five Dimensions of Kampala, Uganda. Global Security: Proposal for a Multi-Security Koufa, K. 2001. Protection of Human Rights: Principle. Berlin: LIT Verlag. Terrorism and Human Rights. A Progress Ojo, O., 1999. Economic Underpinnings for Security Report, UNESCO, New York: UNESCO. in Africa Monograph No. 12. Paarl, Boulder, London: Lynne Reinner.

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Okoth, P.G., 2004. “The New East African Zake, Peter S. 2011. “We Can’t Achieve Peace Community: A Defence and Security Organ By Flexing Our Military Might”. The Daily as the Missing Link”. J. Mbaku and C. Monitor, January 5. Saxena, eds., Africa at the Crossroads: Between Zartman. W. 2003. Managing Terrorism and Regionalism and Globalism. Westport, Insurgency through Peace Processes: Connecticut, London: Praeger. Options for the Future. New Delhi: Dawn Press Regional Intelligence Report of a Meeting of Group. Intelligence Chiefs, November 23-24, 2010 held at the Imperial Resort Hotel, , Author Bio Uganda. Rwengabo, S. 2009. “Geopolitics, Economic PONTIAN G. OKOTH (PhD) is a Professor Considerations and the East African of History and International Relations at the Regional Integration”. Paper presented at Department of Peace and Conflict Studies, the CODESRIA-APISA-CLACSO: Masinde Muliro University of Science and International Comparative Research Technology, Kenya. Formerly, he was the Workshop on “Hegemony, Counter- Director of Quality Assurance at Uganda Hegemony and Alternatives to Hegemony: Martyrs University and a Professor at the East Implications for the South”, held in Kuala African School of Diplomacy, Governance Lumpur /Malaysia, March 23-25, 2009. and International Studies. Shaw, T. 2003. “Regional Dimensions of Conflict and Peace-Building in Contemporary Africa.” Journal of International Development, 15, Pp. 487-498.

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THE DEMOGRAPHIC-ECONOMIC PARADOX: ISSUES AND POLICIES

Ngozi M. Nwakeze Department of Economics, University of Lagos

Abstract. This paper attempts to explore the linkage effects of income on fertility with the main objective of finding explanations for the possible contradictions in the nexus between macroeconomics and demographics. To achieve this, a correlational analysis for Total Fertility Rate (TFR) and per capita Gross Domestic Product (GDP), Human Development Index (HDI), population density, index of economic freedom and urbanization were obtained. The result indicates that the variables are negatively correlated. TFR and HDI have the strongest linkage effect. This lends support to the assumptions that underlie the Demographic Transition Model (DTM). The findings from regression analysis show that the HDI is a better predicator of TFR than GDPP. An assessment of the views and policies of selected governments concerning population growth and fertility levels shows that population issues are important in the development agenda.

Introduction demographics as well as examine the policy implications. The specific objectives include; The demographic-economic paradox simply 1. To explore the linkage effects of income refers to the inverse correlation that is found on fertility. between income (wealth) and fertility. This can 2. To explore the link between Total Fertility be observed at both the micro and macro Rate (TFR) and variables such as levels. In this paper emphasis on the paradox population density, human development, will be at the macro level so as to make economic freedom and urbanization. comparisons among countries more 3. To assess the views and policies of meaningful. In more developed nations with selected governments concerning higher per capita GDP, fewer number of population growth. children are born. Differently put, nations with higher income are observed to have fewer children, even though a richer population can Theoretical Framework and Literature. support more children. This section reviews both theoretical and This becomes a paradox because the empirical literatures. The theories and demand for children is not a normal increasing empirical evidences are very important for our function of real income, contrary to the law of understanding of fertility behaviours and demand. It is therefore important to find out policy decisions. Until recently when scholars what factors are responsible for this paradox. began to investigate the factors that are Little wonder that during the 1974 United responsible for population dynamics (growth Nations population conference in Bucharest, a and decline and how changes in population former minister of population in India (Karan could affect the welfare of the people), there Singh), stated that “Development is the best has not been a consistent population theory. contraceptive." The demographic-economic The evolution of the general theory of paradox suggests that reproductive restraint population can be summarized as a historical arises naturally as a consequence of economic overview on Malthusian theory along other progress. It is hypothesized that the observed classical and neoclassical school of thoughts. trend in the demographic transition has come Equally important is the theory of about as a response to increased life demographic transition, which is a macro expectancy, reduced childhood mortality, theory. improved female literacy and independence, economic freedom and urbanization. The Malthusian Theory The major objective of this paper is to find explanations for the possible contradictions in Thomas Malthus (1766-1834) was the first the nexus between macroeconomics and the social thinker to highlight the close

KAMPALA INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY JOURNAL OF HUMANITIES & SOCIAL SCIENCES

ISSN: 2413-9580, VOLUME 4, NUMBER 2, NOVEMBER 2015, PP. 19 - 31

Nwakeze: The Demographic-Economic Paradox relationship between changes in population who believes that it is the niggardliness of and changes in the economy. His 1798 essay nature and not the injustice of man that is the on the principles of population was a cause of the penalty attached to over benchmark in Economic Demography and population. Development Economics. According to In spite of all the criticisms, Malthus enjoys Malthus, the reproductive power of humanity the support of many. Among them is David is greater than the productive power of the Ricardo. Ricardo linked his Law of earth to provide sustenance for people. As he Diminishing Return to the theory of optimum popularly puts it, “population increases in population, emphasizing the idea that the earth geometric progression of 2,4,6,8,16… while has maximum or limited carrying capacity of the means of subsistence increases in population. He supports the argument that arithmetic progression of 1,2,3,4,5…”. population growth would result in a steady Malthus, therefore, warned that if population decline of per capita income, which in turn growth remained unchecked there would be an would lead to a stationary state where imbalance between the demand for and supply economic growth would cease. Generally, of subsistence, basically food. Ricardo and other classical economists who To avoid this problem, Malthus advised that are Malthus faithful assume that parent's humanity should adopt preventive checks such demand for children is a normal increasing as late marriages and abstinence within the function of real wages. But evidence has marriage. Moral restraint is very important to shown that fertility does not always increase Malthus because he believed that if people with income. For instance, Schultz (1973) were allowed to prevent births by “improper observed income to be inversely related to means” such as contraception, abortion or fertility over time and across population. See sterilization (thereby encouraging also Guinnnane (2011) and Nwakeze & prostitution), then they would dissipate their Scharffarzik (2014). The contradiction in the energies in a way that is, so to speak, classical viewpoints on the relationship economically unproductive. Some people see between socio-economic development and Malthus essay as militant because his argument fertility at the macro level has inspired many is based more strongly on moral positions than social scientists to seek for solution at the on scientific data. He is mainly criticised for micro level. not recognizing the effect of technical progress In the words of Malthus, material success is in offsetting the growth inhibiting forces of a consequence of human ability to plan rapid population. The critics believed that rationally. According to him, people should be decreasing returns to scale is untenable with educated about future consequences of current scientific or technological and social behaviour. He further suggested that a well- inventions and innovations. Among these educated, rational person would perceive in critics are Boserup (1981) and Simon (1977, advance the pain of having hungry children or 1981). being in debt and would therefore postpone According to Boserup, contrary to Malthus marriage and sexual intercourse until he was view, it is the pressure of population that will sure that he could avoid that pain. Although provoke changes in the means of agricultural Malthus wrote his popular essay on population production and entails recourse to intensive more than 200 years ago, the realities of today farming technique. In other words, necessity is in terms of global crisis - economic, food and seen as “mother” of invention. Simon on the energy, climate change, wars, terrorist attacks other hand justifies his optimism on the etc. make it necessary to re-visit his idea. capacity for technological inventions and innovations within a large population. In a The Demographic Transition Theory similar vein, Adam Smith repudiates Malthus Demographic Transition (DT) refers to the “alarmist” view regarding population growth. change that human populations undergo from Karl Marx also rejected the Malthusian theory high birth and death rates to low birth and and rather viewed the issue of overpopulation death rates. The transition occurs as a country or surplus labour as an integral part of the develops from an agrarian (a pre-industrial) to problem created by capitalist economic an industrialized economic system. Most system. He advised that the problem could developed countries are in stage 3 or 4 of the only be solved by transformation of the whole demographic transition model while the society. Other critics include John Stuart Mill, majority of developing countries have reached

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KIU Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences stage 2 or stage 3. Exceptions may however be endemic diseases, famine and natural disasters. found in some very poor countries or among Examples can mainly be found in sub-Saharan those constantly in turmoil, afflicted by wars, Africa and Middle Eastern countries

Figure 1: Stages of Demographic Transition

The transition involves four main stages, with group and may not adequately describe all a possibility of a stage five being underway. In individual cases. For instance, the extent to stage one, pre-industrial society, death rates which the DTM applies to less-developed and birth rates are high and approximately nets societies today leaves much to be desired. For out and population growth rate was close to instance, countries like China, Brazil and zero. Up to the late 18th century, all countries Thailand have passed through the are in this stage. Western Europe was the first Demographic Transition (DT) very quickly to move out of this stage. In stage two, the due to fast social and economic change while death rates drop rapidly while birth rate in some countries, particularly African remains high. The rapid drop in death rate is countries, the DT appears to be stalled in the due to agricultural revolution and consequent second stage due to stagnant development and improvements in food supply and sanitation. the effect of AIDS. Other improvements generally include access A critical evaluation of the DTM indicates to technology, basic healthcare, and education. that it has limited applicability in economically The fall in death rate was not accompanied by less developed countries particularly due to corresponding fall in birth rates which results inadequacy of data. Also, The DTM makes to high population growth. In stage three, birth suggestion about the future population levels rates fall due to access to contraception, of a country but not a prediction. And, it does increases in wages, urbanization, a reduction in not account for changes in population due to subsistence agriculture, an increase in the migration. status and education of women, a reduction in the value of children's work, an increase in Empirical Evidence parental investment in the education of The empirical evidence in this paper focused children and other social changes. The decline on the fertility transition and the interlinked in birth rate is attributed to improvements in factors such as income, religion, the cost of contraception and transition in values. In stage childbearing, economic freedom and four there are both low birth rates and low population density. Contradictory evidence death rates. Birth rates may drop to well below exists on the nature and linkage effects of replacement level as experienced by countries income on fertility. Becker once suggested that like Germany, Italy, and Japan, leading to a the possibility of a systematic shift in tastes shrinking population, a threat to many against children along the income scale to be industries that rely on population growth. responsible for the negative association The Demographic Transition Model between income and fertility in the empirical (DTM), as with most aggregate model is a studies. This shift in taste may be as a result of generalization that applies to countries as a non-economic factors like education and

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Nwakeze: The Demographic-Economic Paradox religion. Cleland (2001) addressed the positive economic assets that provide labour, relationship between education and fertility wealth, risk insurance, and old age security to decline in the intermediate- fertility countries. their parents and relatives. Another obvious He presents a simple model of the way in reason is that of cultural inertia. There are which the relationship between education and strong cultural factors that sustain high fertility fertility changes during the fertility transition. especially in West Africa and will likely He concludes that in pre transitional period the continue even in the face of modernization - relationship between education and fertility is Caldwell et al (2006), Caldwell (1982). The weak and variable. As fertility decline begins, “stubborn” ones are those embedded in the fertility differentials by education tend to gender system. increase because family size first declines However, Colien (1998) observed that among the best educated and last among the moderate fertility decline is underway in some least educated. Evidence from some other parts of Africa e.g. Kenya, Botswana and works such as Jejeebhoy (1991) supports this Zimbabwe, South Africa, Cote d’Ivoire. A argument. smaller decline is equally observed in countries Bongaarts and Watkins (1996) using data like Ghana, Gambia, Senegal, Mauritania and from 69 developing countries analysed their Sierra Leone. Late marriages and greater use of fertility transitions since 1960. The authors contraceptive are assumed to be the driving found that the relationship between force. But, in Kenya, Wasao (1998) argued development and pre-transitional fertility, the that it is limited land that parents will bequeath timing of the onset of transitions, and the pace their children that is the major driving force for of fertility decline after transition onset deviate reducing fertility. Hence, the need to consider substantially from what would be the case if population density as a likely explanation for fertility and development were closely linked. the demographic–economic paradox. They argue that social interactions increase the Religion is often considered as one of the level at which actors at all levels exchange and factors that may contribute to the evaluate information and ideas, and exert and demographic-economic paradox. This is receive social influence, thus affecting because religious societies tend to have higher reproductive behaviour. According to the birth rates than secular ones, and richer, more authors, “although development is important educated nations tend to advance in understanding the timing and pace of secularization. fertility change, social interaction is equally Religion is an important aspect of culture likely to have an independent influence on that has implications on reproductive fertility”. But, social interactions are possible behaviours. Lehrer (2004) writing on religion only where there is freedom, be it of choice or as a determinant of economic and from servitude. Other empirical evidence on demographic behaviour has this to say: fertility transition include Macunovich (1998) “religious affiliation matters because it has an and Bongaarts (1998) discussing fertility and impact on the perceived costs and benefits of reproductive preferences in post-transitional the various interrelated decisions that people societies notes that conventional theories have make over the life cycle”. McQuilla (2004) in little to say about the level at which fertility will discussing the role of religious institutions in stabilize at the end of demographic transition. fertility seeks explanations as to why religious He examined the causes of discrepancies values play pivotal role in some settings but not between reproductive preferences and in others. He gave classic examples with Islam observed fertility. and Catholicism. This suggests that the In Sub-Saharan Africa, Colien (1998) demographic-economic paradox applies more examines the emerging fertility transition. The strongly in Catholic countries (example, paper summarizes the recent evidence on Ireland and Rome) where fertility started to fall levels, trends and differentials in achieved when the liberalizing reforms of Vatican II fertility, nuptiality, and contraceptive use in were implemented. Sub-Saharan Africa. Using a wide variety of Religious beliefs and affiliations may affect data sources in a 30-year period, the author reproductive behaviours and outcomes in two concludes that fertility rate for most African broad ways. It may be through the demand countries is still very high for obvious reasons. side and or via the supply side. On the supply One is that in the absence of many financial side of the equation, religion may discourage and legal institutions, children are still prized as the use of contraception while on the demand

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KIU Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences side it may increase the number of children of having children, the author reinforced the that couples desire. Some religious idea that economic hardship necessitates organizations do encourage pro-annalistic family planning. Smith (2004) regarded the behaviours among their faithful under the existence of the pressure to limit birth injunction that God has ordered man to be (occasioned by the high cost of having quality “fruitful” and multiply. Even in traditional children under market system) and pressure to African religion, there is a strong belief in maintain high fertility (occasioned by “wealth ancestral worship and hence the need for in children”) as a paradox. And, this paradox families to demand more number of children. may continue for a long time except there is The linkage effect between women’s cultural transformation addressing the issue of autonomy and fertility decisions has gender inequality. Using data from 48 Sub- considerable theoretical support. The more Saharan African countries spanning a period patriarchal a religion is, the less is the female from 1995-2005, Nwakeze and Schaffartzik autonomy and the lower the female autonomy (2014) found a negative correlation between the higher the female fertility. One of the ways per capita GDP and both the total fertility rate through which religion can influence female and gender inequality index. autonomy and consequently fertility is by In the spirit of Julian Simon’s contributions, restricting their freedom; be it of movement, Norton (2001) argues that characteristics such speech or from servitude. Scholars who argued as a nation’s economic freedom and its legal that gender relations have critical influence on framework are more important in determining fertility behaviour include Tfaily (2004), Cosio- the quality of human life and the environment Zavala (2001) and McDonald (2000). than is population growth. His essay should According to McDonald, “gender equity is a help the reader consider whether the harms value-laden concept that begs the question of caused by population growth are as serious as whose values should be applied”. Should it be many people think and whether institutional the man’s value or the woman’s value? changes would do more for humanity and the One of the important determinants of environment than would population control. It fertility is the value of children as perceived by is important to note that late Julian Simon is a parents. According to Blaug (1978), the path-breaking economist who revised production of children is an investment that traditional thinking on population issues from carries future return. If the prospect is high population growth to natural resources - see parents tend to demand many children. This is Simon (1981). supported by the empirical tests of evolutionary and wealth flows theories by Methodology Kaplan (1994) but has negative implications for Caldwell's wealth flow theory. In order to The data used in the analysis were obtained determine the net economic value of raising mainly from World Development Indicators children and the direction of wealth flow, and the World Population Policies. The Kaplan used data from three high fertility variables sourced include income as measured traditional societies in lowland South America. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) on per capita The result of the study showed that the overall basis, Human Development Index (HDI), flow of wealth appears to be downwards, from Total Fertility Rates (TFR), population density, parents to children and grandparents to degree of urbanization, index of economic grandchildren. His argument is that before the freedom and religion. These variables were age of eighteen, children consume more than collected from 32 selected countries they produce; and by the time they produce comprising 16 top countries with highest HDI more than they consume, they are married with and 16 bottom countries with lowest HDI. children. More often than not, grandparents Correlational and regression analyses were help in bringing up their grandchildren. By the applied to the data. Also, from the United time they are very old and febrile that they are Nation’s World Population Policies no longer productive, many of them die. This information were also obtained on the various is particularly valid in poor countries like Niger government views and policies concerning where life expectancy is very low. population growth and fertility level of the The study by Smith (2004) observed some selected countries. inherent contradictions in Nigeria’s fertility The government’s view on population transition. Examining the burdens and benefit growth indicates how government perceives

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Nwakeze: The Demographic-Economic Paradox the rate of population growth in the country. 5. The index of Economic Freedom The response categories are too low, underpinned by the principles of satisfactory and too high. For the variable empowerment, non-discrimination and policy on growth indicates government’s open competition is captured by 10 stated policy to influence the rate of variables. They include property rights, population growth in the country. The freedom from corruption, fiscal freedom, response categories are either to raise, government spending, business freedom, maintain, lower or no intervention. The labour freedom, monetary freedom, trade description of other variables used are given freedom, investment freedom and below; financial freedom. In an economically free 1. Total Fertility Rate (TFR); the average society, the power of economic decision- number of children expected to be born making is widely dispersed, and the by a woman at the end of her child bearing allocation of resources for production and age if she conforms to the age specific consumption is on the basis of free and fertility rate of a given year. open competition. 2. Income is measured by Gross Domestic 6. Urbanization –Urban population as a Product (GDP) on per capita basis. percentage of total population. 3. Human Development Index (HDI); a component index that measures income, Findings and Discussion educational attainment and longevity. 4. Population density is the land /man ratio Table 1 shows the human development index which measures the pressure of and total fertility of selected countries. population on land.

Table 1: Human Development Index and Total Fertility of Selected Countries (2012) Very high HDI (≥ 0.9) Very low HDI (≤ 0.4) S/N Country HDI TFR Country HDI TFR 1 Norway 0.955 2.0 Zimbabwe 0.397 3.1 2 Australia 0.938 2.0 Ethiopia 0.396 3.9 3 United States 0.937 2.1 Liberia 0.388 5.1 4 Netherlands 0.921 1.8 Afghanistan 0.374 6.0 5 Germany 0.920 1.4 Guinea Bissau 0.364 4.9 6 New Zealand 0.919 2.1 Sierra Leone 0.359 4.8 7 Ireland 0.916 2.1 Burundi 0.355 4.1 8 Sweden 0.916 1.9 Guinea 0.355 5.1 9 Switzerland 0.913 1.5 Central African Republic 0.352 4.5 10 Japan 0.912 1.4 Eritrea 0.351 4.3 11 Canada 0.911 1.7 Mali 0.344 6.2 12 Republic of Korea 0.909 1.4 Burkina Faso 0.343 5.8 13 Hong Kong, China (SAR) 0.906 1.1 Chad 0.340 5.8 14 Iceland 0.906 2.1 Mozambique 0.327 4.8 15 Denmark 0.901 1.9 Congo Democratic Rep 0.304 5.5 16 Israel 0.900 2.9 Niger 0.304 7.0 Average 0.917 1.8 Average 0.353 5.1 Source: UNDP (2013)

Table 1 presents a comparative analysis of selected and they include 16 countries with Human Development Index (HDI) and the very high human development (that is, with Total Fertility Rates (TFR) of selected HDI≥ 0.9) and 16 countries with very low countries for the year 2012. It can be observed human development (i.e., countries with that fertility rate was higher for countries with HDI≤ 0.4). From the result of the analysis, lower HDI and vice versa. This supports the HDI proved more useful than the income assumption that development is the best measure. The linkage effect of per capita GDP contraceptive and contradicts the view that on TFR is more complex and difficult to fertility has a rebound effect after certain interpret, see the table 2. The choice of HDI threshold level basically at a very high HDI of over GDP is based on two main reasons. One, 0.9 and above. A total of 32 countries were per capita income is one of the three

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KIU Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences components of HDI. Two, socio-economic of other variables such as economic freedom, progress or improved human well-being which population density and urban population are HDI represents is an important factor in the equally shown in Table 2. Demographic Transition Model. The influence

Table 2: Selected Economic and Demographic Indicators 2012 S/N Country GDP per GDP per capita Index of TFR Population Urban capita (PPP, Economic Density Population (current $) international $) freedom (Sq/km2) (% of Total) 1 Norway 99557.73 65639.83 70.9 2.0 15.6 79.65 2 Australia 67556 44597.83 82.0 2.0 3.03 89.34 3 United States 51748.56 51748.56 75.5 2.1 32.32 82.63 4 Netherlands 45954.73 43104.83 74.2 1.8 405.23 83.52 5 Germany 41862.71 41244.75 73.4 1.4 226 74.07 6 New Zealand 37749.44 32219.46 81.2 2.1 16.6 86.29 7 Ireland 45931.72 43682.79 76.2 2.1 65 62.51 8 Sweden 55041.16 43021.14 73.1 1.9 23.5 85.36 9 Switzerland 78924.73 53280.57 81.6 1.5 196 73.78 10 Japan 46720.36 35177.55 72.4 1.4 337 91.7 11 Canada 52218.99 42533.40 80.2 1.7 3.55 80.77 12 Korea 22590.16 30800.55 71.2 1.4 505 83.47 13 Hong Kong, 36795.82 51102.7449 90.1 1.1 6516 100 China (SAR) 14 Iceland 42416.04 37636.50 72.4 2.1 3.15 93.83 15 Denmark 56325.66 42172.53 76.1 1.9 130 87.07 16 Israel 31868.53 68.4 2.9 369.56 91.94 17 Zimbabwe 714.23 35.5 3.1 33 39.11 18 Ethiopia 453.53 1108.77 50.0 3.9 81 17.28 19 Liberia 413.76 638.87 52.4 5.1 36 48.58 20 Afghanistan 687.25 1560.67 N/A 6.0 39 23.86 21 Guinea Bissau 494.32 1101.27 51.3 4.9 42 44.57 22 Sierra Leone 634.92 1337.00 50.5 4.8 85 39.64 23 Burundi 251.01 551.27 51.4 4.1 365 11.21 24 Guinea 492.79 1051.42 53.5 5.1 44 35.94 25 Central 482.67 1076.59 46.7 4.5 7.42 39.35 African Republic 26 Eritrea 504.30 557.07 38.5 4.3 52 21.83 27 Mali 693.98 1194.78 55.5 6.2 11.6 35.57 28 Burkina Faso 634.32 1488.42 58.9 5.8 64 27.35 29 Chad 1035.26 2134.91 44.5 5.8 8.78 21.92 30 Mozambique 565.15 1007.23 55.0 4.8 29.6 31.47 31 DRC 261.84 415.34 40.6 5.5 28.8 34.83 32 Niger 394.78 769. 20 55.1 7.0 14.4 18.12 Sources: Culled from World Development Indicator (2013), The Heritage Foundation & Wall Street Journal (2015), UNDP Human Development Report (2013) and World Population Prospects (2012).

From Table 2, the index of economic freedom density. Hence, the linkage effects are further and urban population appear to have provided explored by using correlational analysis. See clearer picture than GDP and population Table 3 for the correlation matrix.

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Nwakeze: The Demographic-Economic Paradox

Table 3: Correlation Matrix EF GDPC GDPPP HDI PDS TFR URBAN EF 1.000000 0.823457 0.810693 0.914134 0.358208 -0.822713 0.878273 GDPC 0.823457 1.000000 0.919817 0.905220 0.079780 -0.814660 0.819843 GDPPP 0.810693 0.919817 1.000000 0.924163 0.247907 -0.905398 0.856186 HDI 0.914134 0.905220 0.924163 1.000000 0.206112 -0.929376 0.937444 PDS 0.358208 0.079780 0.247907 0.206112 1.000000 -0.287268 0.299392 TFR -0.822713 -0.814660 -0.905398 -0.929376 -0.287268 1.000000 -0.860985 URBAN 0.878273 0.819843 0.856186 0.937444 0.299392 -0.860985 1.000000 EF=Index of Economic Freedom; GDPC=GDP at Constant Price; GDPPP=GDP at $PPP; HDI=Human Development Index; PDS=Population Density; TFR=Total Fertility Rate; URBAN=Urban Population.

The result of the Correlation matrix is rate. Among the selected countries, Hong consistent with the interpretation of Table 2. Kong has an exceedingly high population The variables are negatively correlated with density and one of the lowest TFR. Countries total fertility rate. All, but population density, with higher economic freedom have lower have very strong correlation with total fertility TFR. An inverse relationship was also found rate. The human development index has the between GDP at purchasing power parity and highest coefficient of -0.929 while population total fertility rate. The countries with very low density has the least coefficient of -0.287. The GDPPP (mainly from Sub-Saharan Africa) human development index is also highly have very high TFR. The relationship between correlated with urban population, with a total fertility rate and human development coefficient of 0.937. These results appeal index is also clearly inverse (cf. Figures 1 intuitively. There is an inverse relationship through 4). between population density and total fertility

8 1.2 7 1 6 5 0.8 4 0.6 3 0.4 2 1 0.2 0 0

TFR HDI

Figure 1 Total Fertility Rate and Human Development Index

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KIU Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences

70000 8 60000 7 50000 6 40000 5 4 30000 3 20000 2 10000 1 0 0

GDPPP TFR

Figure 2: GDP at Purchasing Power Parity and Total Fertility Rate

100 8 90 7 80 70 6 60 5 50 4 40 3 30 20 2 10 1

0 0

Mali

Chad

Niger

Israel

Japan

Congo…

Eritrea

Liberia

Ireland

Guinea

Iceland

Canada

Norway

Sweden

Burundi

Ethiopia

Australia

Denmark

Germany

Zimbabwe

Switzerland

Afghanistan

Netherlands

SierraLeone

Burkina Faso

NewZealand

Mozambique

UnitedStates

Guinea Bissau

Central African…

RepublicofKorea HongKong, China…

EF TFR

Figure 3: Economic Freedom and Total Fertility Rate

7000 8 6000 7 5000 6 4000 5 4 3000 3 2000 2 1000 1

0 0

Mali

Chad

Niger

Israel

Japan

Congo…

Eritrea

Liberia

Ireland

Guinea

Iceland

Canada

Norway

Sweden

Burundi

Ethiopia

Australia

Denmark

Germany

Zimbabwe

HongKong,…

Switzerland

Afghanistan

Netherlands

SierraLeone

Burkina Faso

NewZealand

Mozambique

UnitedStates

Guinea Bissau

Central African… RepublicofKorea

PDS TFR

Figure 4: Population density and total fertility rate

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Nwakeze: The Demographic-Economic Paradox

120 8 100 7 6 80 5 60 4 40 3 2 20 1

0 0

Mali

Chad

Niger

Israel

Japan

Congo…

Eritrea

Liberia

Ireland

Guinea

Iceland

Canada

Norway

Sweden

Burundi

Ethiopia

Australia

Denmark

Germany

Zimbabwe

Republicof…

HongKong,…

Switzerland

Afghanistan

Netherlands

SierraLeone

Burkina Faso

NewZealand

Mozambique

UnitedStates

Guinea Bissau CentralAfrican…

UUBANURBAN TFR

Figure 5: Urban Population and Total Fertility Rate

The result from the regression analysis (shown (URBAN) have negative effect on Total in Table 4) was consistent with the one from Fertility Rate (TFR).In model 2, the GDPP correlational analysis. In model 1, the Gross was replaced with the HDI. The finding shows Domestic Product at purchasing power parity that the HDI is a better predicator than the (GDP at $PPP represented as GDPPP), Index GDPP. On the basis of Akaike Info Criterion, of Economic Freedom (EF), Population model 2 is preferred (see the regression output Density (PDS) and Urban Population below).

MODEL 1 RESULT: LNTFR = f (LNGDPP, LNEF, LNPD, LNUP) Dependent Variable: LNTFR Method: Least Squares Date: 04/02/14 Time: 16:42 Sample: 1 32 Included observations: 31

Variable Coefficient Std. Error t-Statistic Prob.

LNGDPP -2.29E-05 9.87E-06 -2.324887 0.0282 LNPD -0.000151 0.000157 -0.959171 0.3463 LNEF 0.009961 0.024972 0.398888 0.6932 LNUP -0.038050 0.011223 -3.390342 0.0022 C 5.591724 1.114380 5.017790 0.0000

R-squared 0.791761 Mean dependent var 3.364516 Adjusted R-squared 0.759724 S.D. dependent var 1.763245 S.E. of regression 0.864307 Akaike info criterion 2.692912 Sum squared resid 19.42268 Schwarz criterion 2.924200 Log likelihood -36.74014 Hannan-Quinn criter. 2.768306 F-statistic 24.71409 Durbin-Watson stat 1.544112 Prob(F-statistic) 0.000000

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KIU Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences

MODEL 2 RESULT: LNTFR =f (LNHDI, LNEF, LNPD, LNUP) Dependent Variable: LNTFR Method: Least Squares Date: 04/02/14 Time: 16:47 Sample: 1 32 Included observations: 31 Variables Coefficient Std. Error t-Statistic Prob. LNHDI -9.045416 1.471962 -6.145143 0.0000 LNPD -0.000304 0.000113 -2.696922 0.0121 LNEF 0.054829 0.019338 2.835218 0.0087 LNUP 0.011384 0.011823 0.962835 0.3445 C 5.154660 0.700026 7.363526 0.0000 R-squared 0.897436 Mean dependent var 3.364516 Adjusted R-squared 0.881657 S.D. dependent var 1.763245 S.E. of regression 0.606575 Akaike info criterion 1.984713 Sum squared resid 9.566260 Schwarz criterion 2.216001 Log likelihood -25.76305 Hannan-Quinn criter. 2.060107 F-statistic 56.87496 Durbin-Watson stat 1.818475 Prob(F-statistic) 0.000000

Governments’ Concern on Population Issues Table 4: Governments’ Views on Population Growth & Fertility Levels (2013) Country Population Growth Fertility level View on Growth Policy on Growth View on Fertility Policy on Fertility Norway Satisfactory No Intervention Satisfactory Maintain Australia Satisfactory No intervention Too Low Raise United States Satisfactory No Intervention Satisfactory No Intervention Netherlands Satisfactory No Intervention Satisfactory No Intervention Germany Too Low Raise Too Low Raise New Zealand Satisfactory No intervention Satisfactory Maintain Ireland Satisfactory No Intervention Satisfactory No Intervention Sweden Satisfactory No Intervention Satisfactory Raise Switzerland Satisfactory No intervention Satisfactory No Intervention Japan Too Low Raise Too Low Raise Canada Too Low No Intervention Too Low No Intervention Republic of Korea Too Low Raise Too Low Raise Iceland Satisfactory Maintain Satisfactory Maintain Denmark Satisfactory No Intervention Too Low Raise Israel Too Low Raise Too Low Raise Zimbabwe Too High Lower Too High Lower Ethiopia Too High Lower Too High Lower Liberia Too High Lower Too High Lower Afghanistan Too High Lower Too High Lower Guinea Bissau Satisfactory Lower Too High Lower Sierra Leone Too High Lower Too High Lower Burundi Too High Lower Too High Lower Guinea Too High Lower Too High Lower Central African Republic Satisfactory No Intervention Satisfactory Lower Eritrea Too High Lower Too High Lower Mali Too High Lower Too High Lower Burkina Faso Too High Lower Too High Lower Chad Too High Lower Too High Lower Mozambique Too High Lower Too High Lower DRC Satisfactory No Intervention Too High Lower Niger Too High Lower Too High Lower Nigeria Too High Lower Too High Lower Source: United Nations World Population Policies (2013)

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Nwakeze: The Demographic-Economic Paradox

Table 4, assesses government’s perceptions national progress. It is important to note that and response regarding population growth and these variables are interlinked in their effects fertility levels for the selected countries. With on fertility, and progress in one may likely the exception of Central African Republic and stimulate or impede progress in another. Democratic Republic of Congo, all the Nevertheless, the HDI is found to be more governments of those countries with very low meaningful in providing explanations for the human development index view population demographic – economic paradox than the growth and fertility level as too high and have GDP. policies aimed at lowering the rates. An assessment of the views and policies of A somewhat different perception is held by selected governments concerning population the government of countries with very high growth and fertility levels indicates that human development. Majority of them view population issues are important in population growth and fertility levels as too development agenda thereby suggesting an low or satisfactory. Their policies aimed at integrated approach. It also calls to question either raising the rates or maintaining the status the popular one-child policy of China which is quo and in few instances there are no policy regarded as the most stringent in the world. intervention. Other countries with very high HDI, example Germany, Japan, Canada and References Republic of Korea view population growth and fertility levels as too low and have policies Becker, G. (1960) "An Economic Analysis of aimed at raising them. In this category, only Fertility" in Ansley J. Coale ed. Demographic Canada has no policy intervention. and Economic Change in Developing Countries, It is important to note that it may be easier Princeton University Press, Princeton. pp. to reduce population growth and fertility level 209-231. than to raise them. Therefore, government Blaug, M. (1978) Economic Theory in Retrospect. should consider the possible consequences of Homewood: Irwin. any policy action. Lessons should be learnt Bongaarts, J. (1998) “Fertility and from previous efforts and other countries Reproductive Preferences in Post experiences to avoid pitfalls. The Chinese Transitional Societies”, Working Paper No. experience is a classic example. The one-child 114, Population Council Policy Research policy of China which was implemented for Division more than three decades has some adverse Boserup, E. (1981), Population and Technology. consequences one of which is imbalance in sex Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ratio. Caldwell, J. C., Caldwell, B. K., Caldwell, P., McDonald, P. F., Schindlmayr, T. (2006). Demographic Transition Theory. Summary and Conclusion Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer. This paper has been able to confirm the Caldwell, J.C. (1982). The Theory of Fertility demographic-economic paradox by exploring Decline. Academic Press Inc. New York. the linkage effects of income on fertility Cleland, J. (2001), “Education and future outcome. It noted that economic development fertility trends, with special reference to is necessary but not sufficient to bring about mid-transitional countries”, Report of the demographic transition. The Demographic Expert Group Meeting on Completing the Fertility Transition Model (DTM) assumes that Transition held at the United Nations population changes are induced mainly by Headquarters in New York from 11-14 increased wealth, industrial revolution and march. modernization. It did not take into account the Colien, B. (1998) “The emerging fertility role of some important social and political transition in sub-Saharan Africa”. World factors in determining fertility rates. For Development 26 (8) 1431-1461. instance, the role of government policies in Cosio-Zavala, M.E. (2001), “Examining fertility transition is not clearly stated. Changes in the Status of Women and Each of the variables considered (GDP, Gender as Predictors of Fertility Change HDI, economic freedom, urban population, Issues in Intermediate-Fertility Countries”, and population density) plays a special role in Report of the Expert Group Meeting on Completing shaping fertility outcome and in sustaining the Fertility Transition held at the United

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Nations Headquarters in New York from Tfaily, R. (2004) “Do Women with higher 11-14 march. autonomy have lower fertility? Evidence Jejeebhoy, S. J. (1991) "Women's Status and from Malaysia, Philippines and Thailand”. Fertility: Successive Cross-Sectional Genus, Vol. LX, No. 2, April-June pp. 7-32. Evidence from Tamil Nadu, India, 1970- United Nations (2013), World Population 80", Studies in Family Planning 22 (4) 217-230 Prospects: The 2012 Revision Department of Kaplan, H. (1994), "Evolutionary and Wealth Economic and Social Affairs, Population Flows Theories of Fertility: Empirical Tests Division, DVD Edition. and New Models", Population and Development United Nations (2013), World Population Policies Review, 20 (4) 753-791. 2013, Department of Economic and Social Lehrer, E. (2004), Religion as a Determinant of Affairs, Population Division. New York, economic and Demographic behaviour”, USA. Population and Development Review. Vol. 30 (4) World Bank (2013), World Development December, pp. 707-726. Indicators. The World Bank, Washington, Macunovich, D. J. (1998) “Fertility and the USA. Easterlin Hypothesis: An assessment of Wasao, W. S. (1998) “Fertility and Agricultural literature”, Journal of Population Economics, vol. Change in Kenya, 1979-1989” APHRC 11:53-111 Working Paper. McDonald, P. (2000) “Gender Equity in Theories of Fertility”, Population and Acknowledgement Development Review. Vol.26 (3) pp.427-439. McQuilla, K. (2004), “When Does Religion The author is grateful to colleagues for their Influence Fertility?” Population and valuable contributions during the Department Development Review. Vol.30 (1) March pp.25- of Economics, University of Lagos, Staff 56. Seminar Series held on 5th March, 2014. Norton, S. Seth (2001) in Shaw, S. Jane ed. “Population Growth, Economic Freedom, Author Bio and the Rule of Law,” third PERC Policy Series, www.perc.org. NGOZI NWAKEZE is an Associate Nwakeze, N. M. (2014). The Nexus between Professor of Economics at the University of Macroeconomics and Demographics: Lagos, Nigeria. She holds a PhD in Implications for Sustainable Development, Economics, BSc. in Statistics/Economics and in Special Issue on Sustainable PGD in Population and Sustainable Development Solutions, 2014, Economic Development under the UNFPA global and Social Studies, Dublin, Ireland, pp. 285 fellowship. Ngozi has consulted with United – 298 Nations agencies, the Nigerian government Nwakeze, N. M. and Scharffartzik, A. (2014) and other development partners. As a Revisiting Boserup’s Hypotheses in the development economist, she participates in Context of Africa in Fischer-Kowalski et al policy advocacy at the community level and (Eds.) Ester Boserup’s Legacy on currently researches on population and gender Sustainability: Orientations for related issues. Contemporary Research – Human Environment Interactions 4 Schultz, P. T. (2001), “The Fertility Transition: An Economic Explanations”, Centre Discussion Paper No. 833, Economic Growth Centre, Yale University. Simon, J. (1977). The Economics of Population Growth, Princeton University Press, Princeton, USA. Smith, D.J. (2004), “Contradictions in Nigeria’s Fertility Transition: The Burden and Benefits of having Children”, Population and Development Review. 30 (2) 221-238: June. Simon, J. (1981). The Ultimate Resource, Princeton University Press, Princeton, USA.

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YOUTH UNEMPLOYMENT IN NIGERIA: IMPLICATIONS FOR COUNSELLING

Peter Nwadinigwe Ikechukwu, Esther Olufunmilayo Abe University of Lagos

Abstract. This study investigated the problem of youth unemployment in Nigeria. A number of studies were reviewed. Three hypothesis were formulated. The sample comprised 200 subjects randomly selected from both employed and unemployed youths in Owerri Municipality, Imo State. The results indicated that employed youths have higher self-esteem and manifest less tendency to abuse drugs and participate in delinquent behaviour than their unemployed counterparts. Grounded on these findings, the paper highlights some implications for counselling.

critical problems the country is facing. The Introduction years of corruption, civil war, military rule and In any healthy society, the youths constitute a mismanagement have hindered economic significant proportion of the population. The growth of the country. Years of negligence and standard of their welfare can very much be adverse policies have led to the under- used as the index of the prosperity of that utilisation of resources. These resources have society, hi Nigeria, with an estimated not been effectively utilized in order to yield population of one hundred and forty million maximum economic benefits. This is one of people, the youths constitute no less than forty the primary causes of unemployment in percent of the entire population. Nigeria. The National Bureau of Statistics Gbosi (2006) defined unemployment as a (2010:3) showed that as at March 2009 in situation in which people who are willing to Nigeria, for persons between ages 15 and 24 work at the prevailing wage rate are unable to years, 41.6% were unemployed. This is find jobs. The International Labour pointing to the fact that phenomenon is a very Organization (ILO) defines the unemployed as critical issue with far reaching consequences a member of the economically active for stability of a nation. The level of population, who are without work but unemployment is a mirror image of the state of available for and seeking for work, including a nation's economy. Economic performance people who have lost their jobs and those who of the country has been described as erratic, voluntarily left work. The problem of chronic dismal, truncated and largely unimpressed unemployment is very evident in Nigeria. (Lyoha and Oriskhi 2002, Kayode, 2004; Every year thousands of graduates are turned Ekpo, 2008). out for whom there are no jobs. The depressed economy resulting from Youths are no passive observers on their Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP), environments. According to Nwokwule (1990) unbridled exchange of naira and spiral inflation they perceived its supportiveness and articulate in Nigeria today presents to our youths a sense their plans for eventual participation in it as of hopelessness and helplessness in their job members. On the increase access to education search. This is because depressed economy, by the youths, Mallum (1988) asserted that according to Nwokwule (1990) results in whereas the motive of the government in "depressed career and a vocational democratising education is social, the youths' moratorium". In essence the consequence of perception of the utility value of education is the depressed economic situation in Nigeria is solely as a means to a nice job and better life. scarcity of jobs, of essential goods and funds. The inherent differences in educational It is widely accepted that the policy objectives between government and youths environment for economic growth in Nigeria breeds crisis situation especially for the youths, has not been favourable for many years. whose aims are often not realised. Nigeria economic policy environment, Economy watch (2005) report that particularly in the educational sector, has been unemployment in Nigeria is one of the most characterized by policy inconsistencies, lack of

KAMPALA INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY JOURNAL OF HUMANITIES & SOCIAL SCIENCES

ISSN: 2413-9580, VOLUME 4, NUMBER 2, NOVEMBER 2015, PP. 33 - 40

Ikechukwu & Abe: Counselling Implications of Youth Unemployment in Nigeria focus, half-hearted implementation, the one required in filling the existing bureaucratic bottlenecks and massive vacancies); and seasonal (effect of weather or corruption. There is inflation all over. There is season of the year). Ipaye (1988) highlighted heightened job insecurity; there is another type of unemployment peculiar to underemployment at most strata of the Nigeria and the third world called "systematic economy. unemployment" in which able-bodied, highly Recognising this trend, Adedibu (1986) trained labour are "compulsorily retired", claimed that the widespread unemployment 'dismissed'; 'retrenched' or 'removed from and underemployment of youths had reached work by the Military Regimes" as a way of a crisis situation in Nigeria. Despite the dearth cleansing/sanitising the society since those of reliable statistics, one can point to the affected were deemed to have misbehaved primary and secondary school graduates as the vocationally. worst hit. To this, must be added the colossal Omotosho, Idowul, Esere, and Arewah phenomenon of graduate unemployment. The (2009) reported that the unemployment consequence of prolonged and at times problem in Nigeria grows daily with three unsuccessful search for ever-elusive jobs on million persons, who are primarily youths, youths include frustration, increased criminal moving into the job market each year. Those behaviour, drug addiction and prostitution. unemployed include the uneducated and rural This study investigates the effects of populations but also include highly educated unemployment on youths in Owerri populations. This leads to continuing poverty Municipality in Imo State, with a view to in the country. Osalor (2012) reported that the proffer remedial measures through guidance problem of youth unemployment has not been and counselling. resolved and youths in Nigeria are more agitated than ever which has led to crime and Related Literature the destruction of property and persons. Unemployment has been a phenomenon Youths in Nigeria such as in the Niger Delta which has engaged the attention concerned of region use whatever means available to try and scholars for some time now. Akerele (1977) make their living conditions and sufferings and Shifron, Dye and Shifron (1983) had known. As noted by Obata (2012), it is time for defined it as the phenomenon of individuals the government to take action and deal with who are looking for jobs but failing to get any. the problem of unemployed youths in Nigeria. Beveridge (1981) similarly claimed that it is a Counselling of these youths offers one condition where there is an individual who is possible solution (Badejo, Stephens, & able to work, is wishing to work, is dependent Anyanwu, 2011; Omotoshol et al., 2009). on work to survive but is unable to obtain Rotimi (2012) reported on youth employment. unemployment and insecurity in Nigeria. This The large number of youths who are author stated that high rates of unemployment unemployed is capable of undermining lead to social insecurity, political violence, and democratic practice as they constitute a serious crime and it is the unemployed youths who threat if engaged by the political class for make up the active groups involved in these clandestine activities (Adepegba, 2011, issues. The increasing rates of crimes and Ibrahim 2011; Larley 2011; Olatunji & Abioye, terrorism that have taken place in Nigeria, may 2011). Unemployment rate in 2011 is 29.3 be connected with high rates of youth percent. Nigeria is lagging behind in preparing unemployment. Over 90 million youths or her workforce for the challenges of the rapidly 56% of youths in Nigeria are unemployed. changing global economy. Reasons for this include ineffective Rees (1979) classified unemployment into mechanisms to deal with this unemployment. two basic categories. The first category he The education system is dysfunctional called "demand in the economy to provide regarding curricula, skills, and apprenticeships. work for the entire labour force no matter how Kolawole (2012) reported further that the labour force is trained" (p.527). The second government and private sectors need to type of unemployment, as expounded by generate more than 2.5 million jobs each year Shifron et al (1983) is categorised into three, since around 60% of Nigerian graduates are namely frictional (there is problem/friction in unemployed. Dike (2009) lamented that the matching process between job seekers and Nigeria is lagging behind in preparing her vacancies); Structural (applicant's skill is not workforce for the challenges of the rapidly

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KIU Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences changing global economy. It is of note that time portrays the skill acquired by the applicant Nigerian graduates are not employable and as inadequate hence dimming his chances of therefore do not possess the skills needed by gainful employment. The consequence of the employer of labour for a formal unemployment on youth include frustration, employment, A large mismatch appears to hostility, low self-esteem and low self-concept. exist between the labour market demand and Some of the youths "grudgingly" gravitate the labour output. towards drug pushing, criminal behaviours, Edukugho (2012) reported that youth prostitution and other nefarious activities. It is unemployment in Nigeria threatens national in the quest to identify the effects of security and undermines the nation's goal of unemployment and proffer remedies to the becoming a leading economy in the world. To problems that tins research was embarked add to the problem of unemployment, the upon. government spends N960 billion each year on artisans from abroad to work in Nigeria and Research Hypotheses the Nigerian education system prepares The following hypotheses were formulated graduates for employment in a market that is and tested: over-saturated. The unemployment situation is 1. Employed youths significantly have higher increasingly worse and thousands of graduates self-esteem than the unemployed youths. join others who roam the streets looking for 2. Employed youths have significantly less employment. tendency towards drug abuse than the On the effect of unemployment on youth, unemployed youths. Nwoye (1991) claimed that it prolongs 3. Unemployed youths have significantly adolescents' dependence on parents, especially higher tendency towards criminal for financial support. Nwadinigwe (1992) behaviours than the employed youths. study concluded that unemployed youths are negative about life and living, and are very much pent-up against society which spent so Methodology much to train them but abandon them with no This is primarily a survey study. The provision to seek a living. Such unemployed population of youths in Owerri Municipality youths, not being sure of today, become were stratified into employed and unemployed. extremely more doubtful, negative and Simple random sampling technique was used hopeless about their future. Ipaye (1988) to select 100 unemployed youths from those opined that unemployment aggravates registered with the National Directorate of delinquent culture and serves as baptism into Employment, Owerri. Similarly 100 employed crime, drug abuse, prostitution and other youths were randomly selected from Imo State nefarious activities. Government Civil Service 1994 recruitment Belatedly Akpan (1988) study found that list. Consequently, the sample comprised 200 employed youths significantly have higher self- youths made up of 100 employed and 100 concept, self-esteem and internal locus of unemployed youths. control than the unemployed youths. Adedibu (1986) similarly found a positively significant Instrumentation relationship between unemployment and The instrument was a researcher-constructed criminal behaviour. questionnaire on the effect of unemployment Alanana (2003) reported on the need to deal on youths. It measures dimensions of with high rates of youth unemployment m unemployment effects, notably self-concept, Nigeria. It was recommended that a Work validity of this instrument was done through Incentive Programme (WIN) be established by pilot testing and reliability co-efficient the Nigerian State, similar to what takes place obtained ranged between 0.78 and 0.94 using in America. Pearson Correlation Co-efficient.

Problem Administration Unemployment in Nigeria has reached a crisis The instrument was administered personally situation. Daily millions of unemployed youths by the researcher to the 100, unemployed roam the streets searching for non-existent youths on group basis with the help of the jobs. Even where the jobs are advertised, the National Directorate of Employment Officials tall requirement of by employers most of the

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Ikechukwu & Abe: Counselling Implications of Youth Unemployment in Nigeria who invited the subjects for the purpose. The unemployed youths. The result is presented in researcher also administered the instrument to Table 2 the employed youths individually in their different offices after obtaining the consent of Table 2: Difference in Tendency towards their immediate bosses in the office. By this Drug Abuse between Employed and method the 200 questionnaire administered Unemployed Youths were returned correctly filed and used for Group n X Sd t-value analysis. Employed 100 42.92 11.05 The scoring of the instrument was done Unemployed 100 41.20 9.74 1.21 according to the dimension of effect of Total 200 41.87 10.56 employment on youths. Each positively worded statement was scored 4 points for Table 2 shows that no significant difference in strongly agree and 1 point of strongly disagree. tendency towards drug abuse exist between The total of all scores in each variable affecting employed and unemployed youths, (t = 1.21 unemployment constitute manifest effect of df—198, p >.05). The null hypothesis was unemployment on the, respondent, hence used retained. for analysis. The third hypothesis states that unemployed youths do not significantly have Data Analysis higher tendency towards criminal behaviours Data was analysed using the mean (x) scores, than the employed youths. The result is standard deviation and independent t-test presented in Table 3. statistics. Table 3: Difference in Tendency towards Results Delinquency between Employed and Unemployed Youths The first null hypothesis states that employed Status N X Sd t-value youths do not significantly have higher self- Employed 100 16.34 3.74 esteem than the unemployed youths. The results of the analysis are presented in Table 1. Unemployed 100 15.07 4.23 2.25*

Total 200 15.69 4.01 Table 1: Difference in Self-Esteem *Significant at .05 between Employed and Unemployed

Youths Table 3 shows that a significant difference Status N Mean Sd t-value exists between employed and unemployed Employed 100 31.54 5.84 youths in tendency towards criminal Unemployed 100 29.20 6.69 2.63* behaviours (t = 2.25, df = 198, p < .05). With the higher mean (x) score of the unemployed Total 200 30.63 6.15 as against the employed on the variable, it *Significant at .05 follows that the unemployed youths have higher tendency towards criminal behaviours Table 1 showed that significant difference in than the employed youths. The research self-esteem exist between employed and hypothesis was supported. unemployed youths since the calculated t-value of 2.63 was greater than the critical t-value of 1.65 given 198 degrees of freedom at .05 level Discussion of significance. The higher mean (X) score for The result of the first hypothesis showed that employed youths as against the unemployed employed youths have higher self-esteem than ones implies that employed youths have those who were not employed. This finding significantly higher self-esteem than the supports Mitchell (1972) study which unemployed ones. The research hypothesis concluded that jobless people have lower self- was supported. concept, self-esteem and have generally The second null hypothesis states that negative perception of events and activities employed youths do not significantly have less around them than the employed. Similarly tendency towards drug abuse than the Akpan (1988), Rotters (1988), Buletza (1987) and Herbet (1977) concluded that employed

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KIU Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences youths have significantly higher self-esteem guidance in respect of information provision than unemployed youths. The reason for the to enhance self-awareness, self-understanding finding may be traced to the fact that being and career awareness requirement and unemployed makes the individual to be prospects. economically dependent on others, Omotoshol et al. (2009) reported on the emotionally unstable and perceiving events counselling needs of the Nigerian youth. These negatively. authors noted that youth unemployment is not On the insignificant difference in tendency a new issue, but it is an unresolved problem. A towards drug abuse found between employed study was conducted to investigate the and unemployed youths, the finding is problems and counselling needs of interesting. This is because one would have unemployed youths in Nigeria. A sample was expected the unemployed who are selected from 1,750 unemployed youths emotionally, psychologically, economically and between the ages of 21 -31 years. Participants socially not as stable as those who are were surveyed with the Problems and employed to rely on drug as a way of Counselling Needs of Unemployed Youths cushioning the weight of unemployment on Questionnaire. Results showed that these them but this was not so; it follows that youths had problems with finance, family and attraction to drug abuse may not necessarily be health-related needs, and socio-psychological due to employment status but may be due to issues along with counselling needs to develop peer pressure and as a palliative to identity marketable skills. The authors concluded that crisis generally bothering the youths, hence the greater emphasis must be placed on the finding. planning and implementing of counselling The result of the third hypothesis showed services to help unemployed youths in Nigeria. that unemployed youths significantly have Badejo, Stephens, and Anyanwu (2011) higher tendency towards criminal behaviour reported further on the counselling needs of than the employed youths. This finding is not Nigerian unemployed youths. These authors surprising. This is in line with Nwokule’s studied these counselling needs within the (1990) study which claimed that the current political situation. The study included unemployed vent their anger and frustration Nigerian youths between the ages of 18-35 on the society by engaging in crime-related years. A descriptive survey, the Counselling activities. Similarly, Adedibu (1986) and Needs of Nigerian Youths Questionnaire, was Johnson (1964) highlighted increased crime used to gather data from 500 youths from wave like armed robbery, drug trafficking and Lagos State. Findings confirmed the need for stealing as the effects of unemployed on all government levels in Nigeria to employ the youths. While agreeing with the scholars it is services of counsellors to develop policies for also possible that the unmitigated quest for these youths. materialism in the society today pressurises As noted by Omotoshol et al. (2009), the some of the unemployed towards behaviours unemployed Nigerian youths have many aimed at attracting finance to themselves, even problems. Counselling is needed to help if illegally. Since the unemployed feels betrayed ensure that these youths do not turn to drugs, by the society, he may have not felt guilty in alcohol, or other destructive coping strategies manifesting criminal behaviour. to deal with these problems. Effective counselling strategy necessarily has to be anchored on individual counselling Implications for Counselling interview with unemployed persons where the Appraisal of unemployment trend in Nigeria counsellor uses test and non-test instruments today, from the counsellors perspective, shows to diagnose unemployed persons particular that it can mainly be categorised as either situation, raise his self-awareness and frictional o structural in nature. There is need understanding, highlight his assets and to have different stages and approaches in liabilities, increase his awareness of job counselling the unemployed. The selection of situation and requirements and help make the any particular strategy or approach depends on unemployed identify particular goal or solution individual situations. This is because there are to his problem. some of the unemployed who need Counsellors should recognise the relevance employment counselling (Onyejiaku, 1987) of and seek cooperation with Government while there are others who may only need Organizations like National Manpower Board

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Ikechukwu & Abe: Counselling Implications of Youth Unemployment in Nigeria and National Directorate of Employment to There is a need for administration of be abreast of government employment policy, vocational interest and/or motivational tests skill development and training programmes to help clients identify their vocational trend, and national skill exchange programmes. as they prepare for vocational retraining. This Information derived from such agencies will will help guide against occupational frustration enrich the employment counselling service he in future. will provide to the unemployed. These intervention strategies may be There is a need for a counsellor to beef up relevant to all unemployed person either in his job information kit if he wants to provide seasonal category or those retrenched or relevant service to the fictionally unemployed "retired" involuntarily from their work place. It youths. This could be achieved by scouting for is generally noted that most of the unemployed job openings at the local, state and Federal persons have poor self-esteem, are frustrated Government levels and recording and and anxious as a result of their situation updating them to make the information (Nwadinigwe, 1988). It is necessary to counsel current (Ipaje, 1988). The emergence of the unemployed towards reduced state of private job employment agencies is a good anxiety and frustration and empower them to development in the employment scene. improve their self-esteem. This is achieved Counsellors should liaise with such agencies as through making them accept and well as companies, industries and business accommodate their condition readily, to be concerns to be fed with information respecting more hopeful and energetic about finding job openings. This will correspondingly be employment and compromise ideals by even relayed to the clients. taking to substitute employment. Rational Unemployed youths need to be guided by Emotive Techniques is appropriate to achieve counsellors to deal with stress, make career this objective. choices, and develop skills needed to find State of insecurity felt by the unemployed employment. Vocational courses at all levels of person is also occasioned by attitude of parents the Nigerian educational system as well as and relations to the unemployed. Counselling work-study programs, with counsellor strategy will include family counselling to elicit guidance, are needed to help these youths. cooperation, support and understanding from Youths need to link classroom experiences the parents to make the unemployed wade with the work world. This is needed to help through his problem. those youths being educated in theory only. Again counselling is necessarily to be keyed Omotoshol et al. stated that there must be an towards encouraging those who will like 10 be increased emphasis and focus on the self-employed to achieve their objective. They counselling needs of unemployed youths in could be helped to appraise how to overcome Nigeria. initial difficulties in starting their business - like It is noticed that many potentially good how to raise capital, choice of viable business employees stay unemployed due to poor skills to do; and how to generally manage the in job interview technique. Counsellors, business concern to minimise losses and risks. whether in school or non-school setting, Group counselling and individual counselling should provide clients either in group or as well as the use of mass media is relevant to individually, with knowledge of how to attend achieve this aim. interviews and writing of job resume. Literature findings support the conclusion With respect to those in structural that unemployment of Nigerian youths unemployment category, counselling should remains a problem. This unresolved problem be keyed towards re-empowerment of relevant leads to desperate measures. Counselling for and required skills through retraining. these youths would help deal with the needs Counsellors need the job training programme and issues faced by this population. schedule from National Directorate of Counselling with courses and work experience Employment, Federal Ministry of Labour, is needed to ensure that these youths develop Employment and productivity and marketable skills and are able to successfully information from companies or corporations enter the work world. requiring provision of training facilities for Finally counsellors should not be would-be employees. Clients could then make unconcerned with the relative irrelevance of choices based on such knowledge. the school curriculum which has reduced the relevance of certificates of our graduates hence

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KIU Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences fuelling unemployment. There is a need to Herbert, M. (1977). Problems of Childhood: a review school curriculum at all stages of our complete guide in personality adjustment. Bungay: educational system so as to emphasis more and Chaucer Press Ltd. prioritise areas of needs in the society. Ibrahim, I. (2011). Nigeria, a divided country. Counsellors should' champion the need for News watch, 53 (18, 19-22). this change, knowing full well that relevant Ipaye, T. (1988). Educational and Vocational educational programme emphasises Guidance: Concepts and approaches. Ife: occupational development/aspiration and University of Ife Press. reduces unemployment rate in any society. Lyoha, M. A. and Oriskhi, O. (2002). This is what Nigeria needs now. Explaining African economic growth performance: the case of Nigeria, African Economic Resource consort, 23 (1): l-65. References Johnson, E. H. (1964). Crime Correction and Adedibu, A. A. (1986). Unemployment: issues, Society. Illinois: Dorsey Press. trends, and implication for vocational Kayode, M. O. (2004). Towards a Re-birth of guidance. In T. Ipaye (Ed.) Educational and Nigeria's Economic Development. In: Vocational Guidance: Concepts and Approaches, Fourth Annual Public Lecture, NES, pp. 3- lie Ife; University of Ife Press. 37. Adepegba, A. (2011). Police arrest 5,000 Kolawole, Y. (2012). Nigeria: '60 percent of Election Violence. The Punch, Saturday, 23 Nigerian graduates are unemployed April. Retrieved from Akerele, A. (1977). Facing up to unemployment in http://allafrica.com/stories/201211150519 Benin City: Job Seekers make themselves sought. .htm 1 Paper presented at the 1977 annual Mallum, P. (1988). The needs and strategies for conference on the Nigerian Economy. counselling unemployed in Nigeria. The Akpan, C. (1 988). The Effect of unemployment on Counsellor, 9, 38-46. personality variables of school leavers in Abak National Bureau of Statistics (2009). Social Educational Zone of Akwa Ibom State. Statistics in Nigeria. Abuja: The NBS Unpublished B. A. Ed. Project, University Publication. of Calabar. National Bureau of Statistics (2010). Statistical Badejo, A. O., Stephens, O. A., & Anyanwu, News: Labour Force Statistics No.476. A. C. (2011). A study of the counselling Abuja: The NBS Publication. needs of Nigerian youths in the current Nwadinigwe, I. P. (1988). The Applicability of political dispensation. Journal of Emerging Super's Self-graduate students of University of Trends in Educational Research and Policy Studies Calabar. Unpublished M. Ed theses, (JETERAPS). 2(4\ 284-289. Retrieved University of Calabar. fromhttp://jeteraps.scholarlinkresearch. Nwadinigwe, I. P. (1992). Self-Identity, Family org/articles/A%20Study%20ofyo20the%2 Structure and Adolescents Occupational Choice. 0Counselling%20Needs%20of%20Nigeria Unpublished PhD dissertation, University n%20Youths% of Calabar. 20in%20the%20Current%20Political%20D Nwokule, I. N. (1990). Youths' Career Guidance ispensation.pdf in Depressed National Economy. Paper Copper Smith, S. (1973). The antecedents of self- presented at 14th National Conference of esteem. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman. Counselling Association of Nigeria at Dike, E. V. (2009), vocational education: University of Calabar, 8-11 August, 1990. Missing Link in Nigeria development policy, Nwoye, A. (1992). Counselling Psychology for Retrieved www.nigeriavill agesquare.com7 Africa. Jos: Savana Press Ltd. vocational-education-missing-link. Obata, T. (2012). Youth unemployment in Edukugho, E. (2012). Nigeria: Unemployment Nigeria. University of Benin, Nigeria. - country sitting on keg of gun-powder. Retrieved from Retrieved from http://nigeriamasterweb.com/ http://aliafrica.com/stories/201211170448 blog/index.php/2012/12/02/youth- .html unemployment-in-Nigeria. Gbosi, A. N. (2006). Modem Labour Olatunji, S. & Abioye, O. (2011). Lecturers, Economic Policy, analysis. Park Publishers Students, others killed in Kaduna. The Abakahki, pp.56-92. Punch, Wednesday, 20 April.

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Omotoshol, J. A., Idowul, A. I., Esere, M. O., Rotters, J. (1988). Internal vs. External Locus & Arewah, M. C. O. (2009). Problems and of Control of reinforcement and decision counselling needs of unemployed youths in times. Journal of Personality and Social Nigeria. The Open Area Studies Journal, 2, 1-6 Psychology, 2, 598-604. 1. Retrieved from http://www. Shifron, L.; Dye, S. & Shifron, K. (1983). benthamscience.com/open/toarsj/articles/ Implications for counselling the V002/lTOARSJ.pdf unemployed in a recessionary economy. The Onyejiaku, F. O. (1 987). Career guidance and Personnel and Guidance Journal, 61 (9), 527-529. counselling services in schools. Calabar: Wusen Press Ltd, Author Bio Osalor, P. (2012). Youth restiveness and unemployment in Nigeria: The way out part PETER IKECHUKWU NWADINIGWE 1. Retrieved from is an Associate Professor in the Department of http://www.vanguardngr.eom/2012/l Educational Foundations, University of Lagos, 1/youth-restiveness-and-unemployment- Nigeria. He specializes in Guidance and in-nigeria-the-way-out-part-1 -21 Counselling. He has published extensively in Rees, K. (1979). The Economics of Work and Pay. these areas. New York: Harper and Row. Rotimi, K. (2012). Youth unemployment and ESTHER OLUFUNMILAYO ABE is of insecurity. Retrieved from http: the Department of Educational Foundations, //www.punchng.com/opinion/youth- University of Lagos, Nigeria. He specializes in unemployment-and-insecurity/ Guidance and Counselling.

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CRIMINAL SOCIALISATION AND CAREER: A REVIEW OF SOCIAL LEARNING THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES

Mathias Ssamula College of Humanities and Social Sciences, Makerere University

Abstract. This paper reports the findings of a study that undertook to provide a theoretical explanation for crime and how criminal careers emerge; examine the role of criminal groups in socializing individuals into criminality; and explore how criminal socialization experiences can be used in designing crime prevention strategies. Secondary data was thematically reviewed to realize these objectives. The paper reports that social learning theory can explain, among others, juvenile delinquency, drug use among adults, professional theft, white-collar crimes, gang peer groups, assault, smoking among adolescents and alcohol abuse among the elderly. Hence, social learning theory has been used as an explanatory tool for criminality. It was found that individuals are socialized into criminal careers by associating and interacting directly and indirectly with primary and secondary reference groups. Therefore, policy makers should focus on developing and implementing preventive and rehabilitation programs that use social learning variables to change behaviour positively. Providing positive experiences and role models for young people serves to expose them to conventional norms and values that might diminish future delinquent or criminal acts.

Traditionally individuals learn customs, values Introduction and other attributes of their culture from their Criminal behaviour has remained a significant parents and these are passed on from social problem and a critical cause of social generation to generation and in most cases unrest in society. Efforts and resources have these shape their future behaviours. been expended by government and non- Socialization in traditional societies played a government actors in an attempt to prevent vital role in shaping the behaviour of crime but to no avail. Policies on crime individuals. Where you had/have incomplete prevention and intervention programmes socialization, deviant lifestyles were a result. seem to have continually lacked a clear Because young people were in touch with understanding of the forces behind crime and peers and other agents of socialization, their criminal careers. Without clear knowledge of behaviour turned out to be different from such underlying factors, everything done in the those who were socialized under the umbrella name of preventing crime is destined to failure. of family members. In modern societies, Studies in Uganda have always associated individuals model their behaviours and crime with poverty, troubled childhood, lifestyles on others outside the family members broken families (inadequate parenting) among such as those of celebrities, musicians and other causes. However, not everyone athletics. experiencing these life situations ends up in a Criminal behaviour may also be modelled criminal career. In fact, many criminals hail on learning especially where individuals from affluent, well organized and propertied associate with others having deviant values. backgrounds. For example, a significant It is, therefore, vital to examine how proportion of the children on the city streets individuals learn and adopt a criminal career at hail from well-organized rich families. It is also a later stage in their lives. true that out of the widespread core poor This paper has three distinctive objectives. families; very few children adopt street life. The first objective of this paper was to provide The question arising is how do individuals a theoretical explanation for crime and learn criminal behaviour and continue acting criminal career. There have been a number of that way? Learning is a concept from which criminological theories explaining crimes. behaviour formation, acquisition, sustenance Some of these theories explain crime in terms and modification result. Individuals learn of biological, social structural, environment ideas, beliefs and imitate others lifestyles. factors. This paper will try to place a criminal

KAMPALA INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY JOURNAL OF HUMANITIES & SOCIAL SCIENCES

ISSN: 2413-9580, VOLUME 4, NUMBER 2, NOVEMBER 2015, PP. 41 - 55

Ssamula: Criminal Socialisation and Career career in an appropriate criminological theory Learning theories focus on the content of - the social learning theory. It is believed that what is learned and the processes by which that crime, like any other behaviour is a learned learning takes place. phenomenon following similar processes Aristotle (384-322 B.C) formulated the through which conformity is learned. It is concept of associationism. He points out that therefore pertinent for this paper to provide we learn by association. He argued that all such an explanation using the social learning knowledge is acquired through experience and theory of crime. that none is inborn or instinctive. The second objective was to examine the Basic sensory experiences become role that criminal groups (socialization agents) associated with each other in the mind because play in socializing individuals into criminality. they occur in certain relationships to each It is believed that in ways similar to how other as we interact with the object. The most culture is imparted into and internalized by complex ideas, according to Aristotle are built members of a given society as a configuration out of these simple associations between of learned and shared patterns of behaviour, sensory experiences. thinking, feeling and acting, crime is equally Associationism has been the dominant learned, internalized and experimented upon. learning theory through the centuries to the Criminals are initiated and socialized to present times. It was elaborated by become perfect in their trade (crime). philosophers such as Hobbes, Lock and Hume Emergent from such criminal socialization are and was the basis for the first experiments on criminal groups like criminal gangs which are human memory carried out by Ebbinhaus as an even greater crime control challenge to well as for the first experiments on animal study and eradicate. It is therefore the task of learning carried out by Thorndike (Vold, et al this paper to show how criminal groups 1998). socialize others into committing crimes. Bandura coined a social learning theory by The third objective of this paper was to combining both operant conditioning and explore whether criminal socialization elements from cognitive psychology to experiences can be used in crime prevention describe how people learn by association. It strategies. A study of criminological theories is emphasizes the point that behaviour may be important because it does not only explain the reinforced not only through actual rewards and occurrence of crime but also provides policy punishments, but also through expectations implications that policy makers can use to that are learned by watching what happens to design appropriate strategies to prevent other people. Bandura, for example, argues recurrence of criminal behaviour. Such that “virtually all learning phenomena resulting interventions are important in the prevention from direct experiences can occur on a of criminality. vicarious basis through observation of other By providing a thorough understanding of persons’ behaviour and its consequences for how individuals are socialized into criminal them. While classical and operant conditioning behaviour and operationalizing the theoretical are both tested extensively with animal framework and explanation of criminal experiments, social learning theory is more behaviour, it is then hoped that this article will focused on human learning since it directs equip readers with enabling knowledge by attention to higher mental processes. which to draw and design appropriate crime In social learning theory Bandura (1977) prevention strategies. states that behaviour is learned from the Secondary data sources on this subject were environment through the process of thematically reviewed in an effort to achieve observational learning. Individuals observe the set objectives of this paper. the people around them behaving in various ways. The people observed are called models. In Theoretical perspectives to criminal society individuals are surrounded by many socialization and career influential models, such as parents within the A number of scholars have linked criminal family, characters on children’s TV, friends behaviour due to learning of ideas and beliefs. within their peer group and teachers at school. For example, Merton and later Messner and These models provide examples of masculine Rosenfeld linked crime to ideas in the and feminine behaviour to observe and dominant American culture. imitate.

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KIU Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences

The learning individuals pay attention to For example, if you do not complete your some of these people (models) and encode homework you give your teacher £5. You will their behaviour. At a later time they may complete your homework to avoid paying £5, imitate (i.e. copy) the behaviour they have thus strengthening the behaviour of observed. They may do this regardless of completing your homework. whether the behaviour is ‘gender appropriate’ Punishment is defined as the opposite of or not but there are a number of processes that reinforcement since it is designed to weaken or make it more likely that a person will eliminate a response rather than increase it. reproduce the behaviour that society deems Like reinforcement, punishment can work appropriate for his/ her sex. either by directly applying an unpleasant First, an individual is more likely to attend stimulus like a shock after a response or by to and imitate those people he/she perceives removing a potentially rewarding stimulus, for as similar to him or herself. Consequently, it is instance, deducting someone’s pocket money more likely to imitate behaviour modelled by to punish undesirable behaviour. people the same sex as it is. Third, an individual will also take into Second, the people around the individual account of what happens to other people when will respond to the behaviour imitated with deciding whether or not to copy someone’s either reinforcement or punishment. If a actions. This is known as vicarious person imitates a model’s behaviour and the reinforcement. consequences are rewarding, that person is This relates to attachment to specific likely to continue performing the copied models that possess qualities seen as behaviour. If parent sees a little girl consoling rewarding. People have a number of models her teddy bear and says “what a kind girl you with whom they identify. These may be people are”, this is rewarding for the child and makes in their immediate world, such as parents or it more likely that she will repeat the elder siblings, workmates, or could be fantasy behaviour. Her behaviour has been reinforced characters or people in the media. The (i.e. strengthened). motivation to identify with a particular model Reinforcement can be external or internal is that they have a quality which the individual and can be positive or negative. For example, would like to possess. if a child wants approval from parents or peers, Identification occurs with another person this approval is an external reinforcement, but (the model) and involves taking on (or feeling happy about being approved of is an adopting) observed behaviours, values, beliefs internal reinforcement. Therefore, individuals and attitudes of the person with whom an behave in a way which they believe will earn individual is identifying. approval. The term identification as used by Social Positive (or negative) reinforcement will Learning Theory is similar to the Freudian have little impact if the reinforcement offered term related to the Oedipus complex. For externally does not match with an individual's example, they both involve internalizing or needs. Reinforcement can be positive or adopting another person’s negative, but the important factor is that it will behaviour. However, during the Oedipus usually lead to a change in a person's complex a person can only identify with the behaviour. Positive reinforcement strengthens same sex model, whereas with Social Identity a behaviour by providing a consequence an Theory the person (child or adult) can individual finds rewarding. For example, if potentially identify with any other person. your teacher gives you £5 each time you Identification is different to imitation as it complete your homework (i.e. a reward) you may involve a number of behaviours being are more likely to repeat this behaviour in the adopted whereas imitation usually involves future, thus strengthening the behaviour of copying a single behaviour. completing your homework. The behaviourist and cognitive theorists The removal of an unpleasant reinforcer can retained Aristotelian notion that learning takes also strengthen behaviour. This is known as place because of the association of ideas and negative reinforcement because it is the factual knowledge. removal of an adverse stimulus which is Behaviourists argue that we acquire habits ‘rewarding’ to the animal. Negative through the association of stimuli with reinforcement strengthens behaviour because responses. Cognitive theorists argue that we it stops or removes an unpleasant experience. acquire factual knowledge through the

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Ssamula: Criminal Socialisation and Career association of memories, ideas or expectations. other people in intimate personal groups. Pavlov, for example, in his classical Sutherland’s description of the content of what conditioning describes that individuals learn is learned was derived from Mead’s argument through association by stating that some that “human beings act toward things on the stimuli will reliably produce a given response basis of the meanings that the things have for without any prior training of the organism. He them”. In Mead’s theory a cognitive factor demonstrated that behaviour could be learned “meanings” determine behaviour. Mead by association. If the sound of a bell is argued that people construct relatively associated consistently with the presentation permanent “definitions” of their situation out of meat, then the dog learns to salivate at the of the meaning they derive from particular sound of the bell alone. experiences. In classical conditioning, the organism is That is, they generalize the meanings they passive and learns what to expect from the have derived from particular situations and environment. from a relatively set way of looking at things. In operant conditioning, on the other hand, It is because of these different “definitions” the organism is active and learns how to get that different people in similar situations may what it wants from the environment. Operant act in very different ways. For example, two conditioning is associated with Skinner and is brothers may grow up in identical terrible the dominant learning theory in psychology. It situations, but one may become a drug lord uses rewards and punishments to reinforce while the other becomes a priest. certain behaviours. Thus operant conditioning Basing on this theory, Sutherland argued is another way of learning by association. that the key factor determining whether people Tarde (1912) is an early criminologist who violate the law is the “meaning” they give to presented a theory of crime as normal learned the social conditions they experience rather behaviour. than the conditions themselves. Ultimately, He argued that criminals were primarily whether a person obeys or violates the law normal people who, by accident of birth, were depends on how he/she defines his/her brought up in an atmosphere in which they situations. learned crime as a way of life. Sutherland’s description of the process by He phrased his theory in terms of “Laws of which definitions are learned was also derived imitation” which were similar to Aristotle’s from Mead’s theory. Mead had argued that ‘the laws of learning except that they focused on meaning of such things is derived from or associations among individuals rather than arises out of the social interactions one has associations among sensations within one with one’s fellows”. individual. Tarde’s theory was essentially a Following Mead’s theory, Sutherland argued cognitive theory in which the individual was that the meaning of criminal acts, whether said to learn ideas through association with murders or shoplifting, marijuana smoking, other ideas and behaviour was said to follow income tax evasion, prostitution or from those ideas. embezzlement, arises primarily from the Sutherland’s theory of differential meaning given those acts by other people with association maintains that a person becomes whom the individual associates in intimate delinquent because of an excess of definitions personal groups. favourable to violation of law over definitions Sutherland’s theory then, states, that in a unfavourable to violation of laws. Further that situation of differential social organization and such definitions are learnt in normal learning normative conflict, differences in behaviours, processes (Taylor, Walton and Young, 1985). including criminal behaviours, arise because of Sutherland’s theory has two basic elements, differential associations. This is another way of the content of what is learned includes specific saying that a person who associates with techniques for committing crime, appropriate Methodist is likely to become a Methodist, a motives, drives, rationalizations and attitudes person who associates with Republicans is and more general “definitions favourable to likely to become a Republican, and a person law violations”. All these are cognitive who associates with criminals is likely to elements, that is, they are all ideas rather than become a criminal. behaviours. Cultural and sub-cultural theories also focus In addition, the process by which the on the role of ideas causing criminal behaviour. learning takes place involves associations with These theories are characterized by the

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KIU Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences argument that it is the ideas themselves rather similar conditions, and to a certain extent his than the social conditions that directly cause or her behaviour is a response to those ideas criminal behaviour. Miller presented one such and interpretations. cultural theory, focusing on the explanation of gang delinquency. Bernard and the sub-culture of angry Miller describes lower class culture and a aggression “generating milieu” for gang delinquency because it interacts with several social Bernard focused even more directly on the conditions typically found in poor areas. structural conditions generating cultural beliefs Wolfgang and Ferracuti presented a general in his theory of angry aggression. He argued theory of criminal violence called the sub- that chronically aroused people tend to see culture of violence. He had found that a threats everywhere and respond to threats significant number of homicides that occurred more aggressively than other people. among lower-class people seemed to result Bernard then argued that poverty, urban from very trivial events that took on great environment and discrimination are structural importance because of mutually held conditions that all result in chronic arousal in expectations about how people would behave. the people who experience them. Social Wolfgang interpreted these events in isolation also means that these chronically theoretical terms taken from Sutherland’s aroused and highly aggressive people interact theory. with each other. Wolfgang and Ferracuti generalizes the In such a situation, these patterns of findings of this and a number of other studies thinking (seeing threats everywhere on criminal violence into an overall theory that responding with extreme violence) tend to was designed to explain one type of homicide become sub-cultural in the sense that they the passion crimes that were neither planned separate from the structural conditions that intentional killings nor manifestations of originally gave rise to them and are passed extreme mental illness. from person to person in the interpersonal Wolfgang and Ferracute, like Sutherland communications. The result is what Bernard argued that the immediate causes of these called “the sub-culture of angry aggression.” passion homicides are ideas, values, norms and expectations of behaviour. Like Sutherland, Modern Learning Theories they argued that these ideas had originated in general social conditions and suggested that Modern learning theories have maintained theories such as those of Cohen, Cloward and Sutherland’s view that criminal behaviour is Ohlin, or Miller might explain the origin of the normally learned behaviour, but have up dated sub-culture. The cause of the violent the conception of what is involved in “normal behaviours was said to be the ideas themselves learning” to include arguments found in rather than the social conditions that had modern learning theories. generated those ideas in the past. Essentially These more recent theories argue that they argued that the sub-culture had arisen in learning can also take place through direct the past for specific reasons, but that it was interactions with the environment, transmitted from generation to generation as a independent of associations with other people set of ideas after those original social through the principle of operant conditioning. conditions had disappeared. In addition to changing the description of the Lynn A. Curtis presented a sub-cultural learning process the more recent theories also theory of violence among American Blacks change the description of the content of what that is essentially an adaptation of Wolfgang is learned. Specifically these theories switch and Ferracuti’s theory. Curtis described culture from Sutherland’s original cognitive as a key intervening variable between these orientation that only ideas are learned and current conditions and behaviours of each adopt the more recent theoretical orientation individual. Each individual independently that behaviours themselves can be directly experiences these social conditions and to a learned through both operant conditioning certain extent his or her behaviour is a direct and social learning. Therefore criminal response to the social conditions. But each behaviour is learned both in social and non- individual also learns ideas and interpretations social situations that are reinforcing or of these conditions from others who face discriminative and through that social

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Ssamula: Criminal Socialisation and Career interaction in which the behaviour of other own as causes of behaviour in general and as persons is reinforcing or discriminative for causes of criminal behaviour in particular. criminal behaviour. The most reasonable position at the present Akers proposed a specific sequences of time seems to be that culture functions as a events by which the learning of criminal crucial intervening variable between social behaviour is said to take place. Thus the initial structure and individual behaviour. participation of the individual in criminal That is, ideas and beliefs including behaviour is explained primarily by differential “definitions” of behaviour, expectations about association, definitions, imitation, and social how to behave in particular situations, social reinforcements. approval or valuation of certain behaviours After the person has begun to commit and social responses that back up those criminal behaviours, differential expected and approved behaviours with reinforcements determine whether the rewards and punishments, have a direct causal behaviours are continued or not. These impact on behaviour independent of their includes both social and non-social social structural sources. reinforcements in the form of rewards and punishments directly experienced by the Relevance of Social Learning Theoretical individual as a consequence of participating in Perspectives the criminal behaviour and also the rewards and punishments the person experiences Social learning theory has been empirically vicariously by observing the consequences that tested by a number of scholars in a number of the criminal behaviour has for others. studies. For example, in 1998, Akers tested the Akers maintains that the social learning theory and found that drug usage had a direct process explains the link between social correlation with peer association, but only if structural conditions and individual peer interactions were to occur. Concluding behaviours. For example, economic inequality, that social learning theory affects human the modernization process, social development in the way that we interact with disorganization and social structural strain our peers and what we do to be socially have all been linked to criminal behaviour. accepted (Marvin, 1999). Akers argues that structural conditions such as Social learning has been used in mentoring these affect crime by affecting a person’s programmes that should, in theory prevent differential associations, definitions, models some future criminal behaviour. The idea and reinforcements. Akers argues that research behind mentoring programmes is that an adult supports the “typical” sequence in which social is paired with a child, who supposedly learns learning operates, in which criminal from the behaviour of the adult and is behaviours are acquired through differential positively reinforced for good behaviour association, definitions, imitation and social (Jones-Brown. 1997). reinforcements, and then are maintained In the classroom, a teacher may use the through social and non-social reinforcement. theory by changing the seating arrangements Implicitly, it seems reasonable to conclude to pair a behaving child and a misbehaving that Ideas and beliefs learned in association child, but the outcome may be that the with other people do have a direct causal behaving child begins behaving badly. impact on criminal behaviours. However, Bandura’s social learning theory posits that criminal behaviours may also be associated people learn from one another via observation, with other types of normal learning. More imitation, and modelling. The theory has often recent learning theories of criminal behaviour, been called a Bridge between behaviourist and such as Aker’s social learning theory, retain cognitive learning theories because it Sutherland’s view that criminal behaviour is encompasses attention memory and normal learning behaviour but more motivation. adequately incorporate modern learning Sutherland believes that individuals learn principles in the description of the normal criminal behaviour while in adolescence from learning process. family members and peers. To assert that criminal behaviour is directly Within the domain of school psychology, caused by beliefs does not deny that there are social learning theory can help create more structural sources for beliefs. The question is effective classroom environment. One of the whether those beliefs attain some life of their responsibilities of a school psychologist is to

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KIU Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences work with teachers and administrators to make from others that snakes can have deadly classrooms more efficacious for students and venom, leading to a re-evaluation of the teachers alike. Using social learning theory as a dangerousness of snake bites and accordingly, basis, teachers could help alleviate behavioural a more exaggerated fear response to snakes issues by modelling appropriate classroom (Mineka and Zimbarg, 2006). behaviour and explicitly reinforcing students Miller (2011) lists both moral development that do act appropriately. Through vicarious and gender role development as important experiences and consequences, individuals areas of research within social learning theory. learn how to behave in an appropriate and Social learning theorists emphasize observable acceptable manner (O, Donnell, Reeve, and behaviour regarding the acquisition of the two Smith, 2012). Furthermore, social learning skills. For gender role development, the same theory serves as a means of improving sex parent provides only one of many models academic outcomes for students. Since some from which the individual learns gender roles. elements of lessons and techniques are not Social learning theory also emphasizes the always apparent to students, it is important to variable nature of moral development due to help students understand what an unfamiliar the changing social circumstances of each practice actually consists of and what the decision. The particular factors the child thinks rationale for learning it is (Edelson and Reise, are important vary from situation to situation, 2006). depending on variables such as which By emphasizing the teacher’s role as model situational factors are operating, which causes and encouraging the students to adopt the are most salient, and what the child processes position of observer, the teacher can make cognitively. Moral judgments involve a knowledge and practices explicit to students, complex process of considering and weighting enhancing their learning outcomes. various criteria in a given social situation Another important application of social (Miller, 2011). learning theory has been in the treatment and For social learning theory, gender conceptualization of anxiety disorders. development has to do with the interactions of The classical conditioning approach to numerous factors, involving all the interactions anxiety disorders, which spurred the the individual encounters. For social learning, development of behavioural therapy and is biological factors are important but take a back considered by some to be the first modern seat to the importance of learned, observable theory of anxiety (Rachman,1991) begun to behaviour. lose steam in the late 1970s as researchers Because of the highly gendered society in begun to question its underlying assumptions. which an individual might develop, individuals For example, the classical conditioning begin to distinguish people by gender even as approach holds that pathological fear and infants. anxiety are developed through direct learning, Bandura’s account of gender allows for however, many people with anxiety disorders more than cognitive factors in predicting cannot recall a traumatic conditioning event, gendered behaviours: for Bandura, in which the feared stimulus was experienced motivational factors and a broad network of in close temporal and spatial contiguity with social influences determine if, and where an intrinsically aversive stimulus (Mathews, gender knowledge is expressed (Miker, 2011). Gelden & Johnston, 1981). In Sutherland’s second proposition of the Social learning theory helped salvage theory he argues that deviance is learned, learning approach to anxiety disorders by implying that deviance is not inherited, nor is providing additional mechanisms beyond it as a result of low intelligence, brain damage classical conditioning that could account for and so on. Such deviant behaviour is learned the acquisition of fear. For example, social during interactions with others in the process learning suggests that a child could acquire a of socialization. fear of snakes, for example by observing a Robbers learn how to steal from different family member express fear in response to sources and such skills are acquired through snakes. direct observations, and interactions with Alternatively, the child learn the other robbers. Professional thieves teach new associations between snakes and unpleasant recruits skills needed to succeed in specialized bites through direct experience, without thefts like vehicle thefts, bank robbery, among developing excessive fear, but could later learn others (Joubert et al 1997).

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An investigation into crime in Great Britain, Criminal Networks and Socialization into for instance showed that association with Crime criminal groups of careers criminals was an Criminal networks are one form of networks. important contributory factor for increased John (1999) defines a criminal network as an crime rates among youths. At most, enduring association of criminals with a communications such as mass media of hierarchical structure. They range from television, magazines and newspapers play networks which function as cartels through only a secondary role in learning deviance those that more closely resemble trade (Joubert et al 1997). associations to networks that provide little Burgess and Akers (1966) developed a more than contacts and access to particular theory that can be applied to many types of expertise. Edelhertz, et al (1993) calls this type criminals and crimes. However, it is best of organization a syndicate, which they define applied to behaviour within groups from as a criminal cartel or trade association. which they receive reinforcement, such as Networks facilitate flow of information, gangs, peer groups, or social groups (Akers, knowledge, and communication as well as 1973). more-tangible commodities. As This theory can be applied to any crime that communications have become cheaper and brings some kind of gain. The gain includes easier, networks have expanded enormously. positive attention from their group or pleasure Indeed, technological networks facilitate the for example stealing or committing a crime, operation of large and more dispersed social such as assaulting a member of a rival group. networks and can even act a critical force In most cases, a person will learn behaviour multiplier for certain kinds of social networks. from others and then this behaviour is Danson (1978) argues that Networks have reinforced. The level of positive reinforcement to do with contacts, ties, and connections to will determine the continuation or group attachments and meetings which relate discontinuation of the behaviour. One type of one actor to another. He further adds that a behaviour that is learned and reinforced is social network is a social net structure made of criminal behaviour, however, their theory of nodes (which are generally individuals or differential –reinforcement can also be used to organizations) that are tied by one or more explain other types of behaviours. specific types of interdependency such as One of the deviant behaviours that Akers values, visions, ideas, finance, exchange, (1985) focused on was the involvement of friendship, dislike conflicts among others. social learning theory in smoking among In general, the network approach assumes adolescents. It was found that social learning that an individual experience, behaviour, and theory explained why adolescents continued to outcomes depend more on where people are smoke but did not explain the origin of the located in various networks than it does on behaviour (Krohn et al, 1985). who they are as unique individuals. This rests Akers found support for social learning on the idea that networks both impose theory in a study with Lee by accounting for constraints that Limit options and provide the deviance, however, it did not account for resources that enable individuals to act in the differences of deviance between males and various ways. females (Akers and Lee, 1996). Additionally, Thus differences among people can be Akers et al (1989) also focused on drinking understood as a result of being in different behaviour. For example, the study of alcohol networks or of being located differently within behaviour among the elderly found that elderly the same network. Women, for example, often drinking and youth drinking follows the same do not advance in corporations because they lines of norms and group behaviour. are excluded from informal male -dominated Lauza-Kaduce et al (1984) found that social networks through which important learning theory effectively explained the use of information is shared. And within networks, both stronger and weaker drugs. the more centrally located people are in the Social learning theory has therefore, been flow of communication, the more power they used for areas such as drug, alcohol, sexual are likely to have as a result. deviance and political research. In sum, social learning theory portrays that a criminal personality and behaviour which is formed in the crucible of social relationships

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KIU Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences and societal processes is at odds with normal maturation process will be interrupted conventionally and socially acceptable forms and damaged. of behaviour in society. This is in agreement And while there still exists much debate with Sutherland’s proposition that criminal over which elements of the parent-child behaviour is acquired by individuals interacting relationship are the most critical, there is little with others which in the above case is reflected question that family relationships have in social relationships formation. Individua1s significant influence on anti-social behaviour. are said to learn different traits from a number In a similar vein, there exists an extensive of socialization agents such as peer groups, literature linking criminality especially social as well as criminal groups. This article delinquency to poor school performance, specifically examined the part criminal groups educational disabilities, boredom and i.e. criminal gangs play in socializing inadequate educational facilities. Still another individuals into criminality. suspected element of deviant socialization is John (1999) notes that nearly all such crimes peer group relations that stress substance require conspiracy; very few can be carried out abuse, theft and violence. Youths who engage by an individual offender. He, for instance, in anti-social behaviour may learn the points out the supply of illicit goods must be techniques and attitudes that support criminal found and transport arranged, customers careers. They, in addition find themselves cut secured, police evaded, profits handed, and so off from more conventional associates and on. In a word, organization is required. It is the institutions. aim of this paper to find out the role Within criminal networks are organized socialization agents have on criminal modes of operation where individuals are behaviour. coordinated in the hierarchy. Mitchell (1989) According to Olatunde and Ademola described the personal order as the pattern of (1985), socialization is the process which personal links individuals have with a set of makes a biological organism into a human people and the links these people have in turn being and gives it a self. It is through the self among themselves. These patterns of that the biological organism can believe in interactions are for Mitchell all spheres of ways which become recognizably human and network analysis built on two different ideal which gives it a sense of identity. It is through types of action, that is; communication, which socialization that behaviours become regulated involves the transfer of information between since human beings possess values, goals, and individuals, the establishment of social norms, ambitions and live in an ordered environment. and the creation of the degree of consensus There is overwhelming agreement that and the instrumental or purposive type of human personality is developed through action which involves the transfer of materials, socialization. The process of socialization is goods and services. It is through such vital to both the individual and society because coordination that individuals are hooked into in society there are socially recognized ways in criminal tendencies such as robbery. which the norms and values of that society are Maguire (1996) observed that “It is plausible inculcated into the new members. Therefore, to suggest that crime and antisocial behaviours socialization can be interpreted as the way in result from interaction between individuals which behaviour is transmitted and individuals (with certain degree of underlying anti-social are fitted into some way of life. tendency) and the environment which Social process theories, of which learning provides criminal opportunities.” theory is one, are grounded in the extensive With the influence of such tendencies, literature examining the relationship between individuals gradually get acquainted into socialization and criminal behaviour especially, serious crimes like robbery as Marshal (1985) delinquent behaviour. A number of research observed that conventional criminal offense studies have found out that as a child matures, provide the stereotype of serious “criminals” the elements within society that are entrusted to most persons. They move progressively with their care and nurturing must perform from participation in the youth gang where adequately lest their socialization becomes mal they engage mainly in theft to adult criminal adjusted (Siegel and Senna, 1980: 156-157). behaviours of a more serious and frequent type Furthermore, there is a consensus among chiefly burglary and robbery. He further experts that where parenting is inadequate, observes that armed robbers show early absent, conflicting or destructive, a child’s patterns of stealing from their parents, schools

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Ssamula: Criminal Socialisation and Career and on the streets associating with old our family, if I may say as long as I offenders and membership in gangs. Malcolm remember.” (1991) observes that there is a growing recognition that organized crime often In the same study, another respondent, during operates through fluid networks rather than an in-depth interview, revealed that she was through more formal hierarchies. Just like any convicted of armed robbery and deported to other social groups, criminal networks shrive serve her sentence in Uganda. She attributed on membership for pattern maintenance. New her ordeal to the influence of her peers. This is members are initiated into the norms and in line with the contention of Bowlby (1953) patterns of the group. Like in other that deviance is not inherited but can rather be professions, criminals are trained in their explained in terms of early socialization. occupation. From a functional point of view, rather than A new comer learns from other starting with an individual, a functionalist professionals the techniques that have been analysis of deviance begins with society as a used for generations to commit crime whole. It looks for the source of deviance in (Inclardi, 1975). Criminal gangs which have the nature of society rather than in the directed their activities towards crime for some biological and psychological nature of the time, have an opportunity to furnish excellent individual. This is also in line with Merton’s training in criminal techniques. They teach new contention that deviance results not from members how to empty slot machines, pathological personalities but from the culture shoplift, skeleton keys, and sell stolen goods. and structure of society itself (1968). In his New members may progress from truancy and words, Merton maintains that the social and stealing to more serious activities like armed cultural structure generates pressure for robbery (Malcom, 1967). Such persons get socially deviant behaviour upon people acquainted in criminal tendencies by the variously located in that structure. influence of gang activities within criminal Research has shown that some members networks having calculated the specific join criminal groups willingly and others opportunities when their expected benefits, for unconsciously. Many groups innocently example, stolen property, and peer approval become oriented into criminal groups due to outweighs their expected costs like legal the influence of their peers. Such groups begin punishment, parental disapproval among as casual relationships, many at school, with others (Maguire, 1996). shared interests like football, dancing or other As it is in the aspect of conformity, extra curriculum activities. At the formation of socialization plays a big role in training such friendships, there is no original intention individuals into criminality through the to deviate from societal norms and values. contacts within the criminal groups where Such an intention builds up gradually as group individuals learn criminal skills and traits. members continue to stay together and share a For example, a study carried out in Kampala number of criminal contemplations. There is by Nambasa (2010), found out that criminals usually one or two influential members who are made but not born. This was prompted by ignite the criminal feelings into the rest of the one finding of this study, in which all the members and ask for their support. In this interviewed respondents exhibited no genetic regard, in the study mentioned above, one influence and they had no history of criminality respondent reported that: in their respective families. One of the “I was very talkative but not stubborn. I respondents, who was convicted of robbery enjoyed to charting with friends, so I used and was, serving a sentence, mentioned that: to seek for friendship. I was in senior two “I’m my parents’ last born in a family of ten when I met a friend in senior five. He was children. My father is a clergy and at home jolly but less talkative. We both played we are so religious. My other siblings are football. After some match, he and his respectable citizens in their respective friends suggested that we go out for a dance. professions. It is only me in the family who I had never gone to a dance club. I did not did not complete high school. Even our have that idea but since they were my relatives are so religious; my grandfather is friends, I did not want to disappoint them, the head of the Fathers’ Union at the but I also enjoyed their company. Diocese. I was the first hard core criminal in Unfortunately, before we reached the dance club, we met with one day girl student who

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had for a long time rejected the love possibly my siblings. He told me he was proposals of one of these friends. He working with a refuge organization and that grabbed the girl, beat her up until she he was going to connect me to his boss. I fainted. But one teacher witnessed the agreed, went with him to meet his boss, who incident and we run away and did not go promised me very good money. I was back to school.” excited. The second time I went there, the boss asked me whether I was brave enough This respondent was asked how he eventually or not. He then disclosed to me the type of adopted a criminal career and in response he job I was going to do and assured me of all mentioned that: protection. I had no choice because I was “My friend took us to his grandmother’s very desperate; I needed a job no matter residence in one of the slums in Kampala. what. I was taught how to operate and my She was very old and had no reliable source first robbery was when we ambushed a bus of income. We had to survive yet we had no coming from a village market; we used means. This friend was so smart. He one imitation firearms (pistols). day told us to go to the streets in Kampala. He told us to stand aside and watch him. The circumstance under which the above One lady came; he stopped her and talked individual was socialized into a criminal career to her as if he was asking for help. The lady is similar to that of another respondent who became furious, but as they talked, he equally had been convicted of simple robbery, snatched her bag stealthily, and left the lady served a sentence and freed. He attributed his to go without noticing. When we went back, criminal behaviour to lack of parental he trained us all the tricks he used to steal guidance. In an interview, he revealed that: the bag without the lady noticing. That was “I lacked parental guidance at home. I grew the beginning of my criminal career.” up with my mother. She used to leave me with the neighbours to go and work. I did It can be pointed out that some individuals not have someone to attend to me since the who are not group founders later join criminal neighbours were equally busy. We used to groups without noticing that such groups are spend the whole day loitering around deviant ones. This is common in instances Kisenyi (a slum area in Kampala), with my where the group members are simply casual peers who trained me in criminal behaviour. friends, relatives or simply in the vicinity of the We wanted money so we would often go to founder members. At the first meeting, there the streets in Kampala city and snatch are no signs of deviance within the group women’s handbags. The habit developed members. Later on, these deviant signs and it was rewarding. One other friend of manifest themselves and they attract other mine introduced me to his brother who members to join the criminal activities of the belonged to bigger and more specialized lead members. More often than not, those who criminal group. I joined it and it was not choose to adopt the criminal behaviour are easy to get used to crime because I had characterized by desperate backgrounds for experienced it before. Eventually, I became example unemployment, troubled family life, an armed robber.” and unsuccessful academic careers all of which exert pressure on such individuals to search for Notably, parental guidance was mentioned and means to better living. emphasized by virtually all the respondents interviewed in this study. One of the local One respondent who was convicted of robbery council (LC) officials in Kisenyi, commented and was still serving a sentence mentioned in an interview that most of the parents in this that: slum area are working from the city centre and My father used to beat my mother every they leave their children with maids, night. He later chased her away with my two sometimes with unemployed neighbours. Such siblings and myself. My mother was not teenagers spend the whole day moving around working and life became so stressful. We the slum and even some at night. They learn all stopped schooling and spent the rest of our sorts of deviant and criminal behaviour from days helping her to sell maize cobs. I was their peers. At worst, they learn criminal tactics fifteen when I met a friend. I asked him to from adult criminals who send them to find me a job that would sustain me and accomplish criminal activities. In this regard,

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Ssamula: Criminal Socialisation and Career one other respondent, convicted of armed behaviour by receiving something positive robbery and serving a sentence revealed that; (Jones-Brown, 1997). “I was invited by my friend to meet his Also social learning theory can be used to friends. He told me they were importing adjust behaviour. For example, by altering and goods from Kenya. I desperately needed a controlling the items on the learning triangle, job to earn a living. I considered that an educators may use the theory of social learning opportunity. Indeed, we imported goods in a potentially learning environment to from Kenya to Uganda. I did not know reverse the undesirable effects of social what we were importing until one day when learning. we met the police and my friend told me to Recipient run away for my dear life. We abandoned the vehicle. After sometime, I asked him what the problem was and he told me that what was in the bags we were importing was restricted (unauthorized) drugs. This was a group of drug dealers. It was too late for me to quit since it was lucrative and enabling to meet my needs. I got used to drug Agent Message

trafficking and we were involved in several From the above triangle, a teacher may alter other crimes, armed robbery inclusive.” either the “agent” or the “message” and control the outcome – the content of what the The above examples testify how individuals are recipient learns. socialized into criminal careers by members of Social learning theory is being used in criminal groups like criminal networks, everyday life, including policy issues or home criminal gangs and the like. discipline issues. Furthermore, there is a broad range of rehabilitation, prevention, treatment Relevance to Crime Prevention and behaviour modification programs operating in correctional, treatment, and Crime prevention is simply defined as the community facilities and programs for attempt to reduce or deter crime and criminals. juveniles and adults that are explicitly or It is applied specifically to efforts made by implicitly predicated on the governments to reduce crime, enforce the law, cognitive/behavioural principles in social and maintain criminal justice. learning theory. For any crime control theory to be relevant, These programs have had greater success in it must as one of its usefulness contribute to treating, preventing or correcting criminal and policy and hence preventive strategies. Policy delinquent behaviours than alternative implications would most likely focus on approaches (Peason et al, 2002; Andrews and preventative strategies that are outside of the Bonta, 2003; Cullen et al, 2003; Akers and criminal justice system. Sellers, 2004). The focus of these policy implications is The support social learning theory has normally based on the interactions and generated in the research literature has reinforcements individuals receive. Through important implications for policy. From a the modification of these two factors, it would social learning perspective, deviant and seem the future of criminal behaviour could be criminal conduct is learned and sustained via prevented. associations with family and peer networks. If There are several existing examples of how one argues that this is the source of such social learning theory has already been used for behaviours, and then it follows that such policies. Mentoring programs are examples of behaviours could be modified “to the extent policies based on social learning theory that that one is able to manipulate those same should prevent future criminal behaviour. The process or the environmental contingencies idea behind mentoring programs is that an that impinge on them” (Akers and Sellers, adult is paired with a child, who supposedly 2004:101). learns from the behaviour of the adult. From this perspective, policy-makers Furthermore, the child is positively should focus on developing and implementing reinforced in most of these programs, for good preventive and rehabilitation programs that use social learning variables to change

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KIU Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences behaviour in a positive direction. Examples of ideas and beliefs including “definitions’ of programs guided by social learning principles behaviour, expectations about how to behave include; mentoring, behavioural modification, in particular situations, social approval or delinquency prevention, peer counselling and valuation of certain behaviours, and social gang interventions. responses that back up those expected and The idea behind some of those types of approved behaviours with rewards and programs is that providing positive punishments have a direct causal impact on experiences and role models for young people behaviour independent of their social serves to expose them to conventional norms structural sources. and values that might diminish future Individuals are socialized into criminal delinquent or criminal acts. careers by associating with members of criminal groups such as criminal gangs. Crime is said to be caused by associating with other Conclusions people who transmit “definitions” that favour Social Learning Theories describe criminal violation of the law. behaviour as normal learned behaviour. A number of studies have empirically tested Normal learning primarily involves the the relationship between association and learning of ideas and beliefs in the process of deviant/criminal behaviour. The findings associating with other people. Behaviours, indicate that definitions, differential including criminal behaviours, follow from association, differential-reinforcement, and are a product of those ideas and beliefs. In imitation and other learning relevant variables general, it seems reasonable to conclude that singly or in some combination have the ideas and beliefs learned in association with relationship with delinquent or criminal other people do have a direct causal impact on behaviour expected in social learning theory. criminal behaviours. For example, the theory can explain among However, criminal behaviours may also be others; drug usage, juvenile delinquency, associated with other types of normal learning. white-collar crime, professional theft, More recent learning theories of criminal embezzlement. behaviour, such as Akers’s social learning Recent research has also shown that theory, retain Sutherland’s view that criminal association with deviant or criminal peer behaviour is normal learned behaviour but groups have a fundamental effect on illegal more adequately incorporate modern learning behaviour. principles in the description of the normal However, social learning theory alone is not learning process. Learning can also take place sufficient to explain crime. If this were the case through direct interactions with the one could expect officials of correctional environment, independent of associations with services, for example, to become criminals other people through the principle of operant because of their constant and continued conditioning. Hence behaviours can be association with prisoners. Moreover, people directly learned through both operant who may have been wrongfully punished will conditioning and social learning. Therefore, turn to crime as soon as they are released from criminal behaviour is learned both in social and prison. Possibly due to criminogenism non-social situations that are reinforcing or fabricated within the prison cells or due to discriminative and through that social vengeance. interaction in which the behaviour of other Given that the volume of studies and the persons is reinforcing or discriminative for positive findings, with few negative findings, criminal behaviour. provide greater empirical support for social To assert that criminal behaviour is directly learning theory than for any other major social caused by beliefs does not deny that there are psychological theory of crime and deviance, to structural sources for beliefs. The question is an extent, criminal socialization can be whether those beliefs attain some life of their explained theoretically. Although it attempts to own as causes of behaviour in general and as explain all forms of crime, the theory is too causes of criminal behaviour in particular. wide and this makes it difficult in explaining The most reasonable position at the present any specific offence within the context of its time seems to suggest that culture functions as propositions. Nonetheless, the theory can a crucial intervening variable between social explain certain criminal behaviours but not all structure and individual behaviour. That is, criminality.

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Criminal groups such as criminal gangs are Cohen Albert K. (1955) Delinquent Boys. indeed instrumental in training individuals into Gleneoe, IL: Free Press. criminal careers. Dull, K. Thomas (1983) “Friends use and adult Further, criminal socializing experiences drug and drinking behaviour, a further test have implications for designing appropriate of differential Association Theory.” Journal crime prevention strategies. The lessons of Criminal Law and Criminology, 74: 1608-19. learned from those who were criminally Danson, Mike (1978). The Social Network socialized and trained to become criminal Analysis. A Handbook on Networking. careers are also vital and an added input in the Edelhertz (1993). In the Criminal Review, formulation of appropriate and sustainable November 2002. crime prevention programs. Inclardi (1975). In Marshall B. Clinard and This paper, therefore, is inclined to the view Robert F. that social learning plays the most significant Meir (1985). Sociology of Deviant Behaviour. New role in shaping the subsequent behaviour of York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College individuals. Publishers. Finally, an understanding of the relationship Jeffery, C. Ray, (1990). Criminology. New York: between associations and illegal behaviours as Prentice Hall. well as expectations about how to behave in John Evans (1999). Criminal Networks and particular situations, social approval and social Criminal Enterprises. disapproval are fundamental and instrumental John Mach (1964). Full time miscreants, in designing programmes for control and delinquent neighbourhood and criminal prevention of criminality. networks. The British Journal of Sociology, 15(1), 38-35. Joubert et al (1997) Fundamental Criminology. References University of South Africa, Pretoria. Akers, R. (1973). Deviant Behaviour: A Social Krohn, Marvin D., William F. Skinner, James Learning Approach, Belmont, CA: L. Mossey, and Ronald L. Akers (1985) Wadsworth “Social Learning Theory and Adolescent Akers, R. (1996). “Is differential Association/ Cigarette Smoking; A Longitudinal Study,” Social Learning Cultural Deviance?” Social Problems, 32; 455-73. Criminology 34:229-248 Maguire, Rod Morgan and Robert Reiver Akers, R. L. (1998). Social Learning and Social (1996). Criminology. Oxford: Clerendon Structure: A General Theory of Crime and Press. Deviance. Boston, MA: North-eastern Malcolm, K. Sparrow (1991). The Application of University Press. Network Analysis to Criminal Intelligence: an Akers, R. L. and Gang Lee (1996). “A Assessment of the Prospect, Social Networks. longitudinal test of Social Learning Theory: Marshall B. Clinard and Robert F. Meire adolescent Smoking”, Journal of Drug (1985). Sociology of Deviant Behaviour. New issues 26, 317-343. York: Harcourt Brace Jovanow College Akers, R. L., and Christine S. Sellers 2004 Publishers. Criminological Theories; Introduction, Messner, Steven F. and Richard Rosenfeld Evaluation and Application. (2001). Crime and the American Dream. Third Akers, Ronald L, Anthony, J. La Greca, John Edition. Belmont, CA: Wadswoth. Cochran, and Christine Sellers. (1989). Nambasa, Jane (2010) Criminal Networks and “Social Learning Theory and Alcohol Crime in Uganda. A case of Robbery in Kampala Behaviour among the Elderly,” Sociological District. Kampala: Unpublished MA Quarterly 30:625-638. Dissertation. Bandura, Albert (1977). Social Learning Theory. O’Donnell, Reeve, Reeve and Smith (2012) Englewood Cliffs, NJ; Prentice Hall. Educational Psychology, Reflection for action p.256 Burgess, Robert L. and Ronald L. Akers (1966) Olatunde Odetola, T. and Ade Ademola “A differential Association-Reinforcement (1995). Sociology; An introductory African Text. Theory of Criminal Behaviour,” Social London and Basingstoke: Macmillan Problems, 14:128-47. Education Ltd. Bowlby, John (1953) Forty Four Juvenile Thieves: Mineka, S, Zinbarg, R (2006). A contemporary Child Care and the Growth of Love. Learning Theory perspective on the Harmondsworth: Penguin. aetiology of anxiety disorders; It’s not what

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you thought it was. American Psychologist, 61, Taylor, Ian; Paul Walton and Jack Young 10-26. (1985). The New Criminology. For a Social Miller, P. H. (2011). Theories of Developmental Theory of Deviance. London and New York: Psychology. New York: Worth Publishers. Routledge & Kegan Paul P/C. Mathews, A., Gelder, M. Johnson, D. (1981). Tarde, Gabriel (1912). Penal Philosophy. Boston: A Goraphobia: Xature L 3 Treatment. New Little Brown. York: Guilford Press. Vold, George B; Thomas J, Bernard; Jeffery B. Rachman, S. (1991). Neo-conditioning and the Snipes (1998). Theoretical Criminology. Fourth Classical Theory of Fear Acquisition. Clinical Edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Psychology Review, 11, 133-173. Skinner, William F. and Anne M. Fream (1997) Author Bio “A Social Learning Theory Analysis of Computer Crime among College Students.” MATHIAS SSAMULA (PhD) is a member Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency. 34 of faculty and Acting Head, Department of (4). Sociology and Anthropology, College of Sutherland, Edwin (1947). Principles of Humanities and Social Sciences (Makerere Criminology, Fourth Edition. New York: University). Harper & Row.

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USE OF INFORMATION AMONG PRIMARY HEALTHCARE WORKERS IN RURAL AREAS OF NORTH WESTERN NIGERIA

Hadiza Talatu Mohammed Federal College of Education, Zaria

Abstract. This study investigated utilization of information among primary healthcare practitioners in rural areas of North Western States of Nigeria. The population of the study consisted of the 5,958 primary healthcare practitioners in the area. A sample of 1,192 of these health workers was selected using stratified random sampling. Data were collected using a semi-structured questionnaire and analysed using frequency counts and percentages. The findings were that the information utilized by healthcare practitioners were on maternal healthcare, immunization, water borne diseases, sanitation, morbidity, essential drugs, disease outbreaks, mental breakdown and dental care. It was also found that this information is mostly accessed in form of reports, statistics, memos and notices. It was recommended that librarians, and other information providers, devise information retrieval devices and forms that will create awareness about and facilitate access to healthcare information among health workers especially those in rural areas..

Introduction planning, development and maintenance of healthcare services. World Health In addition to sound professional education Organization (2008) posits that “sound and and training, the capacity of primary healthcare reliable information is the foundation of practitioners to successfully manage primary decision making across all health system healthcare cases and challenges is largely building blocks and is essential for health dependent on their level of awareness of system policy development and relevant information especially on primary implementation, governance and regulation, healthcare and their ability to access and utilize health research, human resources effectively and efficiently such information. development, health education and training The fundamental factor in information and service delivery”. This is to say that for utilization is awareness of the existence of effective service delivery by primary healthcare information (Tyagi, 2011). Awareness is a practitioners there is the need for information major determinant of use. Awareness of that is accessible and if properly utilized will information resources enhances information lead to improved patient outcome. utilization. Studies indicate that lack of information awareness is one of the primary Concept of Information reasons for non-use of information resources (Tyagi, 2011; John, 2006; Kujengyere, 2007; Conceptually, information is the message Manda & Mukangera. 2007; Sajjad and Ramzy, (utterance or expression) being conveyed. 2004). This implies that, though a user may Therefore in general sense, information is identify his/her area of information need, “knowledge communicated or received without proper awareness of how and where concerning a particular fact or circumstance”, to get the resources that will provide the or rather information is an answer to a information needed, such needs may not be question (Vigo, 2011). Information as defined met. Togia and Tsigilis (2011) reiterated that by Floridi (2010) is data that is accurate and lack or low awareness of the existence of timely, specific and organized for a purpose, information resources constitutes major presented within a context that gives it impedance to its utilization. meaning and relevance and can lead to an Closely related to the role of awareness in increase in understanding and decreases information utilization is the notion of uncertainty. Information is an ethereal information access. Access to timely and commodity. One definition of information is accurate information play a vital role in the the data and knowledge that intelligent systems

KAMPALA INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY JOURNAL OF HUMANITIES & SOCIAL SCIENCES

ISSN: 2413-9580, VOLUME 4, NUMBER 2, NOVEMBER 2015, PP. 57 - 70

Mohammed: Utilization of Information among Primary Healthcare Workers in Nigeria

(human and artificial) used to support their they are used mostly by many scholars decisions. interchangeably (Oltmann, 2009). Jeager and Mohammed (2012) defined information as Burnett as quoted by Oltmann (2009) “anything we physically or otherwise come postulate that access is “the presence of a across consciously or unconsciously and robust system through which information is accidentally or intentionally that adds made available to citizens and others”. They positively or otherwise to our existing posit that such a system has physical, knowledge, ideas and experiences. This point intellectual and social components. This means to the fact that we can make a difference in any that information access is a combination of circumstance to the extent we are able and intellectual, physical and social elements that capable of accessing and retrieving affect the availability of information to information about something and for individuals. Burnett, Jaeger and Thompson something, as well as utilize information as (2008) suggest that access has three something and in something. Essentially components: physical, intellectual and social. therefore, it could be said that information is a Physical access indicates “the physical vital and strategic resource that shapes and structures that contain information, the impacts on our daily life as it is all around us electronic structures that contain information especially due to its pervasiveness in our and the paths that are travelled to get to thinking about the world around and beyond information”. Intellectual access refers to us; its virtual and attributes that are not understanding information as a document, defined; its discrete, distinctive and multi- including “how the information is categorized, dimensional nature; and its intertwined organized, displayed and represented”. Finally, processes of learning, knowledge, skill and the concept of social access suggests that experience acquisition and utilization. Hence, element of one’s social world including social the need to not only seek, acquire and secure norms and world views which influence the information regardless of the type, nature, information one accesses, and how and why quantum and location, but manage, package particular information is sought. One can say and disseminate it far and wide irrespective of that physical and intellectual access depends the media to meet the yearnings of the target on one’s social behaviour to access to audience regardless of the time and location”. information. Oltmann (2009) gives a similar Health informatics help doctors with their argument that “a well-developed and well- decisions and actions, and improves patient maintained information structure alone is not outcomes by allowing them to make better use enough. The information that is accessible of information–making more efficiently should also be affordable, available, timely and especially in the way patient data and medical relevant readily assimilated and in languages knowledge is captured, processed, and contexts users can relate to and communicated and applied. These challenges understand”. have become important since the internet The healthcare system is in a state of made access to medical information easier. constant and rapid change as a result of the increase in scientific knowledge and rapid Access to Health Information technological advances. To provide the best In a developing country like Nigeria, a large possible healthcare, health practitioners must proportion of the population has limited continue to learn throughout their working access to health information and healthcare life. This need has been widely recognized facilities. Equitable access to healthcare across health professionals. The requirement remains a challenge in developing and for health practitioners to remain up-to-date transitional countries, especially among the with the changing knowledge base of the rural poor masses. There are chronic diseases profession is now being formally recognized which are terminal illnesses and the by health professionals with the introduction practitioners require comprehensive health of mandatory Continuing Professional information for their management. Thus, Development (CPD) requirements for health practitioners and patients are not aware practitioners (Madewell, 2004). Weidling of available health information as well as the (2001) states that “to update professional utilization (Obiora, 2013). knowledge health practitioners must have Access to information and information access to the information resources that access are seen as functionally equivalent as contain the knowledge of their profession”.

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Herrington & Herrington (2006) processes and beliefs about the ways in which investigated the use of internet to meet the healthcare is structured. PHC encompasses professional learning needs of rural and primary care, disease prevention, health remote health practitioners. They found out promotion, population health and community that limited access to internet include low development within a holistic framework, with numbers of computers with internet access, the aim of providing essential community– low or lack of access to external website and focused healthcare. (Shoultz & Hatcher, 1997 lack of time during work hours to search for and World Health Organization, 1978). WHO information. Internet is an important (1978) states that “the cornerstones of PHC information source for health practitioners are access equity essentiality, appropriate offering immediate access to most current technology, multi-sector collaboration and health information. Shanahan, Herrington and community participation and empowerment”. Herrington (2009) stated that health Hogg et al. (2008) concluded that Primary practitioners use internet based Healthcare “is in a state of evolution” They communication of e-mail and listservs to further stress that primary care constitutes the consult with colleagues nationally and first element of a healthcare process that may internationally. To support this view, Burnett also include the provision of timely and et al. (2008), Herrington & Herrington (2006), appropriate secondary and tertiary levels of Masters (2008) and Shanahan et al. (2009) posit care. that teleconferencing and videoconferencing According to World Health Organization have also been identified as important (1978), primary healthcare is essential communication tools for supporting healthcare based on practical, scientifically professional development in Australia, with sound, and socially acceptable method and reported usage higher by rural health technology; universally accessible to all in the practitioners than their metropolitan community through their full participation; at colleagues. an affordable cost; and geared towards self- Effective use of information and reliance and self-determination (UNICEF & communication technology by healthcare WHO, 1978). Primary healthcare shifts the practitioners and public health professionals emphasis of healthcare to the people and their can bring about an age of patient and public needs, reinforcing and strengthening their own centred health information and services. capacity to shape their lives. As a philosophy, Berkman et al. (2004) state that this will bring primary healthcare is based on the overlap of about: mutuality, social justice and equality. As a 1. Improved healthcare quality and safety. strategy, primary healthcare focuses on 2. Increase in the efficiency of healthcare and individual and community strengths (assets) public health services delivery. and opportunities for change (needs); 3. Improve in the public health information maximizes the involvement of the community; infrastructure. includes all relevant sectors but avoids 4. Support care in the community and at duplication of services; and uses only health home. technologies that are accessible, acceptable, 5. Facilitate clinical and consumer decision- affordable and appropriate. Primary healthcare making. needs to be delivered close to the people as 6. Build health skills and knowledge. such it should rely on maximum use of both lay and professional healthcare practitioners Primary Healthcare and include the following eight essential Primary healthcare forms an integral part of components: the Nigeria’s health system. The main focus of 1. Education for the identification and primary healthcare is the health of individuals, prevention/control of prevailing health families and communities. PHC is equally challenges. concerned with addressing the overall social 2. Proper food supplies and nutrition; and economic development of communities adequate supply of safe water and basic thereby targeting the social determinant of sanitation. health. Primary healthcare embodies a spirit of 3. Maternal and child care, including family self-reliance and self-determination (Vukic & planning. Keddy, 2002). Primary Healthcare is a 4. Immunization against the major infectious conceptual model which refers to both diseases.

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5. Prevention and control of locally endemic government, all health and development diseases. workers and the world community to protect 6. Appropriate treatment of common and promote the health of all the people of the diseases using world, making the following declaration: 7. Appropriate technology. 1. The conference strongly reaffirms that 8. Promotion of mental, emotional and health, which is a state of complete spiritual health. physical, mental and social wellbeing, and 9. Provision of essential drugs (UNICEF & not merely the absence of disease or WHO, 1978). infirmity is a fundamental human right. The attainment of the highest possible After independence in I960, health policies level of health is a must upon the world- were enshrined in various forms either in the wide social goal where realization requires National Health Development Plan or as the action of many other social and Government decision on specific health economic sectors in addition to the health problems. There was a comprehensive sector. national health policy dealing with such issues 2. The existing gross inequality in the status as health manpower, the provision of of the people particularly between comprehensive healthcare on the basic health developed and developing countries as services scheme, disease control, planning and well as within countries is politically, management. Since 1986, the Federal Ministry socially and economically unacceptable of Health and Social Services (FMHSS), States, and is therefore, of common concern to all and Local Governments have adopted new countries. strategy for the National PHC system. 52 3. Economic and social development based LGAs were selected for the first phase of on a new International Economic order, is implementation. The 52 LGAs selected were of basic importance to the fullest then referred to as the “PHC Model LGAs”. attainment of health to all and to the The L.G. functioned at the LGA level and the reduction of the gap between the health villagers at the community level as well as the status of the developing and developed academics in the universities and other countries. The promotion and protection institutions of learning were involved in of the health of the people is essential to planning, implementation, monitoring and sustain economic and social development evaluation workshop. Between March and May and contributions to a better quality of life 1986, each LG with the technical assistance and to world peace. provided by FMHSS and universities collected 4. The people have the right and duty to data on the health problems and resources participate individually and collectively in available to solve them in each of the selected the planning and implementation of their LGAs. Based on these a broad-based health healthcare. plan for each of the LGAs was developed. 5. Government has a responsibility for the Later in the year (1986) another series of health of their people which can be workshops were held to state; the steps to be fulfilled only by the provision of adequate taken for programmes formulation and plans health and social measures. A main social to implement and manage the services. Five target of government, international hundred thousand Naira (N500, 000) was organizations and the whole world given to each of the selected LGAs. It was community in the coming decades should decided in 1989 that village Healthcare System be the attainment by all peoples of the should be set up. It was also recognized that world by the year 2000 of a level of health the success of the village healthcare system will that will permit them to lead a socially and depend on the quality and intensity of training economically productive life. Primary and supervision of the workers. The villagers healthcare is the key to attaining this target or their village Health Development as part of development in the spirit of Committee will nominate a person to be social justice. trained to man the healthcare services to be 6. Primary healthcare is essential healthcare provided. based on practical, scientifically sound and The International Conference on Primary socially acceptable methods and Healthcare meeting held in Alma-Ata (1978) technology made universally accessible to expressed the need for urgent action by all individuals and families in the community

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through their full participation and at a healthcare as “participation of community at cost that the community and country can all stages”. For country to be intelligently afford to maintain at every stage of their involved, they need to have easy access to the developments in the spirit of self-reliance right kind of information covering their health and self-determination. It forms an situation and how they can help improve it. It integral part of the country’s health system is important to have a clear explanation of the which is the central function and main technologies available, their advantages and focus of the overall social and economic disadvantages, their success and failure, their development of the community. It is the possible adverse efforts and their costs. final level of contacts of individuals, the Information given should be neither over family and community with national sophisticated nor condensing but should be in health system to bring healthcare as close the language people can understand. For as possible to where people live and work, example, newspapers, magazines, radio, and constitutes the first element of a television, films, plays, posters, community continuing healthcare process. notice board and any other means available can be used. Finally, the International Conference on Quality healthcare depends heavily on the Primary Healthcare calls for urgent and knowledge and skills of its personnel. To effective national and international actions to ensure a high level of current awareness and develop and implement primary healthcare research, PHC services and activities require throughout the world and particularly in the support of constant flow of information developing countries in the spirit of technical (WHO, 2008). Availability of health cooperation and in keeping with a New information in various forms at different International Economic Order. The locations calls for a need to coordinate them conference also urges governments; WHO and and make them accessible to those in need. UNICEF and other international In realization of this, the Federal Government organizations as well as multilateral and of Nigeria (FGN) established the National bilateral agencies, non-governmental Health Information System (NHIS) for organization, funding agencies, all health planning, monitoring and evaluating health workers and the whole world community to services. support the National and International commitment to primary healthcare. “In other Statement of Problem to plan and manage primary healthcare the Health decisions depend on use of right kind of information is essential” (WHO, information. Health decisions require 2000). It further reiterates that it is important information from several sources. Information to identify and use relevant information on is an indispensable resource in heath decision health. The information is an integral part of situations. In the United States, healthcare primary healthcare activities and their information system is evolving into a national supporting services. network of quality improvement initiative (Blumenthal & Egbert, 2010 and ONHTIT, Primary Healthcare Information 2008). The utilization of health information is The provision of primary healthcare requires a necessary component of quality planning and information is needed for improvement initiative because it is expected planning. It is important that information to enhance quality care, increase healthcare should be made accessible to healthcare safety and provide cost effective health practitioners, planners and health policy services for patients. formulators to enhance the provision of According to Pakenham-Walsh and Priestly quality healthcare. Health information is a key (1997) studies have shown that people in the ingredient to effective health delivery. It is in rural areas do not have access to basic realization of the importance of information they need since majority of the communication to health service that population live in rural areas. Most of the Nakojimo (1997) remarked that "information primary healthcare centres that are in remote and communication are at the very heart of areas lack facilities like internet services. They World Health Organization". lack adequate power supply, poor road WHO & UNICEF (1978) identified one of networks and most of the social amenities of the fundamental principles of primary life.

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Despite the relevance of information for The research is useful in designing health effective and efficient healthcare delivery there information programmes for federal, state, and are still high rates of diseases in rural areas in local government. The research is also useful Nigeria. Could the high rate of diseases in rural to proprietors of private hospitals and clinics areas be attributed to poor or lack of utilization in augmenting government effort in of primary healthcare information among promoting Primary Healthcare from the grass primary healthcare practitioners? It is in line root. with the aforementioned problems that the The research is also of help to Non- researcher sought to determine utilization of Governmental Organization (NGOs) to information among healthcare practitioners in provide intervention programmes towards rural areas of North-Western States of Nigeria. enhancing Primary Healthcare in Nigeria. Lastly the study will be of help to would-be Research Question researchers, who can build from where this How do the healthcare practitioners in rural research stops. areas of North Western States of Nigeria utilize the primary healthcare information Related Literature generated? Choo (2002) defines information use as a Objective dynamic, interactive social process of inquiry that may result in the making of meaning of To determine how healthcare practitioners in decisions. Awareness precedes use, therefore a rural areas of North Western States of Nigeria fundamental factor that is crucial to access information for primary healthcare. information utilization is the perceived information need. The awareness of the Hypothesis existence of an information resource is a major There is no significant difference among the determinant of use. An individual’s knowledge health practitioners in their level of use of of possible resources and preferences may help primary healthcare information in rural areas determine his information horizon. Awareness of North Western States of Nigeria. of the availability of information is therefore an important valuable that has been found to Significance have a positive association with utilization of The study is of immense importance to information. John-Okeke (2006), Manda and students of the School of Medicine in Mukangera (2007) and Sajjud Ur Rahmen universities especially those in the Department (2004) assert that “lack of awareness is among of Community Health. This will create the primary reasons for underutilization of awareness and widen their horizon in the areas information resources by healthcare of community based health delivery and professionals in Kuwait University. This medical outreach programmes to the rural implies that though a user may identify his/her populace. area of information need, without any proper The study is also of great importance to the awareness of how and where to get the lecturers in Colleges of Medicine and School resources that will provide the information of Health Science all over the country. It will needed, such needs may not be met. help them appreciate the role of information Manda and Mukangera (2007) further as it regards the achievement of their primary postulate that “it is imperative that users goals and objectives for which they were (health professionals) acquire necessary established. information literacy skill to enable them sieve The significance of this study lies in the fact through the ocean of information overload that the findings of the study would be of available both locally and internationally for immense assistance to the administrators of ease of use”. In Nigeria, Salaam and health ministries and institutions in designing Aderibigbe (2010) state that apart from the action plans and interventions. This will also poor power supply and poor internet go a long way in encouraging Federal Ministry connectivity where electronic information of Health, state ministries of health and their resources are concerned, lack of awareness parastatals to provide more infrastructures for contribute to the poor utilization of an uninterrupted flow of information for PHC information resources. Therefore, there is and other health programmes. urgent need for deliberate effort to create

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KIU Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences awareness on the availability of various place effective strategies and mechanisms to information resources to enhance utilization of explore and acquire, organize and manage, information among primary healthcare store and secure, locate and retrieve, identify practitioners in rural areas of North Western and evaluate, analyse and extrapolate, and, States in Nigeria. package and disseminate information”. In line Gatero (2010) identifies several barriers to with this and considering the importance of information access and use and these include – health to national development, primary lack of access to a hospital library, availability healthcare practitioners therefore should be and location of information resources, lack of able to access and utilize relevant and current up-to date books and journal subscription, lack information which in turn will enhance the of computers and internet facilities, relevance quality of healthcare delivery and patient of internet information to local context outcome. illiteracy and lack of general awareness of available information. Methodology Information is essential in healthcare and health promotion as it improves clinical Survey research method was adopted in this decision-making and provides both direction study. The population of this study comprised and rationale for guiding strategic health of all the primary healthcare practitioners in behaviours, treatment and diagnosis. If the the rural areas of North Western States of medical practitioners are expected to keep Nigeria totalling 5958, comprising of 184 abreast of the best available evidence. As primary healthcare hospitals, 395 Doctors, important as information is to medical 5,077 Nurses, 241 Pharmacists, and 245 practitioners Bii & Otike (2003) states that lack laboratory technicians. One hundred and of access to a library, availability and location eighty four (184) primary healthcare centres of information resources, lack of up-to date were selected using stratified sampling books, and internet facilities and relevance of technique while 1,192 healthcare practitioners internet to local context, the loss of were selected using stratified and random information materials, lack of computers and sampling. poor internet searching skills and lack of The instruments used for collecting data in general awareness of available information are this research were questionnaire and some of the barriers to information access and interviews. On the other hand, interview use. While commenting on problems of method was used to collect basic information information utilization, Komolafe (1998) that was not possible to obtain through posits that the ability to achieve the goal of questionnaire. One set of Questionnaire was improved healthcare delivery depends on the constructed and administered to all the availability, accessibility and utilization of Primary Healthcare practitioners. Doctors and information. Nurses were interviewed through face-to-face Mohammed (2012) posits that “the type of interactions. information available at our disposal have In order to ascertain the validity of the significant impact on the nature and focus of instruments, the researcher subjected her our national philosophy, vision, mission, goals, instruments to research experts, colleagues and objectives and aspirations especially as it supervisors for validation. The instruments relates to strategic indicators of national were corrected, and comments of the advancements such as education, health, supervisor improved the items structure and agriculture, economy, politics and format. Contents validity was adopted to government, human development and social validate the instrument. welfare, science and technology, and transport The reliability of the instruments was and communication. Simply put, our advances established by conducting a pilot study within in any human endeavour as individuals, family, 7 days (1 week) in Billiri Local Government in associates, affiliates, society and nation is Gombe State. Forty (40) health workers were largely a function of the type of information issued the research instrument. The reliability we are able and capable to access and of the questionnaire was determined using the effectively utilize to satisfy our goals and split half technique. The value obtained was aspirations. What is therefore necessary to r=0.754, so the instrument was reliable. effectively and efficiently maximize access and The researcher administered the utilization of needed information, is to put in instruments personally with the help of two

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Mohammed: Utilization of Information among Primary Healthcare Workers in Nigeria research assistants. This was because the Findings and Discussion research covered 7 states, the researcher took 1 state and the research assistants covered 6 Utilization of Primary Healthcare states. The research assistants were university Information postgraduate students. With a little training This research question was asked to identify coupled with their knowledge of research the types of PHC information utilized by the methodology, it was easy for them to Primary Healthcare Practitioners in rural areas administer the instruments and collect data of North Western States of Nigeria PHCs. To that was used for the study. do this, a list of information was provided for The statistical techniques used in the the respondents to tick as many options as analysis and interpretation of the data were the possible as shown under Table 1. frequency counts, tables, charts and percentages. Analysis of variance was also used to test the hypotheses. Mamman et al (2002) indicated ANOVA techniques allow comparing the mean of two or more groups simultaneously. According to Bordens and Aboot (2002), when experiment includes more than two groups, the statistical test of choice is analysis of variance.

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Table 1: PHC Information Utilized for Primary Healthcare in Rural Areas of North-Western States of Nigeria State Public Healthcare Total Type of Information KD KN KB KB JW SK ZF f % f % f % f % f % f % f % f % Information on maternal health 125 69.8 201 70.0 121 83.4 178 80.5 121 93.8 34 77.3 29 82.9 809 77.8 Information on Immunization and Childhood killer diseases 145 81.0 198 68.9 143 98.6 167 75.6 123 95.3 28 63.6 35 100.0 839 80.7 Information on the provision of adequate water supply 156 87.2 212 73.9 122 84.1 211 95.5 127 98.4 44 100.0 32 91.4 904 86.9 Information on water borne diseases 111 62.0 188 65.5 67 46.2 199 90.0 129 100.0 43 97.7 28 80.0 765 73.6 Information on reducing outbreak of water borne diseases. 146 81.6 213 74.2 121 83.4 189 85.5 129 100.0 39 88.6 31 88.6 868 83.5 Information on environmental sanitation 167 93.3 245 85.4 141 97.2 212 95.9 129 100.0 27 61.4 35 100.0 956 91.9 Information on morbidity and mortality reductions 176 98.3 266 92.7 111 76.5 220 99.5 98 75.9 34 77.3 26 74.3 931 89.5 Information on control of endemic diseases 169 94.4 178 62.0 56 38.6 156 70.6 67 51.9 27 61.4 9 25.7 662 63.7 Information on provision of essential drugs 177 98.9 213 74.2 98 67.6 145 65.6 88 68.2 27 61.4 31 88.6 779 74.9 Information on prevalent diseases in the locality 166 92.7 242 84.3 99 68.3 199 90.0 111 86.0 44 100.0 23 65.7 884 85.0 Information on appropriate treatment of diseases 171 95.5 212 73.9 87 60.0 212 95.9 121 93.8 42 95.5 34 97.1 879 84.5 Information on Good Health Habits 167 93.3 245 85.4 101 69.7 211 95.5 123 95.3 18 40.9 35 100.0 900 86.5 Information on dental care 133 74.3 267 93.0 121 83.4 220 99.5 125 96.9 34 77.3 26 74.3 926 89.0 Information on the availability of healthcare Centres. 144 80.4 121 42.2 132 91.0 199 90.0 78 60.5 42 95.5 28 80.0 744 71.5 Information on Rest 99 55.3 143 49.8 134 92.4 155 70.1 66 51.2 12 27.3 31 88.6 640 61.5 Poverty eradication 89 49.7 98 34.1 23 15.9 43 19.5 14 10.9 23 52.3 0 0.0 290 27.9 Information on Unemployment 78 43.6 33 11.5 34 23.4 123 55.7 17 13.2 25 56.8 0 0.0 310 29.8 KEY: KD = Kaduna KB = Kebbi JW = Jigawa ZF = Zamfara KN = Kano KT = Katsina SK = Sokoto

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Table 1 showed the responses of the most commonest used PHC related respondents on the type of information used information by primary healthcare by the Healthcare Practitioners in rural areas of practitioners with an average of over 60% North Western States of Nigeria. It was scores respectively in the rural areas of North discovered that information on maternal child Western States of Nigeria. health, information on immunization, On the other hand, information on poverty provision of adequate water supply, eradication and information on employment information on water borne diseases, were the least used by the primary healthcare information on environmental sanitation, practitioners with less than 30% scores. morbidity and mortality rate information, Also, a follow up question was asked to information on provision of essential drugs, determine the extent of use of information on information on prevalent diseases, information Primary Healthcare in rural areas of North on good health habits, information on rest 640, Western States of Nigeria. To do this, a five information on mental breakdown, point Likert measurement scale was collapsed information on dental care, information on into three levels to facilitate analysis and control of endemic diseases, and information discussion as indicated in Table 2: and availability of healthcare centres were the

Table 2: Utilization of PHC Information in Rural Areas of North Western States PHCs Type of PHC information Responses Always Rarely Not at all f % f % f % Information on Maternal child health 875 84.1 165 15.9 0 0.0 Information on Immunization 870 83.7 74 7.1 96 9.2 Information on provision of adequate water supply 40 3.8 860 82.7 140 13.5 Information on water borne diseases 777 74.7 195 18.8 68 6.5 Information on environmental sanitation 362 34.8 662 63.7 16 1.5 Information on morbidity and mortality rate reduction 04 0.4 966 92.9 70 6.7 Information on control of endemic diseases 140 13.5 865 83.2 35 3.4 Information on Provision of essential drugs 930 89.4 100 9.6 10 0.9 Information on Prevalent diseases 940 90.4 66 6.3 34 3.3 Information on proper treatment of diseases and injuries 905 87.0 135 12.9 0 0.0 Information on good health habits 100 9.6 973 93.6 27 2.6 Information on rest 0 0.0 67 6.4 973 93.6 Information on Poverty eradication 38 3.7 100 9.6 902 86.7 Information on Unemployment 0 0.0 128 12.3 912 87.7 Information on Mental breakdown 18 1.7 72 6.9 940 90.4 Information on Dental care 917 88.2 123 11.8 0 0.0 Information on Availability of healthcare 0 0.0 118 11.3 922 88.7

Table 2 indicated that the PHC information information on morbidity and mortality rate on: maternal health, (875:79.5%); reduction were rarely used by the primary immunization, (930:84.5%); water borne healthcare practitioners in the areas studied. diseases, (777:70.6%); provision of essential This situation portends a serious danger on the drugs, (990:90%); prevalent diseases, social wellbeing of the locality as majority of (1000:90.9%); appropriate treatment of the pregnant women require more education diseases and injuries, (965:87.7%) and dental on the kind of water to drink and use vis-à-vis care, (977:88.8%) were the types of PHC the imperativeness of environmental sanitation information used always by the primary to safeguard themselves from diseases. It is healthcare providers in the rural areas of North therefore important that primary healthcare Western States of Nigeria PHCs. This finding centres also pay much attention towards is expected because the types of information improving good sanitation and hygiene in their used constituted the major health problems areas of operation. which the PHCs were established to address. The researcher also requested the However, it is surprising to find that respondents to indicate the most preferred information on provision of adequate water information generated in the PHCs using supply, environmental sanitation and Likert measurement scale. However, for

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KIU Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences convenience, the options were merged into under Table 3. These were “Most Preferred”; three options in order to ease analysis as shown “Preferred” and “Not Preferred”.

Table 3: Preference of Primary Healthcare Related Information Generated Type of PHC information Most Preferred Not Preferred Preferred f % f % f % Information on Maternal child health 966 92.8 34 3.3 40 3.8 Information on Immunization 990 95.2 97 9.3 13 1.3 Information on provision of adequate water supply 48 4.6 133 12.8 860 82.7 Information on water borne diseases 10 0.9 140 13.5 890 85.6 Information on environmental sanitation 47 4.5 973 93.6 20 1.9 Information on morbidity and mortality rate reduction 50 4.8 40 3.8 950 91.3 Information on control of endemic diseases 860 82.7 47 4.5 133 12.8 Information on Provision of essential drugs 980 94.2 20 1.9 40 3.8 Information on Prevalent diseases 900 86.5 40 3.8 100 9.6 Information on proper treatment of diseases and injuries 950 91.3 15 1.4 75 7.2 Information on good health habits 960 92.3 40 3.8 40 3.8 Information on rest 40 3.8 20 1.9 980 94.2 Information on Poverty eradication 40 3.8 40 3.8 960 92.3 Information on Unemployment 1005 96.6 23 2.2 12 1.2 Information on Mental breakdown 25 2.4 12 1.2 1003 96.4 Information on Dental care 950 91.3 50 4.8 40 3.8 Information on Availability of healthcare 23 2.2 1000 96.2 17 1.6

Table 3 showed the responses of the supply; water borne diseases; morbidity and respondents on the type of PHC information mortality rate reduction; rest and Poverty they preferred in the primary health centres in eradication were found not to be preferred by rural areas of North Western States of Nigeria. the primary healthcare practitioners in the rural It was discovered that Information on: areas of North Western States PHCs. The Maternal child health, (966:87.8%); reason for this might be due to the primary Immunization, (990:90%); control of endemic PHC information requirements of the primary diseases, (860:78.2%); Provision of essential healthcare providers vis-à-vis the type cases drugs, (980:89.1%); Prevalent diseases, and ailment that were being reported to the (900:81.8%); appropriate treatment of diseases primary health centres in the region. It is and injuries, (950:86.4%); good health habits, expected however that the primary healthcare (960:87.3%) and Dental care, (950:86.4%) providers may prefer information on cases that were the types of PHC information mostly confront them regularly. preferred by the primary healthcare providers in rural areas of North Western States of Test of Hypothesis Nigeria PHCs. There is no significant difference among the This finding agreed with that of Akaniji health practitioners in their level of use of (2006) who reported that information on primary healthcare information in rural areas immunization, family planning and endemic of North Western States of Nigeria. The test is diseases is more preferred in dispensing shown in Table 4. primary healthcare services. However, information on: provision of adequate water

Table 4 (a): Use of Primary Healthcare Information Source of Variance Sum of DF Means of F P F critical Squares Squares Between Groups 1138.3 6 227.7 10.39 0.23 2.48 Within Groups 3942.8 1109 109.5 Total 5081.1 1115

Table 4(a) showed the analysis of variance on Information by the PHC practitioners in the the level of use of Primary Healthcare PHCs in rural areas of North Western States at

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Mohammed: Utilization of Information among Primary Healthcare Workers in Nigeria

P>0.05 level of significance, The F calculated Primary Healthcare Information in the PHCs 10.39 is greater than the F critical 2.48. This in rural areas of North Western States of implies that the null hypothesis is rejected. It Nigeria. can therefore be concluded that there is The result of the post hoc test of multiple significant difference among the Primary comparisons carried out on the mean scores of Healthcare practitioners’ levels of use of the states studied is presented in table 4(b):

Table 4(b): Scheffe Test of Multiple Comparisons on the Levels of Use of Primary Healthcare Information Dependent Variable (i) States (j) States Mean Difference (I-J) Standard Error Significance Level of use of Kaduna Kano -15.85714 5.59397 .183 Primary Healthcare Kebbi -12.57143 5.59397 .426 Information Katsina -4.57143 5.59397 .984 Sokoto -6.28571 5.59397 .936 Jigawa -6.57143 5.59397 .923 Zamfara 3.28571 5.59397 .996 Kano Kaduna 15.85714 5.59397 .183 Kebbi 3.28571 5.59397 .996 Katsina 11.28571 5.59397 .548 Sokoto 9.57143 5.59397 .711 Sokoto 9.28571 5.59397 .736 Zamfara 9.57143 5.59397 .426 Kebbi Kano 12.57143 5.59397 .426 Kaduna -3.28571 5.59397 .996 Katsina 98.00000 5.59397 .839 Sokoto 6.28571 5.59397 .936 Jigawa 6.00000 5.59397 .947 Zamfara -.28571 5.59397 .426 Katsina Kebbi 4.57143 5.59397 .984 Kano -11.28571 5.59397 548 Kaduna -8.00000 5.59397 .839 Sokoto -1.71429 5.59397 1.000 Jigawa -2.00000 5.59397 1.000 Zamfara -2.00000 5.59397 Sokoto Kebbi 6.28571 5.59397 .936 Kano -9.57143 5.59397 .711 Kaduna -6.28571 5.59397 .936 Katsina 1.71429 5.59397 1.000 Jigawa -.28571 5.59397 1.000 Zamfara -2.00000 5.59397 .936 Jagawa Kebbi 6.57143 5.59397 .923 Kano -9.28571 5.59397 .736 Kaduna -6.00000 5.59397 .947 Katsina 2.00000 5.59397 1.000 Jigawa .28571 5.59397 .736 Zamfara -.28571 5.59397 1.000 Zamfara Kaduna 20.91667(*) 5.59397 .000 Kebbi -12.02778(*) 5.59397 .000 Katsina 8.41667(*) 5.59397 .000 Sokoto 11.47727(*) 5.59397 .000 Jigawa 11.62500(*) 5.59397 .000 Kano 3.28571 5.59397 .947 * Mean difference is significant at 0.05 level. KEY: KD=Kaduna KB= Kebbi KT= Katsina SK= Sokoto JW=Jigawa KN= Kano ZF= Zamfara

Table 4(b) showed the result of the post hoc by the PHC practitioners. A look at the table test on the levels of use of the Primary revealed that there is significant difference in Healthcare Information in the PHCs in the the mean scores of the levels of use of the rural areas of North Western States of Nigeria Primary Healthcare Information in the PHCs

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KIU Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences by the PHC practitioners. This implies that the areas of north western states should create states studied have different means in their retrieval devices and other representational levels of use of the Primary Healthcare forms of information to create awareness and Information in the respective PHCs by the facilitate access to and retrieval of Health PHC practitioners. information for Primary Healthcare Development. A model that will facilitate access to Primary Conclusions and Recommendations Healthcare should be developed. This Information is a dynamic entity inherent in the research has succeeded in developing a one society that is both powerful and important in that will facilitate access and use of our complex modern society. An ever- information for Primary Healthcare. widening range of Health decisions, public and private, group and individual depend on wide References use of information. Many Health decisions require information from several sources. Alma-Ata (1978). International Conference on Information is therefore an indispensable Primary Healthcare. Alma-Ata, USSR, Sept. 6- resource to the individual, family and society. 12 1978. It can be concluded that PHC information is http:/www.who.Int?hpr/NPH/docs/decla mostly generated in form of reports, statistics, ration_almaata. memos, notices and records in the PHCs in Berkman, N. D., Dewalt, D. A. & Plynone M. rural areas of North Western states of Nigeria. P. (2004). Literacy and Health Outcomes: Improved communication and access to Summary (Internet). Rock Ville, MD: Agency information worldwide helps us to be better for Healthcare Research and Quality, pp. 6 - prepared and responds to disease out breaks. 8. However, much knowledge is likely to remain Blumenthal, D. & Egbert, T. (2010). The in Research Institutes and Teaching Hospital if Meaningful Use Regulation for Electronic they are not properly communicated to health Health Records. The New England Journal of workers. Access to reliable health information Medicine, 363 (6), 501-504. is crucial for progress towards health for all. Burnett, Jaeger & Thompson (2008). Health Since majority of the population lives in rural for All Beyond 2000: The Demise of the areas, lack of awareness and access to Alma-Ata Declaration and Primary information can be a barrier to effective Healthcare in Developing Countries. Medical dispensation on PHC. Relevant, accurate and journal of Australia 2003; 178(1): 13-20. timely information can avert a local or national Floridi, L. (2010). Information: A Very Short disease outbreak and at the same time prevent Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University international crises. This is achievable when press. there is awareness, free flow and use of Herrington A. & Herrington, J. (2006). information among health practitioners. Effective Use of Internet: Keeping State-of-the-art ICT facilities should be Professionals Working in Rural Australia. employed in rural areas north western states of Bartony Act: Rural Industries Research and Nigeria in both on-line and the conventional Development Corporation. information carriers in their organisation to Hogg, W., Rowan, M., Russell, G., Geneau, R. reduce the physical stress and time used when & Muldoon, L. (2008). Frame Work for searching for information. ICT facilities such Primary Care Organization: The as computers, scanners, digital cameras, Importance of Structural Domain. telecommunication infrastructure and Internet International Journal for Quality in Healthcare, should be provided as a matter of urgency in 20, 308 – 313. all the PHC centres in the states to make the John, O. R. (2006). Interface Model for Healthcare practitioners appreciate the Information Utilization in Research relevance and use of ICT in Primary Institution. Lagos: Journal of Library and Healthcare delivery. The Healthcare Information Science, Vol. 3. (2) pp. 147 – 152. practitioners should be up to date and more Madewell, J. E. (2004). Lifelong Learning and responsive to the challenges of their the Maintenance of Certification. Journal of profession in this digital age. American College of Radiology, 1(3), 199 – 203. Librarians and other information providers Mande, A. & Mukangera, F. (2007). Gender in Nigeria generally and particularly in rural Analysis of Electronic Information

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Resource Use: The Case of University of DoI 10.1103/jhis.it-4586. Accessed on Dar es Salam. Tanzania University Dar Es 25/7/2012. Salam Working Journal, 10 (1 & 2), pp. 29-45. UNICEF & World Health Organization Masters, K. (2008). For What Purpose and (1978). Primary Healthcare: Report of the Reasons do Doctors Use the Internet: A International Conference on Primary Healthcare. System Review. International Journal of Medical Alma-Ata, USSR 6-12 September. Paris: Information, 77 (1), 4 – 16. Geneva. Mohammed, Z. (2012). The Dynamics of Vigo, R. (2011). Representational Information: Information: Embracing the Present to A New General Notion and Measure of Cope with the Future. Seventh Tai Solarin Information. Information Science, 181; 4847 – National Memorial Lecture held on 27th 4859. September, 2012, Victoria Island, Lagos. Vukic, A. & Keddy, B. (2002). Northern Nakojimo H. (1997) “Getting the message Nursing Practice in Primary Healthcare across” World Health 50 (6) p. 1 Setting. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 40 (5) Obiora, N. E. F. & Anaehabi E. S. (2013). 542 – 48. Health Information Availability and Weidling (2001). Use and Awareness of Utilization by Medical Practitioners for Electronic Information Sources at III, Chronic Disease Management in Central Roockee India. A Case Study. JLISIT. Vol. Hospital, 10SR Journal of Pharmacy, Vol. 3 (3), 2(1) pp. 464 – 472. pp. 18 – 23. World Health Organization Report (1978). Office of National Coordinator for Health Primary Healthcare: Report of the International Information Technology – ONHTIT Conference on Primary Healthcare. Alma-Ata, (2008). Defining Key Health Information USSR 6-12 September. Paris: Geneva. Technology Terms. Washington, DC; US World Health Organization Report (2000). Government Printing Office. Health Systems: Improving Performance. Oltmann, M. S. (2009). Information Access Geneva: The World Health Organization School of Library and Information Science. (WHO). Indiana University. Bloomrgton pp. 6 – 22. World Health Organization Report (2000). Sajjad, U. & Ramzy, V. (2004). Awareness and World Health Report 2000 – Health systems: Use of Electronic information Review of Improving performance. Genera: WHO Health Sciences Centre of Kuwait www.who.int/whr/2000/en/whr 2000. University, Library Review, Vol. 53 (3), pp. World Health Organization Report (2008). 150 – 156. Primary Healthcare (Now More Than Ever). Shanahan, M., Herrington, A. & Herrington, J. http://www.who,int/whr/2008/en/index. (2009). The Internet and the Medical htmlz. Radiation Science Practitioner. Radiography, 15 (3), 233 – 24. Shoultz, J. & Hatcher, P. (1997). Looking Beyond Primary Care to Primary Healthcare: An Approach to Community Based Action. Nursing Outlook, 45 (1) 23 – 26. Togia, A. & Tsigilis, N. (2011). Awareness and Use of Electronic Information Resources by Education Graduate Students. Preliminary Results from the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. Qualitative and Quantitative Methods in Libraries Theory and Application (pp. 646-472). Retrieved from http://eproceedings.worldscinet.com/9789 814299701/97898 299701_0058.html. Accessed on 22/7/2012. Tyagi, S. (2011). Use and Awareness of Electronic Information Sources at IIT Roorkee India A Case Study. JLISIT Vol. 2(1), (Guigno/June 2011). Retrieved from

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COUNSELLING NEEDS OF PSYCHIATRIC PATIENTS AS PERCEIVED BY THEIR MEDICAL PERSONNEL IN FEDERAL NEUROPSYCHIATRIC HOSPITAL, ABEOKUTA

F. N. Bolu-Steve, T. A. Ajiboye Faculty of Education, University of Ilorin

Abstract. This paper reports on the findings of a study that delved into the counselling needs of psychiatric patients as perceived by medical personnel in the Federal Neuropsychiatric Hospital, Aro, Abeokuta, Nigeria. Data were collected from a random sample of 200 medical personnel of the hospital. Simple random sampling was used to select 200 respondents. The data was used to test hypotheses that the respondents’ perceptions of psychiatric patients’ counselling needs significantly differ by gender, age, marital status, religion and duration of experience in medical practice. The hypotheses were tested at the level of confidence alpha = .05 using the student-t test and ANOVA. Duncan Multiple Range Tests were also conducted. The major counselling need of psychiatric patients identified was the need to have information about balanced diet. Three of the hypotheses were rejected while two of them were accepted. It is recommended that broad based counselling services should be provided to psychiatric patients in order to assist them to develop a positive self- image and to cope with their challenges.

Introduction counselling services essential in all areas of human endeavour. The need to understand the Counselling is a type of talking therapy which counselling needs of psychiatric patients was allows people to discuss about their problems reemphasized by Makinde (2004) that and feelings in a confidential and dependable Guidance and counselling is based on the environment. Counselling is a type profession assumption that every individual in any society that assists people to understand themselves has had, is having and will have a problem that and their environment in order to help them he/she alone cannot solve. In the past, the make effective decisions necessary for their psychiatric patients were treated by herbalists growth and development. It involves the and in most cases they offer herbal care to their application of psychological principles, patient. methods and procedures in order to facilitate Federal Neuropsychiatry hospital, Aro, effective functioning during the Abeokuta was established in 1954, with the developmental process of an individual aim of treating patients that have psychiatric (Makinde, 2004). Counselling is designed to problems. Frankenberg (2008) described help clients acquire useful knowledge in coping psychiatric problem as any condition with life demands and develop a variety of characterized by impairment of an individual’s problem solving methods and decision making normal cognitive, emotional, or behavioural capacities. Sambo (2008) defined counselling functioning. This can be caused by social, as an in depth interaction between two or few psychological, biochemical, genetic or other individuals in a face to face relationship with factors such as infection or head trauma. This the intent of assisting the clients. can also refer to the psychological state of It is important to understand that someone who has emotional or behavioural counsellors' responsibility does not end in problems serious enough to require psychiatric assisting clients alone but in identifying their intervention. Scheff (2008) also defined mental needs and solving their problems. Thus, illness as any disorder that affects the counselling focuses basically on areas of psychological and emotional state of a person. nurturing, problem management, decision Pharaoh, Rathbon and Mari (2003) stated making, crisis management, support and life that people with psychiatric disorder have the skills training. Oniye, Yahaya and Oniyangi problem of hallucinations, delusions, catatonia (2010) noted that development in different and thought disorder. Psychiatric patient go aspects of life has now made guidance and

KAMPALA INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY JOURNAL OF HUMANITIES & SOCIAL SCIENCES

ISSN: 2413-9580, VOLUME 4, NUMBER 2, NOVEMBER 2015, PP. 71 - 77

Bolu-Steve & Ajiboye: Counselling Needs of Psychiatric Patients through a lot of challenges and these include 1. What are the major counselling needs of conduct disorder, trauma, emotional psychiatric patients as perceived by their breakdown, irritability, aggression, insomnia, medical personnel in Neuropsychiatric disorganization and period of uncertainty. hospital, Aro Abeokuta Nigeria? Baruch and Treacher (2008) noted that 2. Is there any difference in the counselling professional counsellor can help the patient in needs of psychiatric patients as perceived overcoming some of these challenges. by their medical personnel in Counselling has been identified by many Neuropsychiatric hospital, Aro Abeokuta researchers like Idowu (2004) Oniye (2004), Nigeria on the basis of gender? Ogowokahdeme and Bolu-steve (2014) as a 3. Is there any difference in the counselling therapeutic intervention which allows for needs of psychiatric patients as perceived personal growth by making one more positive, by their medical personnel in constructive and self-fulfilled. Neuropsychiatric hospital, Aro Abeokuta Nigeria on the basis of age? 4. Is there any difference in the counselling Statement of the Problem needs of psychiatric patients as perceived The recent disclosure by the Chief Medical by their medical personnel in Director (CMD) of the Neuropsychiatric Neuropsychiatric hospital, Aro Abeokuta hospital, Aro, Abeokuta, Dr. Adegboyega Nigeria on the basis of marital status? Ogunlesi, over the increasing number of 5. Is there any difference in the counselling Nigerians with psychiatric problems, is needs of psychiatric patients as perceived frightening. The director disclosed that the by their medical personnel in number of psychiatric patients have increased Neuropsychiatric hospital, Aro Abeokuta from 28,000 to 42,000 (National Institute of Nigeria on the basis of religion? Mental Health, 2011). The World Health 6. Is there any difference in the counselling Organization (2007) stated that about needs of psychiatric patients as perceived 75percent of people suffering from mental by their medical personnel in disorders in the developing countries do not Neuropsychiatric hospital, Aro Abeokuta have access to medical treatment. It was also Nigeria on the basis of years of medical discovered that mental disorders affect nearly experience? twelve percent of the world’s population and that one out every four persons around the Research Hypotheses world are likely to experience psychiatric illness that would require diagnosis, treatment 1. There is no significant difference in the and counselling. Pilling (2006) noted that counselling needs of psychiatric patients as psychiatric patients’ who receives care from perceived by their medical personnel in the medical personnel in the hospital often Neuropsychiatric hospital, Aro Abeokuta show interest in discussing with a counsellor. Nigeria on the basis of gender? World Health Organization (2007) claimed 2. There is no significant difference in the that twenty percent of Nigerians have counselling needs of psychiatric patients as psychiatric problem. This showed that about perceived by their medical personnel in thirty million Nigerian out of the population of Neuropsychiatric hospital, Aro Abeokuta 150milion are suffering from mental disorders. Nigeria on the basis of age? Bolarinwa (2014) revealed that psychiatric 3. There is no significant difference in the patients need counselling because of the counselling needs of psychiatric patients as psychological trauma they go through as a perceived by their medical personnel in result of the disorder. In other to assist the Neuropsychiatric hospital, Aro Abeokuta patient, the researchers are of the opinion that Nigeria on the basis of marital status? appropriate guidance and counselling will curb 4. There is no significant difference in the a lot of challenges confronting them. This counselling needs of psychiatric patients as study is therefore set out to investigate on the perceived by their medical personnel in counselling needs of psychiatric patients as Neuropsychiatric hospital, Aro Abeokuta perceived by their medical personnel in federal Nigeria on the basis of religion? neuropsychiatric hospital, Aro, Abeokuta in 5. There is no significant difference in the Nigeria. To conduct this study, the following counselling needs of psychiatric patients as research questions are helpful: perceived by their medical personnel in

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Neuropsychiatric hospital, Aro Abeokuta Findings Nigeria on the basis of years of medical Table 1 shows the distribution of respondents. experience?

Table 1: Distribution of Respondents Methods Variable Categories Frequency % Gender Male 143 72 Sample and Sampling Technique Female 57 29 The target population of the study consisted of Total 200 100 all medical personnel working in the Federal Age Below 30 years 92 46 Neuropsychiatric hospital Aro Abeokuta, 30-40 years 67 34 Nigeria. For the purpose of this study, the 41 years and 41 20 Federal Neuropsychiatric hospital Aro above Abeokuta was purposively selected because Total 200 100 the hospital is one of the major places where Marital Married 113 57 psychiatric patient are catered for. Simple Status Single 66 33 random sampling technique was used in Widow/Widower 11 6 selecting 200 respondents for the study. The Divorce 10 5 medical personnel include the medical doctors, Total 200 100 nurses and lab attendants that are working in Religion Christianity 140 70 the hospitals. Islam 48 24 ATR 12 6 Instrumentation Total 200 100 The instrument used in this study was titled Years of 1-5 years 99 50 “Counselling needs of psychiatric patients practice 6-10 years 61 31 questionnaire” (CNPPQ). Items on the 11-15 years 26 13 questionnaire were derived from information I6 years and 14 7,0 obtained from review of related literature. The above instrument had two sections, A and B. Section Total 200 100 A contained demographic data while section B were items on the counselling needs of psychiatric patients. The Four Point Likert Table 1 shows that 200 respondents Type rating scale response format was adopted participated in the study. Majority 72% of for use in section B thus: “Strongly Agree”-4 these were male. Most (46%) of the respondents were aged below 30 years. Also points, “Agree”- 3 points, “Disagree”-2 points “Strongly Disagree”-1 point. The 113 (representing 57%) of the respondents questionnaire was given to four experts in the were married, 66 (33%) were single, 11 (5.5%) field. These experts affirmed that the were either widow or widower, while 10 (5%) instrument covered the intended contents and of them were divorced. Up to 70% of the therefore valid for use. The reliability of the respondents were Christians. Table 1 also instrument was established using test-retest shows that 50% of the respondents had method. The instrument was administered to between 1 and 5 years of experience in medical practice. 20 medical personnel in Ilorin Metropolis and after an interval of four weeks the same The findings on the counselling needs of instrument was re-administered. The two psychiatric patients are summarized in Table 2. scores were correlated using Pearson Product These findings indicate that item 3 (i.e. “As far Moment Correlation Coefficient and a as I am concerned, the counselling needs of reliability co-efficient of 0.74 was obtained. psychiatric patients include balanced diet”) was ranked 1st with a mean score of 3.28 and it nd Analysis stated that. Ranked 2 is item 5 with a mean score of 3.26, which stated that “As far as I am The data obtained were analysed using concerned, the counselling needs of percentages and mean scores, while t-test and psychiatric patients include relaxation training. analysis of variance (ANOVA) statistical tools Ranked last was item 20 with a mean score of were used to test the null hypotheses 2.86. generated.

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Table 2: Counselling Needs of Psychiatric The findings on hypothesis 2 are Patients summarized in Table 4. Need Mean Rank Balanced diet 3.28 1st Table 4: Variance in Perception of Relaxation training 3.26 2nd Counselling Needs by Age of Respondents Emotional breakdown 3.24 3rd Stigmatization 3.22 4th Df Sum of Mean F- F- Close relationship with people 3.20 5th Squares Square Cal. Crit. Rejection by friends 3.20 5th Between 2 20.875 10.438 1.19 3.0 Lots of care and love 3.18 7th Groups More than prescriptions for 3.18 7th Within 197 1729.845 8.781 drugs Groups Persistent feeling of loneliness 3.18 7th Total 199 1750.720 Learning communication 3.14 10th skills Table 4 shows that the calculated f-value of Follow-up service 3.14 10th 1.19 is less than the critical significant f-value Involvement group activities 3.12 12th of 3.00, the hypothesis is accepted. Thus there Independence training 3.12 12th is no significant difference in the counselling Provision of special education 3.10 13th needs of the psychiatric patients as perceived th Referral services 3.08 15 by their medical personnel based on age. Daily living skills 3.06 16th th Appraisal services 3.04 17 Hypothesis 3: There is no significant difference Lots of attention and support 2.90 18th Divert therapy 2.86 19th in the counselling needs of psychiatric patients To be in admission ward as 2.58 20th as perceived by their medical personnel based best way for their treatment on marital status. The findings on hypothesis 3 are summarized in Table 5. Hypotheses Testing Hypothesis 1: There is no significant difference Table 5: Variance in Perception of in the counselling needs of psychiatric patients Counselling Needs by Marital Status of as perceived by their medical personnel based Respondents on their gender. Df Sum of Mean F- F- The findings on hypothesis 1 are Squares Square Cal. Crit. summarized in Table 3. Between 2 12.587 4.196 0.34 3 Groups Table 3: Mean Difference in Perception of Within 197 2434.13 12.419 Needs by Respondents’ Gender Groups Total 199 2446.720 N Mean SD df t-Cal. t-Cri. Male 143 72.50 3.53 198 2.62 1.96 Table 5 indicates that the calculated f-value is Female 57 61.68 5.82 0.34 while the critical f-value is 3.00. Since the calculated f-value of 0.34 is less than the critical Table 3 indicates that the calculated t-value is significant f-value 3.00, the hypothesis is 2.62 while the critical t-value is 1.96. Since the accepted. This means that there is no calculated t-value of 2.62 is greater than the significant difference in the counselling needs critical t-value of 1.96, the hypothesis is of the psychiatric patients as perceived by their rejected. This means that there is a significant medical personnel based on their marital difference in the counselling needs of the status. psychiatric patients as perceived by their medical personnel based on their gender. Hypothesis 4: There is no significant difference in the counselling needs of psychiatric patients Hypothesis 2: There is no significant difference as perceived by their medical personnel based in the counselling needs of psychiatric patients on religion. as perceived by their medical personnel based The findings on hypothesis 4 are on their age range. summarized in Table 6.

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Table 6: Variance in Perception of Table 8: Analysis of Variance in Counselling Needs by Religion of Perception of Counselling Needs by Respondents Experience in Medical Practice Df Sum of Mean F- F- Df Sum of Mean F- F- Squares Square Cal. Crit. Squares Square Cal. Crit. Between 2 116.787 58.393 7.04* 3.00 Between 2 79.112 26.371 3.09* 3 Groups Groups Within 197 1633.933 8.294 Within 197 1671.608 8.529 Groups Groups Total 199 1750.720 Total 199 1750.720 *Significant at p<5 *Significant at p<5

Table 6 indicates that the calculated f value is Table 8 shows that the calculated f-value is 7.04 while critical f-value of 3.00. Since the 3.09 while the critical f-value is 3.00. Since the calculated f value is greater than the critical f- calculated f-value of 3.09 is more than the value 3.00, the hypothesis is rejected. This critical significant f-value 3.00, the hypothesis means that there is significant difference in the is rejected. counselling needs of the psychiatric patients as perceived by their medical personnel based on Table 9: Duncan Multiple Range Test religion. showing the difference in Perception of counselling needs by Experience in Table 7: Duncan Multiple Range Test showing Medical Practice the difference in Perception of counselling Grouping N Mean Group Experience needs by Religion A 61 62.98 2 6-10years Grouping N Mean Group Religion B 99 61.83 1 1-5years A 12 62.83 3 ATR B 14 61.43 4 16 years and above A 48 62.42 2 Islam B 26 61.27 3 11-15years

B 140 61.90 1 Christianity Table 9 shows the Duncan Multiple Range Test indicating the significant difference noted Table 7 shows the Duncan Multiple Range in the ANOVA table. Group 2 with a mean Test indicating the significant difference noted score of 62.98 significantly differed from in the ANOVA table. Group 3 with a mean group 1, 4 and 3 with mean scores of 61.83, score of 62.83 significantly differed from 61.43 and 61.27 respectively. All the groups group 2 and 1 with mean scores of 62.42 and differed from one another but the significant 61.90 respectively. All the groups differed difference was as a result of the mean of from one another but the significant difference Group 4. was as a result of the mean of Group 3. Hence the significant difference noted in Table 7. Discussion

Hypothesis 5: There is no significant difference The medical personnel are of the opinion that in the counselling needs of psychiatric patients counselling psychiatric patients on issues such as perceived by their medical personnel based as; balance diet, relaxation training, problem of on their years of experience in medical emotional breakdown and stigmatization are practice. basic counselling needs in Aro, Abeokuta, The findings on hypothesis 5 are Nigeria. This is in line with Broverman et al. summarized in Table 8. (1997) who observed that psychiatric patients have concerns that require counselling as a tool for mental health treatment. Levene (2004) explained that the psychiatric patients need different forms of enlightenment programme. In the same vein Ogundeji (2008) noted that psychiatric patients face a lot of challenges and therefore recommended that patients should

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Bolu-Steve & Ajiboye: Counselling Needs of Psychiatric Patients visit the counsellor when they have problem. medical personnel on the basis of years of Matrix (2010) believes that psychological experience. It has been discovered that the intervention like counselling is more effective years of medical practice and their relationship than pharmacological treatment in some with their patient can help in the identification psychiatric cases. of the counselling needs of their client. (Baker On the basis of gender, medical personnel & Brightman, 2003). differed in their views of employing counselling as a tool for solving psychiatric Conclusion problems. Despite the similarity of the medical training, it has been observed in this study that The following are the major findings of this male and female medical personnel have study: There is a significant difference in the different views on the counselling needs of counselling need of psychiatric patients as patients. In spite of their differences, medical perceived by their medical personnel on basis personnel agreed that there are some daily on gender. There is no significant difference in skills that the counsellors can teach the the counselling needs of psychiatric patients as psychiatric patients such as good social perceived by their medical personnel on the relationship, personal cleanliness and breaking basis of age range. There is no significant down of complex task into smaller sub skills difference in the counselling needs of which will eventually lead to desires skill psychiatric patients as perceived by their (Ogundeji, 2008). This finding is congruent medical personnel on the basis of marital with the views of Owoyemi, (2000) that status. There is significant difference in the counselling services should be provided for the counselling needs of psychiatric patients as psychiatric patient based on their gender as perceived by their medical personnel on the what may be good for female patients may not basis of religion. There is significant difference be alright for their male counterparts. in the counselling needs of psychiatric patients The age and marital status of the medical as perceived by their medical personnel on the personnel did not influence their perception basis of years of medical experience. on the counselling needs of the psychiatric patient. Nambi (2011) explained that Implications for Counselling irrespective of the medical personnel’s age they Counselling aims at helping clients to deal with are all trained to prescribe medication for and overcome issues that are causing patient but the counsellor can give relevant emotional pain. It provides an opportunity for information that will lead to the overall the client to talk and explore difficult feelings. development of the client. Medical doctors This implies that counselling strategies needs also gives counsel to their patients, however, to be evolved in the treatment of psychiatric counselling services can complement medical patients. This will assist the patients to stabilize services to assist mental health psychiatric and adjust to life situations, a basic step for patient. mental health recovery. As such the Marital stress can lead to development of counsellors have to be updated on the various mental health problems Srivastava, (2013). It skills and counselling services needed to deal is expected that married medical personnel with psychiatric problems. would differ in their opinions of employing counselling services for psychiatric patients. Recommendations However, Baruch (2008) explained that Therefore, counselling psychologists irrespective of the marital status of the medical should work with healthcare professionals personnel, they are expected to have in-depth who specialize in assessing and treating mental knowledge on the needs psychiatric patients. health conditions. The trained counsellor can The medical personnel working in the also use evidence-based psychological neuropsychiatric hospital Aro Abeokuta therapies along with medical services in the Nigeria differ on the basis of religion on the treatment of psychiatric patients. In 2010, the counselling needs of the patients. Elizabeth Nigerian government announced plans to (2000) stated that the religion that one make psychological therapies widely available professes has a way of influencing our views. in the National Health Scheme as an effective The study also revealed that there was a treatment for common mental health significant difference on the counselling needs conditions. of psychiatric patients as perceived by their

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Furthermore, policy and legislation should Nambi S. (2011) Forensic Psychiatry: Indian be made by government so as to remove the Perspective. Manashanthi Mental Health barrier, stigma and other problems affecting Care Pvt. Ltd. the psychiatric patients in the society. Also, National Institute of Medical Health (2009). government should give financial support for International classifications of psychiatric patients. the provision of special facilities needed by the Technical Report, Geneva. psychiatric patients. Government should Oniye, A.O. (2004). Marital and family counselling. invest in intensive psychiatric training. Broad In A. I. Idowu (Ed).Guidance and based counselling services should be provided Counselling in Education. Ilorin: Indemac to psychiatric patients in order to assist them publishers. Pp. 227-249. to develop positive self- image and in order to Oniye. A. O., Yahaya L.A and Oniyangi. S.O. cope with their challenges. (2010). Counselling needs of HIV/AIDS orphans in Kwara State, Nigeria. Journal of Education and applied psychology. 3(1) 57-69. References Ogundeji, A. A. (2008). Challenges being faced Baruch, G. & Treacher, A. (2008). Psychiatry by people living with mental illness. observed. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Unpublished B.Ed. Thesis, Special Publishers. Education University of Ibadan, Oyo State. Broverman, I., Vogel, S. R., Broverman, D. M., Owoyemi, E. A (2000). Mental Illness, it challenges Clarkson, F. E., and Rosenkrantz, P. S. to the socio-economic of the nation. An (1997). Sex role stereotypes and clinical unpublished B.Ed. Project, University of judgments of mental health. Journal of Ife. Consulting and Clinical Psychology 34(1), 1-7. Pharaoh, F. M., Rathbone, J. & Mari, J. J. Bolarinwa (2014) Prevalence and attribution of (2003). Family intervention for mental illness. psycho-neurotic disorders among married women in Cochrane Database of Systemic Reviews. Oyo State, Nigeria. Unpublished M.Ed. thesis Pilling, T. (2006). The task and demands of in the Department of Counsellor Education counselling the psychiatric patients in Nigeria. Jos, University of Ilorin. Fab Ameh Nigeria Limited. Baker, B. & Brightman, A. (2003). Steps to Sambo, S. (2008). Understanding Guidance and independence: Teaching everybody skills to Counselling. Ahmadu Bello University Press children with mental disorder (4th Ed.). Baltimore, Ltd, Zaria. MD; Paul Brookes. Srivastava, .A. (2013). Marriage as a perceived Elizabeth, M. V. (2000). Psychiatric nursing clinical panacea to mental illness in India: Reality Guide: Assessment tools and diagnoses. W.B check. Indian Journal of Psychiatry. 55 Saunders Company. (Supplement 2): S243-S249. Frankenberg, Franer (2008). Treating Scheff, T. (2008). Being mentally ill: A Schizophrenia. San Francisco. sociological theory. Chicago: Aldine. Idowu, A. I. (2004). Guidance and counselling: and WHO (2007). Mental health care in developing overview in A.I. Idowu(Ed). Guidance and countries: A critical appraisal in research counselling in education. Ilorin: Indemac findings. Technical Report Series, Pp698. Publisher. Author. Karl & Jaspers (2009). Specific problems of communication in psychiatry. New York: Basic Author Bio Books. Levene H I (2004). Acute schizophrenia: FOLUKE N. BOLU-STEVE (PhD), is a Clinical effects of the labelling process. lecturer in University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria. Archives of General Psychiatry, 25: 215-222. She is a trained professional counsellor, having Makinde, O. (2004). Fundamental of guidance and practiced as a counsellor for the past twenty counselling. London Macmillan Publ. Ltd. years. She is a member of the Counselling Matrix, S. (2010). Holistic approach to Association of Nigeria (CASSON) among psychological health. Retrieved November other professional bodies. 10, 2011 from http://www.fellyfree.net/energy_psycholo gy/matrix.htm.

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SOURCES OF STIGMATIZATION AMONG HIV/AIDS PATIENTS ATTENDING THE ARV CLINIC IN STATE HOSPITAL, OYO, NIGERIA

Raheem Adaramaja Shehu, Isaac Opeyemi Oguntunji, Adijat Mojisola Abduraheem, Ibraheem Ologele Department of Health Promotion & Environmental Health Education, University of Ilorin

Abstract. This study investigated the sources of stigmatization among HIV/AIDS patients attending the antiretroviral clinic in State Hospital, Oyo. Data were collected from a sample of eighty-seven respondents. This was done following a descriptive cross-sectional survey design. The data collected was analysed using frequency counts, percentages and Chi-square at the .05 level of significance. The findings were that the patients did not experience stigmatization from health workers. However, they were significantly stigmatized by members of their families and communities. Recommendations made include that community members should be given education on HIV/AIDS epidemiology and consequences of HIV/AIDS stigmatization. Also, it is recommended that family and community members show love and care for HIV/AIDS patients.

Introduction stigma as any characteristic that set an individual or group apart from the majority of HIV/AIDS remains a pandemic public health the population with the result that the threat and evidently fuelled by stigmatization. individual group is treated with suspicion or HIV/AIDS is capable of affecting different hostility. Discrimination itself is a by-product categories of people in the community. In of stigma. Jane (2012) asserted that 2007, an estimated 1.7 million adults and discrimination occurs when people or children in sub- Sahara Africa became newly institutions act upon stigma, and it entails infected, while 1.6 million died of AIDS unjust action or inaction towards individuals. (Ngozi, Bart & Nanne, 2009). Worldwide, It arbitrarily distinguishes, restricts, excludes Nigeria has the second highest number of new individuals and leads to the denial of rights and infections reported each year and an estimated services. 3.7 percent of the population is living with It is observed that HIV/AIDS patients HIV (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2012). experienced stigmatization in health sector. A In a bid to recognize the menace of and stigma report of the Egyptian Health Ministry create awareness on HIV/AIDS pandemic, of 2011 found out that both physicians and since 1988 till date, December 1 of every year nurses were often reluctant to provide health has been earmarked worldwide as World AIDS care services to PLWHA (Global HIV/AIDS Day using red ribbon as a global symbol for News, 2011). The result of the study of solidarity with People Living with HIV/AIDS Asuquo, Adejumo, Etowa and Adejumo (PLWHA) (World Health Organization, 2014). (2013) among nurses in the University of In addition, since 2014, March 1 of every year Calabar Teaching Hospital revealed that 41 has been earmarked as Zero Discrimination percent of them expressed fear of Day aimed at raising awareness about negative susceptibility to HIV/AIDS. Among the impacts of discrimination and the need to reasons for such include lack of knowledge promote tolerance, compassion and peace about the infection, doubts to the effectiveness towards PLWHA (United Nations Office on of prevention measures, moral stigma against Drugs and Crime, 2015). illegitimate sex and fears of being stigmatized Monjok, Smesny and Essien (2009) (Global HIV/AIDS News, 2011). submitted that for Nigeria to achieve her In hospitals, stigmatizing behaviour ranged national policy on HIV/AIDS, aimed at from nuanced looks, subtle questions, actions controlling its spread and impacts, indicating fear, awkward exchange of words stigmatization and discrimination need to be and refusal to provide care. In the study of tackled. Giddens and Duneir (2006) defined Reis, Heisler, Amowitz, Moreland, Mafeni,

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Shehu et al.: Sources of Stigmatization among HIV/AIDS Patients

Anyamele and Iacopino (2003), 50 percent of that cultural practices like cultural obligations health care workers who were respondents to the sick, affinity to blood relations, opined that PLWHA should be confined in a collective ownership of children and strong separate ward. A multi-countries qualitative mental bond enhanced care and support for study in Lesotho, Malawi, South Africa, PLWHA within the family settings. However, Swaziland and Tanzania extensively some families provide unconditional documented verbal and physical abuses; and psychological and material supports to neglect of PLWHA by health workers in PLWHA while some reject family members health care facilities (Thorpe, Grierson & Pitts, for their HIV sero-status (Liamputtong, 2013). 2008). Feyissa, Abebe, Girma and Woldie In some instances, some community (2012) reported unnecessary referral of members viewed HIV/AIDS as a disease that PLWHA to other health care institutions by affect immoral people and the victims must be health workers. According to Mahendra, punished; therefore, they neglect them Gilborn, Bharat, Mudoi, Gupta, George, (Muoghalu & Jegede, 2010). As opined by Samson, Daly and Pulerwitz (2007), in India Hossain and Kippax (2011), PLWHA are often hospitals, stigmatization manifests as health turned away by their partners, family members workers informed family members of a and relatives. Keba (2011) added that in India, patient’s positive HIV status without their in the 1980s, it was reported that AIDS consents, burning their beddings upon patients were considered outcast from families discharge, extra charge for the cost of infection and some were given places like separate huts control supplies and use of gloves during all to sleep in and were prevented from coming in interactions. contact with anybody. The study of Community is personally viewed as a group Sangowawa and Owoaje (2012) conducted of people sharing common identity and living among youths living with HIV/AIDS in together in a geographical location. Reactions Ibadan shows that upon the disclosure of their of community members to HIV/AIDS HIV positive status, 25 percent were sent out patients can have both negative and positive of their matrimonial homes by their husbands, effects. In the study of Johnson (2012), about 25 percent were abandoned by their spouses two-thirds of PLWHA did not make their and 12.5 percent had experienced broken status known to people outside their families relationships. because of fear of stigmatization. Community Strebel, Cloete and Simbayi (2009) claimed level stigmatization and discrimination can that in Lesotho and Swaziland, the main source manifest as ostracism, rejection, verbal and of the stigmatization was the family members physical abuses. It has even extended to manifesting in labelling, nicknaming and murder. In December 1998, Gugu Dhlamini refusal to share cooking or eating utensils. was stoned and beaten to death by neighbours Sometimes, family members may refuse the in her township near Durban, South Africa, food cooked by PLWHA or dispose the after speaking openly on World AIDS Day utensils that have been used by them. In fact, (Agweda & Dibua, 2010). some were not allowed to interact with babies According to Winskell, Hill and or children in the family (Bogart, Landrine, Obyerodhyambo (2011), the following Galvan, Wagner & Klein, 2013). In the report stigmatized attitudes in the community of the interview conducted within the family towards PLWHA are outlined: gender settings by the Centre for Policy Alternatives violence, hostility which may lead to change of (2005), the following discriminatory behaviour residence, refusal to marry daughter(s) of against PLWHA were discovered namely: people who died of HIV/AIDS, rejection desertion by spouse, parental refusal, threat, from neighbours, ridicule, torment against the assault, harassment, ridicule and spouse and the children of HIV positive excommunication. person; and stoning to death. At times, special or a form of preferential treatment towards Statement of the Problem certain set of people in a particular community In Oyo State, the researcher observed that the may make people think in another way. presentation of HIV/AIDS by media houses In Yoruba culture, and virtually in all as a killer disease is perceived to be the genesis cultures, family members play significant roles of stigmatization. Several adverts on in providing care and support for the sick. The billboards which carry prevention messages on study of Muoghalu and Jegede (2010) shows HIV/AIDS seriously promote stigmatization.

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Some of these inscriptions include, “AIDS stigmatization from their health kills” and “HIV/AIDS gets no cure” to workers. mention a few. By implication, HIV/AIDS is 2. HIV/AIDS patients in State Hospital, equated to a killer and everybody will try as Oyo do not significantly experience much as possible to avoid death. Invariably, stigmatization from members of their PLWHA are seeing as living corpses or ghost communities. which await death soonest. 3. HIV/AIDS patients in State Hospital, Joint United Nations Programme on Oyo do not significantly experience HIV/AIDS (2010) claimed that 90 percent of stigmatization from members of their governments in various countries reported that families. they had addressed stigmatization and discrimination in their HIV programmes. Yet, Methodology in Oyo State, it is observed that stigmatization of HIV/AIDS patients is on-going. Similarly, A descriptive research of cross-sectional the United State Department of State’s survey type was employed for this study. It was Country reports on human right practices for a purely hospital-based study of HIV/AIDS 2012 indicated that in Nigeria, there was patients attending antiretroviral clinic. widespread societal stigmatization against Population for the study comprised of all PLWHA (United States of America, 2013). registered HIV/AIDS patients attending Despite increased awareness about antiretroviral clinic in State Hospital, Oyo HIV/AIDS and series of efforts put in by totalling one thousand, three hundred and public officials, press, health and medical thirty-four (1334). HIV/AIDS patients who workers; and health educators inclusive, the are below 18 years, too sick, pregnant mothers researcher observed that stigmatization against on antiretroviral prophylaxis and those on HIV/AIDS patients still persist and possibly antiretroviral therapy for the purpose of post- manifest from different sources. Upon this exposure prophylaxis were excluded in the premise, the researcher investigated sources of study. These categories of patients and clients stigmatization among HIV/AIDS patients amounted to 446. Therefore, the targeted attending antiretroviral clinic in State Hospital, population was eight hundred and sixty-eight Oyo. (868). Multi-stage sampling technique was used Purpose of the Study for the sample selection. The first stage was a The study investigates whether HIV/AIDS stratified sampling technique which was used patients in State Hospital, Oyo experience to put into strata all categories of HIV/AIDS stigmatization from health workers, patients according to inclusion criteria. The community members and family members. second stage was proportionate sampling technique which was used to select 10 percent Research Questions from the targeted population which was eighty-seven (87) respondents; while the last The following research questions were stage was systematic sampling technique answered in this study: employed to select the sampled respondents. 1. Do HIV/AIDS patients in State Hospital, Researcher designed structured questionnaire Oyo experience stigmatization from their which was validated by three Jurors from the health workers? relevant fields with the reliability coefficient of 2. Do HIV/AIDS patients in State Hospital, 0.83r through spilt-half method using Oyo experience stigmatization from Spearman-Brown Rank Order Correlation was members of their communities? used. 3. Do HIV/AIDS patients in State Hospital, In order to gain access to the antiretroviral Oyo experience stigmatization from clinic, the researcher obtained a letter of members of their families? introduction from the Head of Department of Health Promotion and Environmental Health Research Hypotheses Education, University of Ilorin, Nigeria. The The following null hypotheses were tested in consent of each respondent was sought, this study: privacy was provided, confidentiality pledged 1. HIV/AIDS patients in State Hospital, and ethical approval was obtained from Oyo do not significantly experience Ministry of Health, Oyo State research ethical

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Shehu et al.: Sources of Stigmatization among HIV/AIDS Patients review committee. The instrument was three (3) postulated hypotheses at 0.05 alpha administered with the help of two (2) trained level of significance. research Assistants. Data collected were sorted, edited, collated and coded. Data entry, Findings processing and analysis were done with the use of Statistical Package for the Social Sciences The findings of the study are summarized in (SPSS) software, version 21.0. Inferential Tables 1, 2 and 3. statistics of Chi-square was used to test all the

Table 1: Stigmatization of HIV/AIDS Patients by Health Workers Attribute SA A D SD Total HIV/AIDS patients suffer both verbal abuse and 14 34 39 87 harassment from health workers in hospital premises (16%) (39%) (45%) Health care workers are sometimes sceptical in treating 5 19 54 9 87 HIV positive patients (5.7%) (21.8%) (62.1%) (10.3%) HIV/AIDS patients are admitted in separate hospital 6 43 30 8 87 wards by health workers. (6.9%) (49.4%) (34.5%) (9.2%) Use of and doubling of gloves while attending to 17 40 9 21 87 HIV/AIDS patients is well practiced by health (19.5%) (46.0%) (10.3%) (24.1%) workers. Health workers divulge clients’ HIV status to family 14 42 31 87 members and other staff without the persons’ consent (16.1%) (48.3%) (35.6%) Extra fee is sometimes added to hospital bills of 4 9 56 18 87 HIV/AIDS patients by health workers (4.6%) (10.3%) (64.4%) (20.7%) HIV/AIDS patients are nicknamed and mocked among 4 8 46 29 87 hospital staff while accessing care in hospital (4.6%) (9.2%) (52.9%) (33.3%) HIV/AIDS patients are experiencing early hospital 4 13 53 17 87 discharge by health workers while on admission (4.6%) (14.9%) (60.9%) (19.5%) Total 54 146 324 172 696 Note: Cal χ2 = 26.28; Df = 21; Crit. χ2 = 32.67; Decision: Accept Ho. Table 1 shows the calculated chi-square (X2) 32.67, thus the null hypothesis was upheld. value of 26.28 against the table value of 32.67 This means that health workers did not at 0.05 alpha level of significance with degree stigmatizing HIV/AIDS patients while of freedom (df) 21. Since the calculated X2 receiving care and treatment. value of 26.28 was less than the table value of

Table 2: Stigmatization of HIV/AIDS Patients by Members of their Communities Attribute SA A D SD Total HIV/AIDS patients often experience verbal abuse 47 15 20 5 87 and sometimes physical abuse in the community. (54.0%) (17.2%) (23.0%) (5.7%) Nicknames in the society like, immoral, dirty, 35 25 15 12 87 walking corpse, prostitutes are given to (40.2%) (28.7%) (17.2%) (13.8%) HIV/AIDS patients by community members. Community members often shun and gossip 33 32 4 18 87 HIV/AIDS patients in their vicinities. (37.9%) (36.8%) (4.6%) (20.7%) HIV/AIDS patients are often restricted by some 11 46 22 8 87 community members from participating actively (71.1%) (23.6%) (4.3%) (1%) in some social events in the community. Community members often treat HIV/AIDS 15 42 13 17 87 patients as outcasts. (17.2%) (48.3%) (14.9%) (19.5%) HIV/AIDS patients easily loose respect and self- 32 33 11 11 87 esteem in the community as a result of their status. (36.8%) (37.9%) (12.6%) (12.6%) Community members intentionally distance 24 42 10 11 87 themselves from known HIV/AIDS patients (27.6%) (48.3%) (11.5%) (12.6%) Community members often refuse to buy food 33 18 14 22 87 stuffs/items from known HIV/AIDS patients. (37.9%) (20.7%) (16.1%) (25.3%) Total 230 253 109 104 696 Note: Cal χ2 = 49.38; Df = 21; Crit. χ2 = 32.67; Decision: Reject Ho

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Table 2 shows the calculated chi-square (X2) value of 49.38 was greater than the table value value of 49.38 against the table value of 32.67 of 32.67, thus the null hypothesis was rejected. at 0.05 alpha level of significance with degree This means that community members heavily of freedom (df) 21. Since the calculated X2 stigmatized people living with HIV/AIDS.

Table 3: Stigmatization of HIV/AIDS Patients by Members of their Families Attributes SA A D SD Total Family members isolate relative (s) who are 19 25 23 20 87 HIV/AIDS patients to minimize social contact. (21.8%) (28.7%) (26.4%) (23.0%) Spouses feel reluctant and occasionally reject 22 22 33 10 87 partner who are HIV/AIDS patients. (25.3%) (25.3%) (37.9%) (11.5%) Violence abuse is often experienced by female 14 26 36 11 87 spouse in the family following disclosure of her (16.1%) (29.9%) (41.4%) (12.6%) positive HIV status. Family members usually set-up strict rules and 14 23 40 10 87 regulations for known HIV/AIDS patients in the (16.1%) (26.4%) (46.0%) (11.5%) home. Members of the family sometimes refuse sharing 18 22 30 17 87 cooking or eating utensils with HIV/AIDS (20.7%) (25.3%) (34.5%) (19.5%) patients. At times, some family members exempt 12 19 40 16 87 HIV/AIDS patients (male or female) from (13.8%) (21.8%) (46.0%) (18.4%) interacting with children within the family setting. In homes, relatives sometimes give separate 14 22 38 13 87 rooms to HIV/AIDS patients to sleep in or (16.1%) (25.3%) (43.7%) (14.9%) permanently living in due to their status. Married women who are HIV/AIDS patients 17 37 14 19 87 suffer abandonment from their immediate family (19.5%) (42.5%) (16.1%) (21.8%) members more than men. Total 130 196 254 116 696 Note: Cal χ2 = 65.46; Df = 21; Crit. χ2 = 32.67; Decision: Reject Ho Table 3 shows the calculated chi-square (X2) variance with the assertion of Feyissa, Abebe, value of 65.46 against the table value of 32.67 Girma and Woldie (2012) who reported at 0.05 alpha level of significance with degree unnecessary referral of PLWHA by health of freedom (df) 21. Since the calculated X2 workers to other health care institutions. value of 65.46 was greater than the table value The result obtained from the tested of 32.67, thus the null hypothesis was rejected. hypothesis two that HIV/AIDS patients in This means that family members were State Hospital, Oyo significantly experienced stigmatizing members of their families living stigmatization from community members was with HIV/AIDS. justified by the view of a scholar that about two-thirds of PLWHA did not make their status known to people outside their families Discussion and Conclusion because of fear of stigmatization (Johnson, This research was designed to investigate 2012). Also, the result further affirmed the sources of stigmatization among HIV/AIDS assertion of Winskell, Hill and patients attending antiretroviral clinic in State Obyerodhyambo (2011) who revealed Hospital, Oyo. The result of the tested stigmatized attitudes like gender violence, hypothesis one revealed that HIV/AIDS hostility, rejection from neighbours and patients in State Hospital, Oyo did not ridicule in the community towards PLWHA. significantly experience stigmatization from The result of the tested hypothesis three health workers. This result was contrary to the shows that HIV/AIDS patients in State earlier report of Thorpe, Grierson and Pitts Hospital, Oyo significantly experienced (2008) who revealed that in Lesotho, Malawi, stigmatization from family members South Africa, Swaziland and Tanzania, corroborate with Hossain and Kippax (2011) PLWHA experienced verbal and physical that PLWHA were often turned away by their abuses; and neglect from health workers while partners, family members and relatives. accessing health services. The result is also at Similarly, Strebel, Cloete and Simbayi (2009)

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Shehu et al.: Sources of Stigmatization among HIV/AIDS Patients study aligned with the result above that in Global HIV/AIDS News (2011). Progress re Lesotho and Swaziland, family members port 2011: global HIV/AIDS response. ww stigmatized PLWHA which manifest in w.who.int/hiv/pub/progress_report2011/ labelling, nicknaming and refusal to share en/. Accessed on: 15th March, 2014. cooking or eating utensils. Hossain, M. B. & Kippax, S. (2011). The study concludes that health workers did Stigmatized attitudes towards people not stigmatize HIV/AIDS patients while living with HIV in Bangladesh: health care receiving care and treatment. However, both workers’ perspectives. Asia-Pacific Academic the community members and family members Consortium for Public Health, 23 (2): 171-182. heavily stigmatized HIV/AIDS patients Jane, (2012). Health workers stigmatize HIV attending antiretroviral clinic in State Hospital, and AIDS. Southern Sudan Medical Journal. Oyo. http://www.southsud anmedicaljournal.co It is recommended that, community m/archive/november-2011/health- members should be health educated on workers-stimatise-hiv-and-aids- HIV/AIDS epidemiology and detrimental patients.html. Accessed on: 2nd November, effects of HIV/AIDS stigmatization. Also, 2012. family members should show love and care for Johnson, O. E. (2012). Social impact of the sick members of the family. HIV/AIDS on clients attending a teaching hospital in southern Nigeria. Journal of Social Aspects of HIV/AIDS Research Alliance, 9 (2): References 47-53. Agweda, T. O & Dibua V. A. (2010). The Joint United Nations Programmes on HIV/A impact of stigmatization on the acceptance IDS (2010). UNAIDS report on the global and care for people living with HIV/AIDS AIDS in the society. A case study of the civil epidemic. Geneva: UNAIDS. http://.unaid servant in Auchi. Bangladesh e-Journal of s.org/globalreportGlobal_report.htm. Sociology, 6 (2): 49-58. Accessed on: 13th February, 2014 Asuquo, E., Adejumo P., Etowa J & Adejumo Keba, A. (2011). Reducing HIV/AIDS stigma A. (2013). Fear of HIV susceptibility & discrimination in Ghana. http://www.k influencing burden of care among nurses in ebaafrica.org/2011/08/reducing-hivaids- South-East Nigeria. World Journal of AIDS, 3 stigma-discrimination-in- (3): 231-238. ghana/. Accessed on: 13th January, 2014. Bogart, L. M., Landrine, H., Galvan, F. H., Liamputtong, P. (2013). Stigma, discrimination Wagner G. J. & Klein, D. J. (2013). and living with HIV/AIDS: a cross-cultural Perceived discrimination and physical health perspective. New York, London: Springer among HIV-positive Black and Latino men Press. who have sex with men. Journal of AIDS Mahendra, V. S., Gilborn, L., Bharat, S., Behaviour, 17 (4): 1431-1441. Mudoi, R., Gupta, I., George, B., Samson, Centre for Policy Alternatives (2005). A profile L., Daly C. & Pulerwitz, J. (2007). of the stigma and discrimination faced by Understanding and measuring people living with HIV/AIDS. The Asia AIDS- related stigma in health care settings: Pacific Leadership Forum (APLF). Asia: a developing country perspective. Journal of Official Publication of Centre for Policy Social Aspects of HIV/AIDS Research Alliance, Alternatives. 2 (4): 616-625. Federal Republic of Nigeria (2012). Global Monjok, E., Smesny, A. & Essien J. (2009). AIDS response. Country Progress Report, HIV/AIDS- Nigeria. Abuja: Publication of National related stigma and discrimination in Nigeria: Agency for the Control of AIDS (NACA). review of research studies and future Feyissa, G. T., Abebe, L., Girma E. & Woldie, directions for prevention strategies. African M. (2012). Validation of an HIV-related Journal of Reproductive Health, 13 (3): 21-35. stigma scale among health care providers in Muoghalu, C. O. & Jegede, S. A. (2010). The a resource-poor Ethiopian setting. Journal of role of cultural practices and the family in Multidisciplinary Healthcare, 5, 97-113. the care for people living with HIV/AIDS Giddens, A. & Duneir, M. (2006). among the Igbo of Anambra State, Nigeria. Introduction of sociology. New York: W. Journal of Social Work Health Care, 49 (10): W. Norton. 981-1006.

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Ngozi, C. M., Bart van B. & Nanne K. D. Author Bio (2009). Stigma of people with HIV/AIDS in SHEHU RAHEEM ADARAMAJA sub- is an Saharan Africa: a literature review. Journal of Associate Professor of Health Education in Tropical Medicine. http://www.hindawi.com the Department of Health Promotion and /journals/jtm/2009/145891. Accessed on: Environmental Health Education. He 31st March, 2015. specializes in Primary Health Care, Lifestyle Reis, C., Heisler, M., Amowitz, L. L., Moreland and wellness education. His contribution was R. S., Mafeni, J. O., Anyamele C. & Iacopino in the introduction, methodology and data V. (2003). Discriminatory attitudes and analysis. He is a member of Nigerian practices by health workers towards patients Association of Health Educators, and a with HIV/AIDS in Nigeria. PloS Medicine, 2 registered member of Teachers’ Registration (8): e246. Council of Nigeria (TRCN). Sangowawa A. O. & Owoaje E. T. (2012). Experiences of discrimination among OLOGELE IBRAHIM is a lecturer in the youths with HIV/AIDS in Ibadan, Nigeria. Department of Health Promotion and Journal of Public Health in Africa, 3 (1). Environmental Health Education, University http://www.publichealthinafrica.org/index of Ilorin, Nigeria. He is a member of various .php/jphia/article/viw/jphia.2012.e10. academic and professional associations. He Accessed on: 13th November, 2014. has B.Sc., M.Ed. and PhD certificates in Strebel, A., Cloete, A. & Simbayi L. (2009). Health Education. He has published in local, Social Aspect of HIV/ AIDS and Health National and International journals. (SAHA). Four country report on formative research into the development of HIV ABDURAHEEM ADIJAT MOJISOLA is behavioural risk reduction intervention for a Lecturer in the Department of Health PLWHA Botswana, Lesotho, South Africa Promotion and Environmental Health and Swaziland. Human Science Education, University of Ilorin, Nigeria. She is Research Council. a member of professional Associations. She Thorpe, R., Grierson J. & Pitts M. (2008). assisted in Data collection, analysis and typing. Gender differences in patterns of HIV She has B.Sc. and Master Degree in Health service use in a national sample of HIV- Education and has published in several positive Australians. AIDS Care-Psychological journals. and Socio-Medical Aspects of AIDS/HIV, 20 (5): 547-552. OGUNTUNJI ISAAC OPEYEMI is a United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime student in the Department of Health (2015). 1 March is zero discrimination day- Promotion and Environmental Health join the transformation.http://www Education, University of Ilorin, Nigeria. He .unodc.org/unodc/en/frontpage/2014/Fe specializes in Community Health and bruary/1-march-is-zero-discrimination-day- HIV/AIDS education. He contributed --join-the-transformation.html. extensively in literature review, data collection, Accessed on: 5th March, 2015. and analysis. He is a registered member of United States of America (2013). Department National Association of Community Health of State. Nigeria Country reports on human Practitioners. rights practices for 2012. http://www.state.gov/d ocuments/organization/204365.pdf. Accessed on: 16th July, 2014. Winskell, K., Hill E. & Obyerodhyambo O. (2011). Comparing HIV-related symbolic stigma in six African countries: social representations in young people’s narratives. Journal of Social Science Medicine, 73 (8): 1257-1265. World Health Organization (2014). World Health campaigns. Geneva: World Health Organization Publication.

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PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL AS A PREDICTOR OF UGANDAN UNIVERSITY LECTURERS’ PARTICIPATION IN COMMUNITY SERVICE

Livingstone Ddungu College of Education and External Studies, Makerere University

Abstract. Although universities are expected to perform the core functions of teaching, research and community service, several studies have shown that lecturers in Ugandan universities do not give as much attention to community service as they give to teaching and research. This paper analyses whether this is explained by the manner in which the lecturers work performance is evaluated. The paper is developed from a study that involved 380 lecturers who were selected from ten universities in central Uganda. Data was analysed using descriptive statistics, t-test, ANOVA and linear regression. The findings indicate that 83.8% of the respondents did not participate in community service. Work performance appraisal positively predicted participation in community service engagements by 78%. However, only the participation of associate professors and professors in community service engagements was appraised. Therefore, it is recommended that the universities start appraising all the dons’ participation in community service.

continuation, tenure, promotion, and Introduction determination of necessary in-service skill and Universities perform a number of functions knowledge improvement (Stronge & Tucker, three of which (teaching, research and 2003; Tucker, Stronge & Gareis, 2002). Staff community service) are traditionally referred to evaluation can hence be questioned when any as core functions (Maphalala, 2014; Colbeck, university’s academic employees get O’Meara & Austin, 2008; Czuba, 2005; Austin, recognised, tenured and promoted in a 2002). These institutions implement their core situation where some of the core functions are functions largely through their recruited largely unimplemented. academic staff members (Allen & Moore, Such is a situation that characterises most of 2010; Moore & Ward, 2010) and use evaluation the universities in Africa (Maphalala, 2014; of these members to establish how well the Fabiyi, Oladipo & Uzoka, nd; Omeje, 2009), functions are carried out (Zabalawi, 2013; particularly those in Uganda, especially when it Hüseyin, 2010). Indeed, notwithstanding its comes to lecturers’ participation in community myriad conceptions and the various service (Yawe, 2010). As an essential function approaches and criteria used to conduct it, of a university, community service is conceived staff evaluation is a process organisations such and approached differently by different as universities use to establish how well their universities and scholars. Specifically, core functions are being or have been universities such as Truckee Meadows implemented and to what extent the expected Community University (TMCU) (2014) performance results are being or have been describe it as all forms of non-teaching and realised so that appropriate improvements can non-research activities that academic staff be made (Stoklasa, Talašová & Holeček, 2011; members execute for other members of their Thorpe & Holloway, 2008). It is also a university and those outside the university. continuous formative and summative process These universities take dons’ involvement in educational organisations use to establish who, administrative work, journal editing, among their academic employees, is participating on various university committees satisfactorily meeting the performance as part and partial of community service (or standards set to guide the implementation their service to the university community). These core functions and who, therefore, deserves universities distinguish lecturers’ participation consideration when making critical staff in activities outside the university as the public development and compensation decisions service dimension of community service such as those concerning awarding of (Moore & Ward, 2010). performance excellence, confirmation of job

KAMPALA INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY JOURNAL OF HUMANITIES & SOCIAL SCIENCES

ISSN: 2413-9580, VOLUME 4, NUMBER 2, NOVEMBER 2015, PP. 87 - 96

Ddungu: Appraisal & University Lecturers’ Participation in Community Service

Other universities such as the Divine Word formerly conflict-infested communities, their University (2015) describe community service lecturers hardly participate in peace-building as all forms of commercial and non- and psychological rehabilitation initiatives commercial activities and programs in which (Omeje & Hepner, 2013). The level of the lecturers get involved in interaction with dons’ involvement in public scholarship, individuals, groups and institutions external to participatory research, community the university and either at local, regional, partnership, public information networks, and national or international level. According to civil literacy scholarship has remained so Nhamo (2013), the University of South Africa negligible that Ugandan universities have regards community service as all activities in consistently been advised to shed off their which lecturers participate and which take the ivory tower pomposity and detachment and form of public scholarship, participatory reach out in a way that makes them research, community partnership, public functionally relevant to meeting the everyday information networks, and civil literacy challenges and needs of their surrounding scholarship. In this paper, community service communities (Stiasny & Gore, 2014). As is investigated following the conceptions of alluded to earlier, such consistent the Divine Word University (2015) and the recommendation would not have made had University of South Africa. TMCU’s these universities been evaluating their conception is not used because it seems to lecturers’ implementation of their core include aspects that may be hard to distinguish functions been evaluated. from lecturers’ teaching and research The purpose of this paper is therefore to responsibilities. For instance, it seems difficult examine whether these universities evaluate to distinguish lecturers’ participation in their lecturers in community service and the university academic committees from their level at which this evaluation is carried out teaching responsibility or lecturers’ journal relates to lecturers’ participation in community editing work from their involvement in service. In addition, a careful review of the research and publication activities. TMCU’s studies that highlight these lecturers’ negligible conception was also inconsistent with most of participation in community service reveals that the criteria used to evaluate community they do not indicate the proportion and job service. In particular, the criteria followed by rank of the uninvolved dons, and whether the the Robert W. Clopton Award for lecturers are in public or private universities. Distinguished Community Service of the Therefore, this paper seeks to achieve its University of Hawaii consider credible purpose by establishing the proportion and job community service as activities rendered rank of the uninvolved lecturers, whether such outside a university by a lecturer as a result of lecturers are in public or private universities, his/her role as a faculty member but excluding and whether their un-involvement is related to any service on university committees and other their evaluation. Consequently, the specific routine administrative duties and participation objectives of the paper are to establish (1) the in professional associations. proportion of lecturers who do not participate The adopted conception is also consistent in community service; (2) whether lecturers’ with the type of community service in which participation in community service is lecturers of universities in Uganda, particularly evaluated, (3) establish whether there is a those in central Uganda, are largely uninvolved difference in the evaluation of lecturers’ as reported in the studies of Nabayego and participation in community service resulting Itaaga (2015), Omeje (2014) and Yawe (2010). from their job ranks; (4) establish whether These dons are so uninvolved in community there is a difference in the evaluation of service that they even feel detached from the lecturers’ participation in community service realities of the communities surrounding their between public and private universities in universities (Nabayego, 2011). The lecturers’ central Uganda; and (5) investigate the nature participation in university-school of the relationship between lecturers’ collaborations and partnerships is so negligible evaluation and their participation in that it makes the schools and universities community service. The remaining sections of operate as if their core functioning is different the paper include a review of literature on the from each other (Opolot-Okurut & Bbuye, variables analysed in this paper, a discussion of 2014). Even when some of the universities methodology used to conduct the study, such as University are surrounded by

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KIU Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences findings, discussion, conclusions and service. In fact, for untenured lecturers, many recommendations. universities evaluate only the teaching function using a students’ perspective (Yeoh Sok-Foon et al., 2012; Chan & Shuhaily, 2011; Chireshe, Literature Review 2011; Hüseyin, 2010; Magno & Sembrano, Various scholars have shown interest in 2008; Liaw & Goh, 2003). It is worth noting researching and writing about academic staff that none of these studies was conducted in evaluation and what it focuses on, on the one Uganda. This raises the question of whether hand, and lecturers’ participation in what the studies indicate is also applicable to community service, on another. Others have universities in Uganda. conducted studies about the relationship According to Olusegun and Adesola (2013), between these two variables (Akcay & Ensar, participation in community service is 2014; Kesten, 2012). These scholars indicate considered only when evaluation is focusing that academic staff evaluation enhances on associate professors and professors. This teachers’ participation in community service. suggests that evaluation of the academic staff Kesten (2012) was however, not dealing members below the rank of associate professor directly with whether staff evaluation could be does not pay attention to community service. used to promote teachers’ participation in These scholars’ work is however, about the community service. His interest was in influence of lecturers’ performance appraisal evaluation of community service-learning on total quality management of public course in terms of prospective teachers’ and universities in south-western Nigeria. As to instructors’ opinions. As for Akcay and Ensar whether what it indicates is also valid in other (2014), the focus was on evaluation of pre- universities like those in Uganda needs to be service elementary teachers’ perceptions of the test. Neves and Nakhai (1993) indicate that community service-learning course. community service is also considered when Scholars who have written about academic evaluating lecturers for awards such as staff evaluation include Zabalawi (2013), Chan Distinguished Community Service Award and Shuhaily (2011), Chireshe (2011), Stoklasa granted by different universities. These studies et al. (2011), Hüseyin (2010), Molefe (2010), seem to suggest that evaluation of lecturers’ Magno and Sembrano (2008), Liaw and Goh participation in community service is (2003), Stronge and Tucker (2003), Simmons conducted either on dons with the highest job (2002), and Tucker et al. (2002) amongst ranks or for specific awards. Thus, as Simmons others. A careful scrutiny of some of these (2002) observed, what evaluation can writers’ work reveals that evaluation is carried contribute to enhancing lecturers’ participation out to establish how well academic employees in community service remains largely are conducting or have carried out the tasks neglected. This situation need not be left assigned to them to enable their universities to unaddressed especially in this era when, implement their functions and realise desired according to Molefe (2010), university results (Stoklasa et al., 2011; Hüseyin, 2010; education needs to be more tailored to the Molefe, 2010). Some of the work indicates that economic and social realities of communities evaluation is carried out to establish whether so that this education can be used to address novice lecturers (or academic staff on these realities in a more market- and probation) qualify for tenure or not; and for consumer-responsive manner. purposes of making decisions regarding Many universities tend to justify their less recognition of outstanding performance attention on evaluating lecturers’ participation (accomplishments or achievements that in community service by contending that the deserve to be awarded), compensation and teaching and research tasks consume the time promotion of already tenured academic staff available to lecturers so much that almost no members. Lecturers are also evaluated to time is left for participating in community establish whether they add any value to their service (Moore & Ward, 2010). While this university or not (Sok-Foon, Sze-Yin & Yin- contention may not be totally disputed, it Fah, 2012; Thorpe & Holloway, 2008; Stronge ignores the fact that community services is one & Tucker, 2003; Tucker et al., 2002). This work of the universities’ core functions that also indicates however, the criteria used to evaluate needs to be implemented and the results lecturers tend to give more attention to realised from it established. It also limits an teaching and research than to community understanding the potential contribution that

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Ddungu: Appraisal & University Lecturers’ Participation in Community Service evaluation can make to lecturers’ participation interest. Lecturers’ community service also in community service; and this participation is involves establishing public information needed because community service is not an networks by contributing to the flow of isolated function. It reinforces and is information to the public; it further involves reinforced by the teaching and research lecturers getting involved in civil literacy functions of the university (Colbeck, O’Meara scholarship, thereby enhancing public & Austin, 2008). discourse by communicating openly with the Indeed, one of the ways lecturers are general public about issues of public interest. expected to participate in community service is The Divine Word University (2015) by getting involved in service-learning, which, summarises all the dimensions of community according to Moore and Ward (2010), is service by noting that it is about lecturers’ accomplished when lecturers commit to participation in rendering commercial and working with the external community in ways non-commercial intellectual, educational, that benefit the community, involved students cultural, scientific, religious and other activities and the lecturer. These scholars distinguish the and services of value to the outside service-learning domain of community service community. Rendered effectively and from the public service domain, stating that meaningfully, lecturers’ community service the latter involves lecturers reaching out to contributes to social progress, economic share their expertise to address community- growth, spiritual or cultural development of based issues and problems. According to individuals, groups, institutions or the Maphalala (2014), service-learning involves common good of the community external to community-oriented research or internship the university. As noted earlier, all these writers projects in which lecturers negotiate with focus on description of community service community and service sector partners to find without relating it to academic staff evaluation. appropriate service activities that they or their Moreover, these writers describe the various students can carry out with the aim of forms of community participation while achieving jointly identified community goals. referring to lecturers of universities outside When the projects are for purposes of Uganda. Even Yawe (2010) who covered research, Nhamo (2013) refers to them as community service as a measure of the participatory research, describing them as performance of lecturers at Makerere projects involving lecturers conducting University neither delved into the details of its research in which community members are specific indicators nor related it to staff beneficially included. Barker (2004) refers to evaluation. such projects as community partnership projects, describing them as projects in which Methodology lecturers establish collaboration involving beneficial undertakings with community This paper is developed from a study designed groups. Moore and Ward (2010) refer to this as a field correlational study complemented by participation as engaged scholarship, stating some aspects of a comparative research design. that it encompasses research which involves The field correlational research design was lecturers incorporating a community used to meet the first objective of the study orientation in their empirical undertakings. based on first-hand quantitative data collected Similar observations appear in the work of in a short time using questionnaires Kaneene et al. (nd), Yuan et al. (2008) and administered to a relatively large sample of Atkins et al. (2007). It is important to note that lecturers who were selected from randomly while all the scholars cited in this paragraph selected private and public universities (Collis describe what is involved in lecturers’ & Hussey, 2003). This design was community service, none of them delves into complemented by some aspects of the how lecturers’ involvement in it is affected by comparative research design in order to meet the manner in which they are evaluated. This is the second and third objectives of the study. the gap which this paper is intended to fill. According to the List of Uganda’s Universities Lecturers are also expected to engage in by Web Ranking (2015), there were 31 public scholarship, which Mapesela and operating universities of which eight were Strydom (2004) describe as face-to-face public public and 23 private universities. Two lists of debates and deliberations in which lecturers these universities were compiled. One list articulate solutions to topical issues of public consisted of public universities and another,

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KIU Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences private universities. The name of each The questionnaire’s Content Validity Index university in each category was written on a was 0.888 and its Cronbach Alpha coefficient piece of paper. The pieces of paper were then was 0.906. These indexes meant that the collected in two separate urns each of which questionnaire was highly valid and reliable. The were shuffled a number of times. Every after a questionnaire was administered to each shuffle, one piece of paper was selected from lecturer after seeking his/her consent and each urn without replacement until four public cooperation by explaining the purpose of the and six private universities were selected, study while underscoring the fact that the making a total of 10 universities. The simple study was purely academic. The collected data random sampling technique was used to give was analysed using correlation, the t-test, each university in each category an equal ANOVA, data transformation and linear chance of being selected to participate in the regression techniques aided by the SPSS study. Ten universities were selected because (Version 22). they represented 33.3%, which, according to Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill (2003), was a Findings statistically representative proportion of all the universities in Uganda. The total number of The first objective of the paper was to establish lecturers in all the private and public the proportion of lecturers who did not universities in Uganda was 7676 (National participate in community service. This Council for Higher Education, 2013). Given objective was met by asking the selected this total, Sloven’s formula below was used to lecturers to use the strongly disagree-strongly compute the statistically representative sample: agree response scale to indicate their opinions to the various indicators of participation in this service. The frequency distribution of their responses appears in Table 1. Where n was the sample size to compute, N The total response in Table 1 indicates that the given population size and e the margin of 62.7% of the lecturers strongly disagreed, error allowed statistically when determining a 21.1% disagreed, 3.6% were not sure, 8.6% representative sample size. The sample was agreed and 4% strongly agreed with the various selected at the 95% level of confidence. This indicators of participation in community implies that e = 5%. Substituting 7676 for N service. The lecturers who disagreed and and 5% for e, the above formula yielded the strongly disagreed were construed to have value of n as 380. Therefore, the expected expressed a view that did not participate in sample size was 380. This implies that 38 community service. Lecturers who were not lecturers were expected from each of the 10 sure were interpreted to imply that they were selected universities. Accordingly, 152 (38 × 4) uncertain of their participation in community were the lecturers selected from public service. Lecturers who agreed were construed universities and 228 (38 × 6) were the lecturers to mean that they participated in community selected from private universities. All the service and more so if they strongly agreed. lecturers were selected using judgmental Based on this interpretation, the findings in sampling, a non-probability sampling Table 1 indicates that the proportion of technique that facilitated their selection lecturers who did not participate in community according to their job ranks. service was 83.8% (62.7% + 21.1%). Data was collected using a self-administered The second objective of the paper was to structured questionnaire, since the establish whether lecturers’ participation in respondents were literate enough to read the community service is evaluated. Descriptive questions and write their responses statistics based on which this objective was accordingly. All items in the question were met are summarised in Table 2. close-ended and the Likert scale of responses running from strongly disagree (SD = 1) through disagree (D = 2), not sure (NS = 3) and agree (A = 4) to strongly agree (SA = 5) was used to respond to the items.

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Ddungu: Appraisal & University Lecturers’ Participation in Community Service

Table 1: Lecturers’ responses on their participation in community service (%, N=380) Indicators of participation in community service SD D NS A SA I am satisfied with the level at which I collaborate with community/ 67.7 18.6 1.0 5.5 7.2 industry actors for purposes of sharing my expertise with them. I am contented with the way I negotiate with organisations to provide 70.1 14.4 0.0 8.8 6.7 internship to my students. I am contended with the applications I have developed through research 67.0 26.0 0.0 6.0 1.0 to solve societal problems in a better way I am contented with the level at which I participate in deliberations 50.2 28.4 5.7 13.6 2.1 focusing on providing solutions to issues of public interest. I am satisfied with the level at which I am involved in conducting 55.1 24.7 12.9 3.9 3.4 research in which community members are beneficially included I am satisfied with the level at which I collaborate with community 70.1 8.8 0.0 14.4 6.7 groups in mutually beneficial projects. I am contented with the level at which I contribute to the flow of 67.0 26.0 0.0 6.0 1.0 information to the general public I am satisfied with the level at which I communicate openly with the 54.2 21.6 8.8 11.3 4.1 general public about issues of public interest. Total 62.7 21.1 3.6 8.6 4.0 KEY: SD = Strongly disagree; D = Disagree; N= Neutral; A = Agree; SA = Strongly agree

Table 2: Mean responses on evaluation of participation in community service Indicators of participation in community service Mean Std. Dev. The criteria used to evaluate my performance considers the degree to which I share 1.66 1.483 my expertise with the community in a mutually beneficial manner. When evaluating my performance, my university considers my participation in 2.23 1.555 negotiating with other organisations to provide internship to my students in a way that mutually benefits the organisations and the students. When evaluating my performance, the university considers how the research I have 2.36 1.758 conducted helps solve societal problems. When evaluating my performance the criteria used consider my participation in face- 2.06 1.765 to-face public debates and deliberations focusing on providing solutions to issues of public interest. The research I conducted while involving community members in beneficial manner 2.34 1.868 is considered when my performance is being evaluated When evaluating my performance, the university considers my collaboration with 2.13 1.809 community groups in mutually beneficial projects. The contribution I make to the flow of information to the general public is considered 2.01 1.876 when the university is evaluating my performance. The way I openly communicate with the general public about issues of public interest 2.34 1.744 is considered when the university is evaluating my performance. Total 2.14 1.732

Analysis of the means in Table 2 reveals that community service resulting from their job their magnitudes were all close to ‘2’ the code ranks. The fourth objective was to ascertain that represented ‘disagree’ in the response whether there was a difference in this scale the lecturers used to indicate their evaluation between public and private opinions on the various items in the table. This universities in central Uganda. Data implies that on average, lecturers disagreed transformation was conducted to transform with all the items. This disagreeing implies that lecturers’ responses to all the items used to the participation of the lecturers was on measure this evaluation into one global average not evaluated by the universities. variable, which was referred to as ‘Staff The third objective of the paper was to Evaluation’. Thereafter, ANOVA was establish whether there was a difference in the conducted to establish whether staff evaluation of lecturers’ participation in evaluation differed as a result of respondents’

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KIU Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences job rank. In addition, the t-test analysis was The mean values indicate that on average, carried out to find out whether this evaluation lecturers in public (Mean = 2.23) and private differed between public and private (Mean = 2.27) disagreed that they were universities. ANOVA was used in case of job evaluated. These findings suggest that the way ranks because their categories were more than the participation of lecturers in community two. Findings are summarised Table 3. service was not evaluated did not differ in universities in central Uganda irrespective of Table 3: Appraisal of lecturers’ whether they were public or private. participation in community service by The last objective of the paper was to rank and type of university investigate the nature of the relationship Mean df F Sig between lecturers’ evaluation and their Rank Professor 4.46 5 107.26 .000 participation in community service. As the case Associate 4.04 was with evaluation, data transformation was professor used to convert the responses lecturers gave to Senior 2.04 all the items administered to measure their lecturer participation in community service in one Lecturer 1.15 global variable, which was referred to as Assistant 1.04 Lecturers’ Participation in Community lecturer Service). Thereafter, findings obtained from Teaching 1.12 assistant linear regression analysis are presented in Total 2.31 Table 4. Type of Public 2.23 1 1.08* .364 The findings in Table 4 indicate that all the university Private 2.27 standard errors were numerically very small. Total 2.25 This implies that the linear regression method *t statistic was suitable to predict the statistics in the table. The R-value was .884, indicating that there was The F-value and its corresponding level of a strong relationship between staff evaluation significance in Table 3 indicate that on average, and lecturers’ participation in community evaluation of lecturers differed significantly as service. The t-value corresponding to the a result of their job ranks (F = 107.265, Sig. = standard Beta coefficient was positive and .00 < .05). The analysis of the mean responses significant at the .05 level of significance (Beta reveals that while professors and associate = .884, t = 11.789, Sig. = .00 < .05). This professors agreed that their participation in implies that the relationship was positive, community service was evaluated, senior significant and direct. The adjusted R-Square lecturers disagreed and lecturers, assistant indicates that staff evaluation predicted lecturers and teaching assistants strongly lecturers’ participation by a significant and disagreed with this view. These findings positive 78% (Adjusted R2 = .780, F = suggest that with respect to participation in 184.771, p = .00 < .01). This shows that community service while professors and lecturers’ participation in community service associate professors were evaluated, lecturers was largely determined by how they were of the lower job ranks were not evaluated. evaluated.

Table 4: Relationship between staff evaluation and lecturers’ participation in community service Predicted statistics on the dependent variable: Participation in community service Predictor Std. Std. t Sig. R R- Adjusted R- F Sig. variable Error Beta square Square (Constant) .275 15.933 .000 .884 .781 .780 184.771 .000 Staff evaluation .307 .884 11.789 .000

words, a positive change in how these dons are Discussion, Conclusion and evaluated increases their participation in Recommendation community service. Accordingly, the findings The findings in Table 4 indicate that evaluation concur with the observations made by Akcay is a significant and positive determinant of the and Ensar (2014) and Kesten (2012) that participation of lecturers of universities in evaluation enhances teachers’ involvement in central Uganda in community service. In other community service. The findings suggest that

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Ddungu: Appraisal & University Lecturers’ Participation in Community Service the academic staff members’ participation in opportunities. The William and Flora Hewlett community service improves when it is Foundation. Retrieved October, 11, 2015 evaluated. The reverse is also true. Therefore, from the fact that this participation was not http://www.hewlett.org/uploads/files/Re evaluated for most of the academic staff viewoftheOERMovement.pdf members (Table 2), especially those whose job Austin, A.E. (2002). Preparing the next ranks ranged from senior lecturer downwards generation of faculty: Graduate school as to teaching assistant (Table 3), explains why socialization to the academic career. The the majority of these dons did not participate Journal of Higher Education, 73(1), 94-122. in community service (Table 1), irrespective of Campus Partnerships. East Lansing, MI: whether they worked for public or private Michigan State University Press. universities (Table 3). Indeed, only the Chan, Y.F., & Shuhaily, O. (2011). A case study academic staff members who were at the rank of student evaluation of teaching in of professor and associate professor showed university. International Education Studies, 4(1), that their participation in community service 44-50. was evaluated, thereby giving credence to the Chireshe, R. (2011). Effective and ineffective observation made by Olusegun and Adesola lecturers: university students’ perspective in (2013) that participation in community service Zimbabwe. Anthropologist, 13(4), 265-269 is considered only when evaluation is focusing Colbeck, C., O’Meara, K., & Austin, A.E. on associate professors and professors. The (2008). Graduate education and community established prediction suggests however, this engagement. In C. Colbeck, K. O’Meara, & evaluation needs to be extended to all the dons; A. Austin (Eds.), Educating integrated for it implies that the lecturers’ participation in professionals: Theory and practice on preparation for community service improves if it is evaluated. the professoriate (pp. 27-42). New Directions for Findings indicate that universities in central Teaching and Learning, No. 113. San Uganda can improve their involvement in Francisco: Jossey-Bass. community service as their core function by Czuba, J. (2005). Relationship between increasing lecturers’ participation in this university functions and community service service through evaluating this participation. at Divine Word University. Contemporary Administrators of universities in central PNG Studies: DWU Research Journal, 2, 57-67. Uganda who are in charge of academic staff Divine Word University (2015). Relationship evaluation should give participation in between university functions and community service community service the attention it deserves at Divine Word University. Retrieved October when evaluating lecturers’ performance for 12, 2015 from tenure, promotion and any other purpose http://www.voiceoftorot.com/news/relati tailored to ensure that these universities onship-between-university-functions-and- perform all their core functions effectively. community-service-at-divine-word- university-report/ Fabiyi, A.I., Oladipo, S.A., & Uzoka, N.E. References (nd). Community service and the Akcay, B., & Ensar, F. (2014). Evaluation of universities: An assessment of the pre-service elementary teachers’ perceptions contribution of University of Lagos. of community service-learning course. Retrieved on October 11, 2015 from International Journal of Elementary http://u09.cgpublisher.com/proposals/4/i Education, 3(2), 48-53. DOI: ndex_html 10.11648/j.ijeedu.20140302.15 Hüseyin, G. (2010). Evaluation of lecturers’ Allen, A.D., & Moore, T.L. (2010). Developing performance depending on students’ emerging engagement scholars in higher perception in higher education. Education education. In H.E. Fitzgerald, C. Burack, & and Science, 35(158), 158-168. S.D. Seifer (Eds.), Handbook of engaged Kaneene, J.B., Kisaka, S., Ssajjakambwe, P., scholarship: Contemporary landscapes, future Miller, R.A., & Kabasa, J.D. (nd). Creating directions (pp. 447-458). Volume 2: open education resources for teaching and Community- community development through action Atkins, D.E., Brown, J.S., & Hammond, A.L. research: An overview of the Makerere (2007). A review of the open educational resources AGSHARE project. Kampala: Makerere movement: Achievements, challenges, and new University.

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Kesten, A. (2012). The evaluation of the Fourth European Congress on World community service-learning course in terms and Global History (ENIUGH), at the of prospective teachers’ and instructors’ École normale supérieure Paris. September, opinions. Educational Sciences: Theory & 4th–7th Practice, 12(3), 2139-2148. Omeje, K., & Hepner, T.R. (2013). Conflict Liaw, S.H., & Goh, K.L. (2003). Evidence and and peace-building in the African Great control of biases in student evaluations of Lakes Region. In Omeje K. & Hepner, T.R. teaching. International Journal of Educational (Eds.) Conflict and peace-building in the African Management, 17(1), 37-43. Great Lakes Region (pp.1-21). Indiana List of Uganda’s Universities by Web Ranking University: Indiana University Press. (2015). Universities in Uganda. Retrieved Opolot-Okurut, C., & Bbuye, J. (2014). October 13, 2015 from School-university collaboration initiative: http://www.4icu.org/ug/ Benefits and challenges in Uganda. American Magno, C., & Sembrano, J. (2008). The role of Journal of Educational Research, 2 (10), 843-849. teacher efficacy and characteristics on DOI: 10.12691/education-2-10-1 teaching effectiveness, performance, and Simmons, J. (2002). An expert witness use of learner-centred practices. The Asia perspective on performance appraisal in Pacific-Education Researcher, 16(1), 73-90 universities and colleges. Employee Relations, Maphalala, M.C. (2014). Conceptualization of 24(1), 86–100. service-learning as an educational approach Sok-Foon, Y., Sze-Yin, J.H., & Yin-Fah, B.C. in the curriculum: A case study. Research in (2012). Student evaluation of lecturer Higher Education Journal, 1, 1-14. performance among private university Molefe, G.N. (2010). Performance students. Canadian Social Science, 8(4), 238- measurement dimensions for lecturers at 243. DOI: selected universities: An international 10.3968/j.css.1923669720120804.3022 perspective. South African Journal of Human Stoklasa, J., Talašová, R., & Holeček, P. (2011). Resource Management, 1(8), 1-13. Doi: Academic staff performance evaluation – 10.4102/sajhrm.v8i1.243 Variants of models. Acta Polytechnica Moore, T.L., & Ward, K. (2010). Hungarica, 8(3), 91-111. Institutionalizing faculty engagement Stronge, J. H., & Tucker, P. D. (2003). through research, teaching, and service at Handbook on teacher evaluation: Assessing and research universities. Michigan Journal of improving performance. Larchmont, NY: Eye Community Service Learning, 1, 44-57. on Education. Nabayego, C. (2011). Adoption of informal Thorpe, R., & Holloway, J. (2008). Performance education training in management of formal management – Multi-disciplinary perspective. New . Makerere University York: Palgrave Macmillan Unpublished PhD Dissertation. Truckee Meadows Community University Nabayego, C., & Itaaga, N. (2015). How (2014). Annual performance evaluation for university education in Uganda can be academic faculty. Truckee Meadows improved to prepare economically Community University: TMCC Human productive graduates. Asian Journal of Social Resources Department. Sciences and Management Studies, 1(2), 62-70 Tucker, P. D., Stronge, J. H., & Gareis, C. R. Neves, J.S., & Nakhai, B. (1993). The Baldrige (2002). Handbook on teacher portfolios for award framework for teaching total quality evaluation and professional development. management. Journal of Business. 69(2), 60-63. Larchmont, NY: Eye on Education. Nhamo, G. (2013). Community engagement Yawe, G. (2010). Motivation and academic staff praxis at the University of South Africa. performance in public universities in Uganda: the Progressio, 35(2), 101–132 case of Makerere University. Makerere Olusegun, P.J., & Adesola, O.O. (2013). University: Unpublished M. Ed dissertation. Lecturers’ performance appraisal and total Yuan, L., MacNeill, S., & Kraan, W. (2008). quality management of public universities in Open educational resources— south-western Nigeria. British Journal of Opportunities and challenges for higher Education, 1 (2), 41-47 education. Retrieved October 11, 2015 from Omeje, K. (2014). Peace education and peace- http://wiki.cetis.ac.uk/images/0/0b/OER building in sub-Saharan Africa: A conflict-sensitive _Briefing_Paper.pdf. approach in higher education. Paper prepared for

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Author Bio LIVINGSTONE DDUNGU (PhD) is a lecturer of Educational Planning at the East African School of Higher Education Studies and Development, College of Education and External Studies (CEES), Makerere University. A holder of Bachelors, Masters and PhD degrees from Makerere University, Ddungu has taught and administered at all the levels in Uganda’s education system for over thirty-five years and is the recipient of a presidential award for outstanding contribution to the development of education in the country.

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TOWARD DELIBERATIVE EXPERIENCES IN MALAWIAN UNIVERSITIES

Lester Brian Shawa University of KwaZulu Natal

Abstract. At policy level, universities in Malawi generally recognise their role of serving the needs of communities and contributing to the country’s development. However, while higher education policy frameworks acknowledge the connection between university education and development, in practice, the link is poor. While there are many reasons for this situation, this paper draws on the organisational socialisation of students in higher education framework propounded by Weidman to contend that the major challenge is the lack of deliberative experiences in Malawian universities that could equip graduates with the critical dispositions they require to contribute to the development of the country. Deliberative experiences foster a socio-milieu of dialogue and promote critical dispositions among graduates. In Malawian universities, poor curricula mediation, political influence and administrative or managerial challenges contribute to a socio-milieu that is devoid of such experiences. The paper argues that graduates thus lack the necessary dispositions and capability to serve communities and foster development in Malawi.

Plan recognise the role of the university in Introduction producing graduates that are useful to the The role of higher education in development is community. However, while higher education clearly articulated by several authors (see policy frameworks acknowledge the Bloom & Canning, 2006; McArthur, 2011). connection between university education and While the post-colonial African university was the country’s development needs, universities conceived as an engine of development, the in Malawi do not seem to produce graduates connection is very blurred in many African with relevant dispositions and skills to countries. Since there is no doubt that the champion development (see Hall & Thomas, African university aims to produce human 2005). resources that promote development, the One way of developing graduates is question is: are graduates sufficiently well- providing them with deliberative experiences prepared to assist communities to propel the within the university. This paper utilises the development agenda? concept of the organisational socialisation of According to the World Bank (2015), students in higher education developed by Malawi remains among the low income Weidman to show how experiences at a economies whose citizens earn on average university socialise graduates in particular $1,045 per annum together with countries such ways. For the purpose of this paper, as , Afghanistan, and Eritrea. The deliberative experience refers to a conception 2015 Research Dissemination Conference of democratic action whose central point is organised by the University of Malawi under reasoned discussion among the parties the theme: Linking Higher Education to concerned (see Cooke, 2000). Such a Community Needs is thus an opportune time disposition is very important in organising, to rethink how the higher education sector designing and participating in community could contribute to the country’s development development work. For example, most of the agenda. United Nations’ development initiatives in In recent years, there has been global Africa require deliberative or participatory recognition of the need for higher education to mechanisms to be implemented (see United collaborate more with communities (Shaffer, Nations, 2008). 2014). In Malawi, policy documents such as In a university, deliberative experiences the Malawi Growth and Development could foster a socio-milieu of dialogue that Strategy, the Policy and Investment develops critical dispositions in students. Framework and the National Education Sector However, in Malawian universities, poor

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Shawa: Toward Deliberative Experiences in Malawian Universities curricula mediation, political influence, and 2. is exposed to various socialising influences administrative or managerial challenges at the institution including normative contribute to a socio-milieu devoid of pressures exerted via (a) social deliberative experiences which produces relationships with faculty and peers (b) graduates that lack the dispositions and family or parental pressures (c) capability required to serve communities and involvement with reference groups foster development. outside the institution; This paper is presented in four sections. The 3. assesses the salience of the various first section briefly outlines the theoretical normative pressures encountered in framework of the organisational socialisation attaining goals; and of students in higher education propounded by 4. changes or maintains those values, Weidman. The second section starts by briefly aspirations, and personal goals held upon discussing the notion of deliberative entry into institution (see Weidman, 1989; experience before explaining how poor Weidman, DeAngelo, Bethea, 2014). curriculum mediation, political influence and administrative and or managerial challenges The time spent on undergraduate studies thus affect deliberative experiences in Malawian provides massive socialisation to university universities. The third section draws graduates that shapes their behaviours as conclusions, and the fourth section provides professionals in the world of work. some recommendations. Weidman (1989) further explains that socialisation in higher education involves a set of processes that result in specific outcomes. The Organisational Socialisation of He groups these processes into three: (a) Students in Higher Education Framework interpersonal interaction, which, for example, as a Theoretical Lens involves interaction with peers and family; (b) In his conceptualisation of undergraduate intrapersonal interaction, which involves socialisation, Weidman uses Brim’s (1966) studying and attending lectures; and (c) definition of socialisation as “the process by integration, which involves incorporation into which persons acquire the knowledge, skills, campus academic and social life. Integration and dispositions that make them more or less brings about outcomes or the shaped effective members of their society” (Weidman, behaviour of the graduate; as such, “the 2006, p. 253). This implies that, depending on socialisation outcomes are the resultant what students experience at higher education changes (beliefs, values, and knowledge) that institutions, they may be socialised negatively occur in students” (Weidman, 2006, p. 256). or positively. Generally, these outcomes are reflected in For Weidman, socialisation in higher career choices, lifestyle and preferences, education is a series of processes whereby the aspirations and values (Weidman, 1989) that student: form their behaviours. Figure 1 below is a 1. enters an institution as a freshman with conceptual model of the organisational certain values, aspirations, and other goals; socialisation of students in higher education as explained by Weidman (1989).

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Figure 1: Weidman’s conceptual model of the organisational socialisation of students in higher education Source: Adapted from Weidman (2006) (2000, p.3) posits that “a democratic system is Figure 1 shows that the socialisation process deliberative to the extent that the decisions it begins with the input (background of students reaches reflect open discussion among the at entry level), environment (what happens at participants, with people ready to listen to the institutions of higher learning – also shaped by views and consider the interests of others, and professional and personal communities) and modify their own opinions accordingly”. outcomes (defining dispositions and the Although there are different ways of defining identity of the graduate). deliberative democracy, most of its The implication is that the life of the proponents agree that this notion includes university shapes the graduate’s social collective decision making in which all those development and growth. It can thus be that will be affected or their representatives argued that if students are not exposed to participate and that decisions are reached by deliberative experiences, for example, they will means of arguments offered by and to not demonstrate such a disposition within participants who are committed to the values their community. Understanding socialisation of rationality and impartiality (Elster, 1999). as the process by which people acquire the Gutman & Thomson (2004) argue that knowledge, skills, and dispositions that make deliberative democracy serves four major them more or less effective members of their purposes: legitimising ideas that emerge society clearly explains this scenario. The through consensus, encouraging interest in following section discusses the notion of public issues that require solutions, deliberative experiences. encouraging respect for one another in decision-making processes and correcting mistakes that may stem from people’s Deliberative Experiences misunderstanding of issues. Cooke (2000) For the purpose of this paper, the notion of proposes five arguments for deliberative deliberative experience is derived from the democracy that complement one another. He literature on deliberative democracy. Miller posits that deliberative democracy (1) has

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Shawa: Toward Deliberative Experiences in Malawian Universities beneficial educative effects on citizens, (2) has 2. What educational experiences can be a community-generating power in which an provided? This talks to the activities and individual arrives at reasoned decisions with the subject matter that form an the community in which they are located, (3) experience. Activities are paramount in improves the fairness of democratic outcomes, socialisation; (4) contributes constructively to the practical 3. How can these educational experiences be rationality of democratic outcomes, and (5) organised effectively to achieve the promotes an ideal of democracy that is most purposes? This question talks to the congruent with whom we are; in other words, quality of personnel such as academics and deliberative democracy helps people to see that the methods used to mediate curriculum. there are certain normative conceptions of 4. How can we determine whether or not the knowledge, that a person cannot simply expected objectives have been achieved? change and that deliberative democracy helps This talks to assessment methods to make sense of such normative notions. (Chaudhary & Kalia, 2015). Reich (2007) argues that, if well practiced in the classroom, deliberative democracy helps It is clear that what is important about students to acquire the ability to listen actively curriculum is not just the subject matter; how and respond to issues without disrupting it is mediated perhaps plays a more important conversations; equips them with dispositions role in undergraduates’ socialisation. The Tyler such as tolerance and respect for others, and Model also reminds us that there is a need for appreciation of diversity; and helps students to careful planning of the purposes and develop cognitive abilities as well as to experience an institution would like to provide generate actual knowledge. He adds that, in a to students. This suggests, for example, that if school setting, deliberation may help students a university seeks to contribute to the nation’s to participate legitimately and fairly in arriving development, it ought to link the type of at collective decisions to coordinate school socialisation it provides to the development activities. agenda. All in all, the deliberative skills and/or A number of challenges impede proper dispositions advanced in this paper are vital in curriculum mediation in Malawian universities participatory development work. Universities that ultimately limit deliberative experiences. that are genuinely committed to community The first is a lack of resources and and national development should thus infrastructure. Universities in Malawi have promote these skills in socialising their limited resources and facilities such as lecture students. The following three sub-sections theatres, laboratories, internet access, books briefly explain how poor curricula mediation, and access to journals. The lack of political influence and administrative infrastructure and teaching space has resulted challenges could limit students’ deliberative in overcrowded classes. Second, staffing has experiences in Malawian universities. been a serious problem in the university sector, stifling the quality of teaching and learning as well as research capacity (Malawi Government, Poor Curricula Mediation 2006). Furthermore, institutions do not have Curriculum plays an important role in robust professional development programmes socialising undergraduate students. Adelebu for early career academics. Given that not all and Akinsolu’s research (2009) showed that lecturers study degrees in Education, a fair the main agents of Nigerian students’ political number of academics, while having strong socialisation are the curriculum, students’ subject knowledge such as Mathematics, union and lecturers. Geography, History, Physics and other While curriculum means different things to subjects, lack pedagogical aspects that are vital different people (see Wen Su, 2014); most in mediating curriculum. meanings are connected to the Tyler Model Overcrowded classrooms, the limited (1949) which examines curriculum by posing number of qualified staff and a lack of robust four questions: professional development programmes result 1. What educational purposes should an in academics failing to facilitate a deliberative institution seek to attain? This question curriculum in the classroom and in talks to the objectives of the curriculum; communities.

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Deliberative classroom methods, which information and respect for the ideas of include educational debates, role play, others. These features require that teachers simulations and presentations, help lecturers [lecturers] possess the pedagogical skills to to: manage and promote such dynamics. Foster interactive instruction, democratic dialogue, student-teacher [lecturer] Skovsmose (1998) cautions against what he partnerships and cooperative learning, terms classroom absolutism, an assumption that promote student ownership of learning and the teaching of Mathematics depends on application of knowledge, develop students’ exercises that have only one answer and that listening and communication skills, develop only the teacher has the power to eliminate the students’ critical thinking and mistake. He advocates for a deliberative argumentation skills, and develop students’ interaction where academics open dialogue research (traditional and computer) and with students and try to identify students’ critical reading and evaluation skills reasons for thinking the way they do. Teaching (Claxton, 2008, p. 1). Mathematics ought to go beyond the knowing academic vs the un-knowing students to an Deliberative methods are thus purposively activity of discovery embedded in a employed in the classroom to create a learning community of practice where students learn environment that models democratic habits together guided by the academic (Valero, and practices. Students learn to make reasoned 1999). arguments, work in teams, appreciate and The problems confronting universities in tolerate other students’ viewpoints and Malawi also impede meaningful interaction develop respect for others (see Shawa, 2014; between higher education institutions and Enslin, Pendlebury & Tjaittas, 2001). communities. A deliberative curriculum makes Furthermore, Claxton (2008) contends that more sense when students engage with mediating curricula deliberatively avoids the communities while at university. This enables top-down lecture methods (that are common them to co-create knowledge through public in Malawian universities) and exposes students action (Longo, 2013) as opposed to traditional to new ways of thinking, independent study, methods where students are talked to by their problem solving, free expression of ideas and lecturers. creativity. Community engagement may correspond to There seems to be a misconception that what is called mode 2 of knowledge deliberative mediation is only applicable to the production which seeks the application of Humanities however, there is a dearth of knowledge. Mode 2 is different from mode 1, literature linking Science and especially which tends to be more traditional and Mathematics Education to democracy in discipline-based (Waghid, 2003) as is common higher education (see Aguilar & Zavaleta, in Malawian universities. While mode 2 2012; Valero, 1999; Skovsmose, 1999; Vithal & knowledge production is regarded as practical Skovsmose, 2012). Aguilar and Zavaleta (2012) and useful for innovation, Holland (2009) note, that, there is a risk of educating contends that in Malawian universities mathematicians devoid of democratic values. community linkages have mainly taken the Skovsmose (1990) contends that this is due to form of consultancy-based research that lacks the nature of Mathematics as a subject in real engagement with communities in terms of which lecturers teach students to follow social accountability and reflexivity in explicitly stated prescriptions such as: calculate knowledge production. This limits students’ the value of.., or find the length of…, which experiences and thus does not adequately prepare students for the world of work but not socialise them for development initiatives. for critical citizenship. To offset this danger, it is suggested that Mathematics lecturers should Political Influence possess both mathematical as well as pedagogical knowledge. Thus, Aguilar and Universities in Malawi suffer from political Zavaleta (2012, p.9) argue that: influence that hinders a deliberative culture A mathematics classroom that aims to and ultimately socialises students with non- promote democratic values and attitudes deliberative tendencies. This is in part because should model deliberative interaction, the State President is the automatic chancellor argumentation, critical analysis of the of public universities. Although the duties of

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Shawa: Toward Deliberative Experiences in Malawian Universities the chancellor are mainly ceremonial, degrees. For example, during the Banda experience has shown that they have regime, “phones were tapped, offices significant influence on policy and the general ransacked and letters seized without the running of universities (Shawa, 2013). The knowledge of owners” (Kerr & Mapanje, 2002, Malawian set up renders universities prone to p. 79) at the University of Malawi. The political manipulation. While there are many university thus became a silenced space where examples of such political influence (very few deliberation was not encouraged. are recorded and some are only highlighted by The assault on academic freedom and the press), this paper focuses on university institutional autonomy seems to have extended access policy and issues relating to academic to the multi-party democratic era. Examples freedom and institutional autonomy. range from the Chinsinga saga of 2011 – an A vivid example of a policy that lacked associate professor of political science who deliberation is “equitable access to higher was summoned and questioned about his class education”, popularly known as the quota presentation (see Shawa, 2012), to the system. In terms of this policy, selection University of Malawi Bill of 2012 that depends on students’ district of origin and proposed that the university council should merit. Ten students are selected by district of appoint deans and heads of department (see origin and the rest on the basis of merit University of Malawi Proposed Bill, 2012). distributed according to district populations Both issues sparked strong reactions within the (Chirwa, 2014). university. The Chinsinga saga led to a strike The problem with this system is that it is by academic staff and the eventual closure of embedded within regional, linguistic and the university, among other consequences (see ethnic lines that reveal patronage politics (see Shawa, 2012). The proposed Bill was rejected Shawa, 2012; Chirwa, 2014). This is part of the by the University of Malawi Union. larger neo-patrimonial social ethos in Malawi. Authoritarian ways of dealing with policy For example, in the 1980s during the Banda and/or the running of the university socialise regime (1964-1994), “the state tried to apply students negatively as they encourage regional or ethnic quotas in its employment uncritical dispositions. Such dispositions practices, in the allocation of top positions in create citizens that lack the participatory skills the civil service, and in awarding university required for development initiatives. scholarships” (Chirwa, 2014, p.60). Shawa (2012, p. 49), reports that the Banda Administrative or Managerial Challenges regime introduced the quota system in 1987 and that “four students who were admitted on The final challenge lies in the nature of the a non-residential basis challenged the administration or management of the University of Malawi Council’s decision to university. Shawa (2013, p. 231) contends that admit them on that basis and on the basis of in Malawi, “while university level documents district of origin other than merit”. The High reveal that governance structures ought to be Court rescinded the quota selection policy on collegial, constrained meaningful participation the basis that, among other things, it was and a lack of consultation among actors in discriminatory (see Malawi Law Reports, 2003; decision-making impedes democratic Shawa, 2012). governance”. The issue of quotas resurfaced during Bingu Furthermore, there is often strife between wa Mutarika’s rule (2004-2012) but was academics and university administrators in rejected by the University of Malawi Senate in Malawi’s public universities (see Shawa, 2011). 2007. Despite this, and the fact that, as Chirwa According to Shawa (2011), the reasons (2014) observes, the quota would probably be include poor handling of staff requests for contrary to constitutional provisions on salary increments and welfare-related issues, a equality and non-discrimination, the policy has lack of trust between academics and university been implemented in Malawian universities managers, little transparency in the usage of since 2009. funds, misuse of academic freedom, A second issue that exemplifies political differences in qualifications between influence in the running of Malawian academics and administrators and a lack of universities is the fact that the government has transparency in appointing university continuously curtailed academic freedom and leadership (Shawa, 2011; 2012). university autonomy, albeit to different

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Furthermore Shawa (2012) notes that for funding universities that should not tensions have arisen between students and depend on the benevolence of the state administrators over the lack of urgency in president or the party in power. This would handling student loans and stationery enable universities to operate without being allowances. Students have reported that some manipulated and they could become spaces for academics use their power to victimise them critical deliberations. through assessments and stymy a deliberative Finally, there is a need for more transparent culture within the university. As is the case collegial governance among all university with the other challenges discussed here, these stakeholders–-academics, university administrative challenges impede the creation administrators and students–that could of a deliberative culture that could develop the ultimately socialise students to the deliberative participatory dispositions students require in culture necessary for participatory order to champion development initiatives. development.

Conclusion and Recommendations References This paper utilised Weidman’s framework of Adelebu, M.A., & Akinsolu, A.O. (2009). the socialisation of students in higher Political education through the university: A education to argue that the lack of deliberative survey of Nigerian university students. experiences in Malawian universities produces African Journal of Political Science and graduates/citizens that lack the critical International Relations, 3(2): 46-53. dispositions necessary for participatory Aguilar, M., & Zavaleta, J. (2012). On the links development. It highlighted the importance of between mathematics education and a deliberative culture in academic institutions democracy: A literature review. Pythagoras, and communities. Three challenges were 33(2): Art. 164. identified as examples of factors that limit Bloom, D., Canning, D., & Chan, K. (2006). deliberative experiences in Malawian Higher education and economic development in universities: poor curriculum mediation, Africa. Harvard University: World Bank. political influence and administrative or Chaudhary, G.K., & Kalia, R. (2015). managerial challenges. Development curriculum and teaching Given the challenges faced in Malawian models of curriculum design for teaching universities the following recommendations institutes. International Journal of Physical are made: Education, Sports and Health, 1(4): 57-59. In terms of curriculum mediation, there is Chirwa, W. (2014). Malawi: Democratic and need to improve resources and infrastructure political participation – a review by AfriMap and and reduce overcrowding in classrooms – the Open Society for Southern Africa. government should play a leading role in this Johannesburg: Open Society Initiative for regard. Universities should introduce robust Southern Africa. professional development programmes for all Claxton, N. (2008). Using deliberative techniques to early career academics in order for them to teach financial literacy. New York: learn pedagogical principles such as designing International Debate Education and evaluating curricula, assessment in higher Association. education, teaching and learning in higher Cooke, M. (2000). Five arguments for education and research and supervision in deliberative democracy. Political Studies, 48: higher education. Universities should seriously 947-969. consider introducing community-based Elster, J. Introduction. In: J. Elster (Ed.). learning in many courses to encourage (1999). Deliberative democracy (pp. 1-17). deliberation and innovation. Well-developed Cambridge: Cambridge University. professional development programmes should Enslin, P., Pendlebury, S., & Tjiattas, M. be designed to assist academics to learn how to (2001). Deliberative democracy, diversity promote a deliberative curriculum. and the challenges of citizenship education. In terms of political influence, as in many Journal of Philosophy of Education, 35(1); 116- other parts of Africa, well-trained academics 122. should serve as chancellors at Malawian Gutman, A., & Thompson, D. (2004). Why universities (see Shawa, 2015). Moreover, deliberative democracy. Princeton: Princeton government should have a transparent formula University Press.

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Hall, D., & Thomas, H. (2005). Links between Shawa, L. B. (2015). Challenges of university higher education and employees in governance in Malawi. In. J. Ssempebwa, P. Malawi: The need for a dialogue. Journal of Neema-Abooki, & J.C.S. Musaazi (Eds.) Higher Education Policy and Management, Contemporary issues in higher education 27(1):67–69. management: a Book in honour of Makerere Holland, D. (2009). Between the practical and University’s 90 years of excellence (1922-2012) the academic: The relation of mode 1 and (pp. 105-112). Kampala: East African mode 2 knowledge production in a School of Higher Education Studies and developing country. Science Technology and Development and Fountain Publishers. Human Values, 34(5): 551-572. Skovsmose, O. (1990). Mathematical Kerr, D., & Mapanje, J. (2002). Academic education and democracy. Educational Studies freedom and the University of Malawi. in Mathematics, 21(2): 109-128. African Studies Review, 45(1): 73-91. Skovsmose, O. (1998). Linking mathematics Longo, N. (2013). Deliberative pedagogy in the education and democracy: citizenship, community: Connecting deliberative mathematical archaeology, mathemacy and dialogue, community engagement, and deliberative interaction. ZDM, 6: 195-2003. democratic education. Journal of Public Valero, P. (1999). Deliberative mathematics Deliberation, 9(2): Article 16. education for social democratisation in Malawi Government. (2000). Policy and Latin America. ZDM, 99 (1): 20-26. Investment Framework (PIF) 2000-2015. Waghid, Y. (2003). Democratic education: Policy Malawi Government. and praxis. Matieland: Stellenbosch Malawi Government. (2006). National University Printers. Education Sector Plan. Malawi Government. Weidman, J.C. (2006). Socialisation of students Malawi Law Reports. (2003). Mhango and others in higher education. In C. Conrad & R. vs University of Malawi Council. In J. Rhoodie Serlin (Eds.). The Sage handbook for research in (Ed.). Durban: Butterworths. education: Engaging ideas and enriching inquiry McArthur, J. (2011). Reconsidering the social (pp.253-262). Thousand Oaks: Sage. and economic purposes of higher education. Weidman, J.C. (1989). Undergraduate Higher Education Research and Development, socialisation: A conceptual approach. In J. 30(6): 737-749. Smart (Ed.), Higher education: Handbook of Miller, D. (2000). Citizenship and national identity. theory and research (Vol. 5, pp. 289-322). New Oxford: Polity Press. York: Agathon. Reich, W. (2007). Deliberative democracy in Weidman, J.C., DeAngelo, L., & Bethea, K.A. the classroom: A sociological view. (2014). Understanding student identity from Educational Theory, 57(20: 187-197. a socialisation perspective. New Directions in Shaffer, T. (2014). Deliberation in and through Higher Education, 166: 43-51. higher education. Journal of Public Deliberation, Wen Su, S. (2012). The various concepts of 10(1): Article10. curriculum and the factors involved in Shawa, L. B. (2011). Exploring anti-democratic curricula-making. Journal of Language Teaching practices in university policy-steerage, and Research, 3(1):153-158. management, and governance in Malawi: A World Bank. (2015).Country and lending critical theory perspective. Unpublished groups. Retrieved 05/08/2015 from: PhD thesis, Victoria University of http://data.worldbank.org/about/country- Wellington: Wellington, New Zealand. and-lending-groups#Sub_Saharan_Africa. Shawa, L. B. (2012). The big-man syndrome as United Nations. (2008). Participatory a security threat in Malawi: A critical theory governance and the Millennium perspective. Southern African Peace and Security Development Goals. New York: United Studies, 1(2): 44-56. Nations Publication. Retrieved 05/08/2015 Shawa, L. B. (2013).Governance in Malawian from: universities: The role of dialectical reasoning http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/pu and communicative rationality. South African blic/documents/UN/UNPAN028359.pdf. Journal of Higher Education, 27(1): 221-23. Shawa, L. B. (2014). Toward a model of a Author Bio critical pedagogy in Malawian universities. Makerere Journal of Higher Education, 6(1): 3- LESTER BRIAN SHAWA (PhD) lectures 14. Higher Education Studies at the University of

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KwaZulu-Natal in Durban, South Africa. He obtained his PhD from Victoria University of Wellington (New Zealand) after finalising an MEd. (Education Policy Studies) with distinction at Stellenbosch University (South Africa). Currently, Dr Shawa is the coordinator of the Postgraduate Diploma in Higher Education programme at the University of KwaZulu-Natal. Prior to his current post, he was the deputy dean of the Faculty of Education at Mzuzu University (Malawi) as well as a research fellow at the School of Education, University of the Witwatersrand (South Africa). He has published in peer reviewed journals and is active in research touching on higher education policy-praxis, critical theory, values education, university pedagogy, citizenship education, deliberative democracy and quality discourses in higher education.

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Ahmed: Examination Malpractice in Nigeria

EXAMINATION MALPRACTICE IN NIGERIA: INCIDENCE AND SUGGESTIONS FOR MITIGATION IN PURSUIT OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Rakiya Ahmed Federal University of Education, Zaria

Abstract. Examination malpractice is a corrosive anomaly affecting societies in many parts of the world. In Nigeria, it has become so rampant that it is implicitly recognized as a ‘normal abnormality’. However, the practice has not been without consequences. Increasingly, doubts are being cast upon the credibility of the graduates of the country’s school system as well as on their certificates. Examination malpractice is also fuelling conflict in the multi-ethnic and multi-religious society, thereby foiling sustainable development. It is against this background that this paper traces the history, causes and incidence of examination malpractice in the country before discussing suggestions for managing some of the conflicts arising out of the practice.

public examinations from 2007 to 2010 among Introduction others. Indeed, as Maicibi (2003) puts it, in the According to Maicibi (2003: 153), examination recent times, the situation has become so bad malpractice “is any deliberate improper that examination malpractice is being seen by practice during a test of capacity and many as a ‘normal’ way of passing knowledge. It is an illegal attempt of a person examinations at all levels of education. Ukpepi or group of persons to benefit himself (itself) and Obinna (2012) write in consonance, at others cost or expense during a test of nothing that examination malpractice is a wide capacity and knowledge.” Examination spread issue and the general attitude of the malpractice was first reported in Nigeria in public towards the phenomenon seem to 1914, when the questions papers of the senior contribute to its acceptance among school Cambridge local examination were reportedly children. seen by conditions before scheduled date of the examination. Examination leakage have Concept of Examination Malpractice featured regularly since then in Nigeria. In the just concluded UTME of April, 2013, NSCDS Various authors have defined examination arrested 82 person over examination malpractices in a number of ways. It can be malpractice in Abeokuta Alone (Daud, 2013); defined as any form of behaviour/ conduct Auchi polytechnic expelled 74 students over which is inconsistent with and at variance with examination malpractice in 2011/2013 expected examination behaviour—that is any academic session. (Mustapha, 2013). Shonekan behaviour/ conduct that connotes cheating (1996) opinions that 1992 – 1995 a total of 2, before, during and after an examination. 818, 679 conditions sat for the May/June and Attempts by examination officials and November/December senior school teachers/ lecturers to falsify examination certificate examination and 350, 902 scores also constitute examination malpractice candidate’s results were withhold for (Yakubu, 2010). Salami (1994) defined examination malpractices. Oriole (2003) examination malpractice as an improper and reports that in 2003 JAMB (Joint Admission dishonest act associated with examination with and matriculation Board) 1, 099, 241 sat for the a view to obtaining universities advantage. examination and 116, 990 candidates Shonkan (1996) define it as any act of omission representing 11.5% results were withhold for or commission that contravenes the rules and various examination offences. In 2006, regulation of the examination body to the fourteen years after, Jimoh (2009) states that extent of undermining the validity and the federal ministry of education blacklisted reliability of the tests and ultimately the and derecognized 324 secondary schools integrity of the certificate issued. Writing in across the nation as certain for conducting concurrence, Maicibi (2003: 153) states that:

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Over thirty-three forms of examination examination full of malpractice by those malpractice have been identified…These have who want to make it by all means. been categorized into nine classifications. 2. Economics factors: This occur due to the These are externally aided collusion, internally dwindling economics standard, low aided collusion, inspection accreditation, hi- income to meet the over growing human tech fraud, leakages, admissions, wants, lecturers and supervisor engaged in impersonation, computer fraud and assault/ misconduct and malpractice, these they do intimidation. Perpetrators of examination in exchange of money, gift items, contracts malpractice comprise not just students, but and other mouth-watery offers from either also school administrators, teachers, the candidates or their advocate. Ogri examination officers, examiners, security (1998) stated that Nigeria and those in agents, staff of examination bodies, printers, charge of examinations are blind folded gatemen, transporters, education inspectors, with money from candidates. schools communities and parents. These 3. Absence of proper guidance and agents and actors of fraud operate in primary, counselling both at home and in the secondary and tertiary institutions. school: Writing on the menace of examination 4. Parent sometimes in their pride force malpractice in Nigeria, Olatoye (2015) also causes on their children not minding the concurs with Maicibi (2003: 153) on the capacity of the effective, cognition or rampant incidence of malpractice in the psychomotor domains of the wards the country thus; imposition (Peter and Job, 2013). Examination malpractice in Nigeria and 5. Poor academic background of the indeed in many countries of the world is students and fair of failure: Poor and already a cankerworm. It has attained an unconducive examination environment. alarming proportion and also endemic to Psychological factors: Students faces educational systems all over the world. The stress from parent, peer groups and their problem is hydra-headed and has defied peer students. They experience enormous most recommended solutions. The stress and anxiety in trying to meet the categories of people involved in various demands of subjects. Attention is examination malpractices are many and the mostly drawn into the state of forms of examination malpractices are preparedness of students or examination, almost without end. It takes place at all the selection of students for promotion, educational levels, it is a concern to all teaching and learning facilities, the stakeholders in education and it takes place qualities of teachers in educational services in both internal and external examinations. determines to a very large extent, the Children, youths and adults are involved quality and standard of the educational system. Without good and efficient teachers, the school system would find it Causes of Examination Malpractice extremely difficult to assist the society in 1. Sociological factors: These arise from realizing its developmental goals as no what the society makes use of examination nation can rise above the quality of its results for. Nigeria society places too teachers. (Peter and Job, 2013). much emphasis on certificates obtained 6. Insufficient equipment and teaching and examination passed on its own facilities in schools: Lack of equipment determinants. Paper qualification and and teaching facilities in schools are certificates serves as means of getting well indicators that the commitment of paid jobs achievement of social status. Nigerian government to funding While is not like that four decades ago, education has dwindle considerably, if a there was little emphasis attached to school is not well funded, the expectant certificate before getting a job but today, result will lead to examination malpractice. achievement and social progress are no This agrees with the view of Yakubu, longer based on input and competence (2004), who stated that, where school are but on more certificate and qualification. not properly equipped with necessary This motivate the struggle for certification facilities and adequate teachers, the by any means and in turn causes teachers will not be able to attain the

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desired aim of making the subject simple, corrupt practices. It is no more a shame to interesting and meaningful to the students. be caught cheating in examination, Several authors on the subject of examination because corruption has become a way of malpractice agree on the aforementioned life for many and almost a daily routine of causes of examination malpractice. For the vast majority. Now follow, office instance, Adewuyi (2015) observes that many holders cheat and embezzle public funds, factors contribute to this menace, adding that men and women do same in their offices, they can be grouped under the following housewives cheat on their husbands and headings: would steal too, if given the opportunity. 1. Students’ Factors: First on the list here is But that is not all; law enforcement agents laziness and inadequate preparation for are not free from bribery, teachers in examination. This confirms the saying, “he schools and even school administrators who fails to prepare, prepares to fail”, and are not exempted from one corrupt act or since many who failed in preparation are the other, politicians deceive the bent on passing at all cost; cheating electorates and many religious leaders do becomes their only option. Another factor worse using the name of God. Tell me contributing to examination malpractice in then how and why students should not relation to students is crave for paper cheat. Poor state of infrastructure in qualifications without the willingness to schools, long closure of schools following acquire relevant knowledge and skills. strike actions, poor funding for education, 2. Parents’ Factors: The fact that loss of the true sense of value or faulty examination malpractice is traceable to value system; all point to one thing, parents is not in doubt. It is no more news corrupt system of national life. This has to hear of parents paying for mercenaries affected all aspects of our national life and to write examinations on behalf of their is playing out in the educational sector; it children. Some go to bribe teachers or buy could truly be said to be at the root of live examination papers for their children. examination malpractice. This of course has contributed in no small 5. Examination bodies’ factor: It is way to the menace of this terrible monster. unimaginable why examination bodies It is good and proper for parents to desire would be listed among those facilitating good success for their children/wards, but examination malpractices. It is however wrong and condemnable if they would not in doubt that many officials of find no way of helping them succeed other examination bodies join fraudulent than aiding them one way or the other in teachers and sometimes school examination malpractice. administrators not only to allow cheating 3. Teachers’ Factors: That many teachers in examinations but promote same with participate in examination malpractice or impunity. Some internal and external encourage it cannot be argued against. It is invigilators are bought over with money, bad enough that many students cheat material gifts, and surprisingly with because they would not study on their women. This indeed is a sorry state. Poor own, but, it is worse when the action or examination facilities, poor conduct of inaction of teachers encourage examination, inadequate spacing of examination malpractice. Some teachers students in examination halls, slack leave their student with no option than supervision of examination, inefficient cheating because of the lack of proper invigilation are some of the ways teaching before examination. Some go to examination bodies contribute to the level of collecting money from malpractices. students in exchange for examination questions or papers. Many female students Types of Examination Malpractice pay their way through to excellent grades using what some people call “the bottom Year-in-year-out, students come up with new power”. What a shame! dimension of examination malpractices. 4. National life Factor: To say that Forms of perpetuating examination corruption has been institutionalized in malpractice vary and this research relies on the this country is but to say the least. incidence of malpractice case from the Examination malpractice is just one of the WASSCE in 2008.

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Table 1: Types of Malpractices and Percentage of Candidates Involved Malpractice Candidates % of Reported Cases % of Total that Sat Allotment of choice examination centres to 2,988 4.00 0.024 candidates in external examination. Collusion 1,171 1.57 0.09 Leakages of question paper. - - - Late submission of answer booklet by the 1,376 1.83 0.11 supervisor. Mass cheating 10,365 13.66 0.83 Smuggling of answer scripts inside and 38,347 51.31 3.05 outside the examination hall Dubbing or Xeroxing 19,952 26.70 1.59 Threat to the live of the invigilator/ supervisor - - - Total 74,199 100 5.92 Sources: WAEC State Committee Meeting Of Malpractice Case in May/June 2008 in Nigeria

Table 1 above shows types of malpractice in From table 2 above, it clearly indicated that number/percentage of candidate involved in examination malpractice has been in increase the May/ June WAEC 2008 in Nigeria. and candidates always develop new means of Smuggling of answer scripts inside and outside malpractice every year. In case of reduction in the examination hall had the highest number, one way will lead to increase in the other followed by dubbing or Xeroxing. The last malpractice form. For instance, a reduction in case was collusion i.e. the arrangement late submission of answer booklet by the between the students and the supervisor so as supervision over the years (2006 – 2008) lead to allow the student to cheat in an examination to increase in smuggling of answer scripts hall for gratification e.g. exchange of scripts inside and outside the examination hall. passing notes from outside and inside the hall among others. Consequences of Examination

Malpractice Table 2: Incidence of examination malpractice (2006-2008) Examination malpractice is real and apparent Type of Malpractice 2006 2007 2008 in a multi ethnic society like Nigeria, several Allotment of choice of 0.975 0.83 0.024 others have put forward some dangers and examination centre to consequence of examination malpractice, candidate in external which could be: examination 1. Examination malpractice is destroying one Collusion 1.459 1.59 0.09 of the pillars development and possess serious threat to the future of education in Leakages of question - - - the country (Hassan, 2013). paper 2. Examination malpractice lead to Late submission of 4.432 3.06 0.11 irreversible loss of credibility. answer booklet by the 3. Examination malpractice render the goods supervisor of education invalid (Jimoh, 2009) Mass cheating 0.073 0.11 0.85 4. Examination malpractice has very serious economic, political, psychological and Smuggling of answer 0.206 0.024 3.05 social consequences. For instance wastage scripts inside and of both human and material resources outside the examination (Jimoh, 2009). hall 5. Examination malpractice encourages Dubbing or Xeroxing 0.003 0.09 1.59 corruption within the educational system Threat to the live of the 0.02 0.04 - Managing Conflict arising out of supervisor or invigilator Examination Malpractice and Sustainable Total 7.186 5.96 5.92 Development Source: WAEC (2008) The following suggestions are advanced for

managing conflicts arising out examination malpractice in Nigeria:

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1. Any students/staff caught or involved in the educational enterprise keep in touch to Examination malpractice should be dealt one another with new development in with either be jailed or severely punished their respective field and challenges of to serve as example to others. examination malpractice in our 2. Provision of quality academic background educational system. should be enhance from the grass root 2. National and international boards and (primary and secondary schools). organization should share the information 3. Conducive environment for examination on new threat to examination security and can help considerably in managing conflict procedures for counteracting malpractice. of examination malpractice. 3. There is need for the improvement of the 4. Upgrading and empowering of teacher is economy of the condition of teachers and necessary in order to develop a good Nigeria government should take the quantitative teachers that can pass the funding of our educational sectors more knowledge, ideas, opinions and seriously by ensuring that schools are information correctly to their students. provided with adequate equipment and This can be done through sending them teaching facilities. This will enhance for workshops, seminars and conferences meaningful teaching and learning and put in order to update their knowledge. and to examinational malpractice. 5. Both parents, students, and the general 4. Parent should enlighten their wards on the public should be enlightened on the implication of examination malpractice dangers of examination malpractice. and also guidance and counselling centres Parent should try to be checking the should be established in all schools for performance of their wards in school from students and staff, for moral/religious to time to time reduce involvement of students and staff 6. Establishing guidance and counselling in examination malpractices. channels for students both at home and 5. Provision of conducive environment with the school. Parent should act as a guide to adequate security should be provided in an their children in selecting courses or examination hall in order to reduce programmes to go into but not to in force examination malpractice. them. Where by the school counsellor has 6. Teachers need to be committed in their to guide the students by giving proper duties and teachers well even from the orientation to new intakes on morality and grass root (primary and secondary). career prospects available for them. 7. Vocational and technical education need 7. Less emphasis should be place on to be emphasis in our school for certificates and paper qualification. This is development of skills for self-reliance and so because many graduates have sustainable development in Nigeria. certificates without knowledge and skills. And if this trend is allowed to continue, References the country will end up with doctors who cannot differentiate between vein hand Adewuyi, E. (2015). Causes and Effects of artery, lawyers who cannot differentiate Examination Malpractice. Retrieved May between accused person and the 13th, 2015 from: complainant and teachers who may not be http://www.thepurposedrivenachiever.co able to spell the names of their schools m/2012/11/causes-and-effects-of- correctly (Orbih, 2006). examination.html. 8. Adequate equipment and facilities should Daud O. (2013). Nigeria: UTME –NSCDC be provided to educational sectors in order Arrests 82 over Exam Malpractice to manage the examination malpractice Vanguard Newspaper, 29 April 2013. conflicts. Hassan, I (2013). Nigeria Exam Malpractice a Threat to Our Future Ex-Mister. Daily Trust Newspaper of 27, May 2013. Conclusion and Recommendations Jimoh, B. O., (2009). Examination Malpractice From the findings of this research work, the in Secondary Schools in Nigeria: What following recommendations were made: sustains it? European Journal of Educational 1. There should be in-service training for Studies, 1(3). teachers, where by all those concerns in

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Maicibi, N. A. (2003). Pertinent issues in Salami, B. A. (1994). Examination Malpractice employees management. Kampala: Net and the Integrity of Educational Credentials Media Publishers. Paper Presented at the 12th Annual Mustapha O. (2013). Auchi Polytechnic Expels Conference of the Association for 74 Over Examination Malpractice Educational Assessment in Africa (AEAA) Privileged Magazine.net. Retrieved on September, 19th – 21st, Accra, Ghana. 01/06/2013. Shonekan, M.O. (1996) Various Forms of Ogri, O.J (1998) Tackling Examination Examination Malpractice and WAEC Malpractice. Vanguard. Tuesday, Jan 6th Penalties for them. Paper Presented at the Olatoye, R. A. (2015). Checking the menace of Symposium Organized by the Federal examination malpractice: a call for more Ministry of Education “Character teaching and learning in schools. Retrieved Formation in Secondary Schools”, May 22, 10th April 2015 from: National Theatre Lagos. http://www.naere.org.ng/journal/checkin Ukpepi, B. U. C., Obinna, I. E. (2012). A g_menace_examination_malpractice.pdf. Perception of Examination Malpractice and Orbih, F.O (2006) Confronting Legal Issues in Pupil’s Academic Performance in Primary Examination Malpractice. The law, Science in Cross River State, Nigeria. Persecution and Judicial Process. A Paper Journal of Education and Learning. 1(2), 21- Presented at a Two – Day Summit on 31. Examination Malpractice in Nigeria Yakubu, S. (2010) Minimizing Malpractice in Organized by the House of Representative Public Examination. The Role of Teacher Committee on Education, Held at the Education System. Journal of Studies in Science Shehu Musa Yar’Adua Centre, Abuja and Mathematics Education, Ahmadu Bello August, 16 – 16. University, Zaria Nigeria 1 (1). Oriole, U.L (2003). JAMB Result at the Glance Newage Newspaper, Lagos, Newage Publication P. 16 July, 29. Peter, O. and Job, E (2013) Causes of Examination Malpractice in the Educational System: A Global Challenge. Paper Presented at the Second International Conference at Federal College of Education, Okene, Kogi State June 10th – 14th 2013.

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EMPLOYEE SELECTION POLICY AND PERCEIVED DISCRIMINATION IN UNIVERSITIES IN CENTRAL UGANDA

Edith Namutebi Faculty of Education, Mutesa I Royal University

Abstract. Complaints of discrimination continue to characterise the manner in which employee selection is conducted in most of the universities in Central Uganda. However, no scholarly attempt has been made to establish the validity of these complaints. The purpose of this paper, therefore, is to shade light on these issues. Data was collected using document review and questionnaires administered to a sample of 450 respondents. These included 50 administrators and 400 employees of 11 universities in Central Uganda. Data was analysed using descriptive statistics, correlation, regression and content analysis. Findings validate the complaints by showing that discrimination was indeed practiced in the selection of employees in all the public and private universities in the region. All the universities’ employee selection guidelines related significantly but negatively with employee discrimination but this discrimination related positively with the manner in which the guidelines were observed. These findings led to a conclusion that the guidelines are non-discriminatory. Discrimination was due to failure to observe the guidelines.

Introduction appointing authority to extend the term of office of the secretary who was to be replaced Accusations of discrimination in the selection (Anguyo & Kagolo, 2014; Walusimbi, 2014). of employees have been and continue to be Many candidates shortlisted to be interviewed levelled against many employing organisations for different posts in Central Uganda Revenue in Central Uganda, including universities. A Authority, Central Uganda Police Force, and number of job applicants allege that they are Central Uganda People’s Defence Forces claim not considered for the vacancies being filled that they are discriminated against not because not because they do not qualify, but because of of merit but because of their ethnic and their other non-merit considerations such as political backgrounds (The Observer, 2009; gender, ethnicity, religion, political affiliation, Amissah, 2006). Leaders of the Muslim marital status, disability, nationality, physical community of Central Uganda have constantly appearance, and other attributes (Mwenda, made claims that Muslims are side-lined when 2009; Naisiko, 2009; Tumwine, 2009; Mbanga, selecting employees to fill vacancies in many 2008; Visitation Committee, 2007). These organisations in Central Uganda, including claims are made with discontent among many universities (Kasenene, 2005). Similar claims job applicants, especially those who get have also been made about universities in shortlisted and interviewed only to find that Uganda (Katusiime-Muhwezi, 2010). they have been declared unsuccessful. They get One of the 2006 candidates who were exasperated with some claiming that they pass shortlisted for the post of Vice Chancellor of the selection interviews much better than Makerere University claimed that on merit those finally selected to fill the vacancies. grounds, he had emerged out of the selection Illustrations abound. interviews as the best candidate, but had been In the selection of the new Secretary to the discriminated against based on his ethnicity Central Uganda National Examinations Board (Katunguka, 2006). Another example is the in 2014, one of the candidates claimed that he 2009 case in which over 50 candidates accused had emerged as the best but had been replaced Makerere University of discriminating against by another who had not done well. This led to them. These candidates averred that they had the intervention of Inspector General of been interviewed and declared successful for Government (IGG) and even prompted the different posts of administrative assistants and

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Namutebi: Employee Selection Policy & Discrimination in Ugandan Universities assistant accounts at Makerere University, but to them respond to the discrimination by not all of them were mysteriously replaced by other supporting any practicing university either as persons (Izama, 2013). Discrimination has also suppliers of its inputs at competitive costs or been reported in the selection of employees to as loyal employers of its graduates (Scott, promote or transfer. The illustration of this 2007). They also demonstrate reluctance to discrimination is a case that happened in 2002. participate in the university’s problem-solving The then Assistant Academic Registrar of initiatives and in advising it about how to Makerere University claimed that he was perform better in the market (Kochan et al., overdue for promotion but was being 2003). This theory further indicates that such discriminated against by the then Academic universities also invite an arrogant workforce Registrar. In some universities, religious, tribal and untouchables who lead to less than or political discrimination is so entrenched that optimal performance (Guest & Shacklock, some employees have been made to believe 2011; Layne, 2002; Wheeler, 2001). that because of their tribes or religions, they It should however, be noted that the cannot be selected for promotion to certain discrimination explained above is just alleged. positions (Namutebi, 2012; Katusiime- No attempt has been made to investigate the Muhwezi, 2010; Report of Visitation validity of the allegations empirically. It is also Committee, 2007). Other candidates have not clear whether the discrimination, if it really claimed that they have been missing out on occurs, is occasioned by the guidelines being selected to fill certain posts because of prescribed by the universities’ employee their gender (Namutebi, 2012; The Cross- selection policies or by the manner in which Cultural Foundation of Central Uganda, 2009). the guidelines are observed. There is therefore All the preceding claims and their need to clarify this situation, more so because illustrations demonstrate that many job universities are expected to select their staff applicants who would have made better members following guidelines prescribed by employees in terms of merit are discriminated their employee selection policies (Lockyer & against and left out. Not only does this deny Scholarios, 2011; Melanie, 2007). The the discriminated employees the job guidelines and their observance are hence opportunity. It is also a violation of their brought into question in case discrimination is constitutional right as per Article 21 (2) of the alleged in this selection. Accordingly, this Constitution of the Republic of Uganda, which paper seeks to investigate the level of states that “a person shall not be discriminated discrimination in the selection of employees in against on the ground of sex, race, colour, universities in Central Uganda and whether or ethnic origin, tribe, birth, creed or religion, or not it is explained by the employee selection social or economic standing, political opinion policy guidelines and their observance. The or disability. investigation is conducted to achieve the The worst part of such discrimination is that following objectives: it also denies Central Uganda’s organisations, 1. To establish the level of discrimination in particularly universities the opportunity to employee selection in universities in select employees with the best talents, skills, Central Uganda according to non-merit knowledge, competence and experience. considerations. According to the inclusion theory of diversity, 2. To investigate the level at which the not only does such discrimination serve to guidelines prescribed by employee deny the universities a chance to attain optimal selection policies of the universities in performance in terms of employee Central Uganda are non-discriminatory. competence and productivity, and in terms of 3. To ascertain the degree to which the competitiveness and success in the market prescribed selection policy guidelines are (Konrad, 2003). It also denies them the observed when selecting the employees of opportunity to select a workforce that mirrors universities in Central Uganda. a fair demographic representation of the 4. To analyse the relationship between the community characterizing the market they employee selection guidelines prescribed serve, thereby limiting their reputation, by universities in Central Uganda, acceptability to and support from the observance of these guidelines and the community (Guest & Shacklock, 2011; level of discriminating of job applicants Harvey, 2011). Indeed, community members according to non-merit considerations. who feel discriminated against and those close

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These objectives are achieved based on performed better during the interviews measures identified from the literature (Nannono, 2000). The discrimination is also reviewed in the following section. exercised in form of the selection panel recommending the preferred candidate instead of the candidate who emerges from the Literature Review selection interviews as the best candidate A plethora of literature has been written about (Heraty & Morley, 2011; Guthrie, 2001). These employee selection, policy guidelines for this observations indicate that selection of process and how the guidelines are observed in employees can actually be discriminatory. The different organizations (see for instance observations are however, not made about Lockyer & Scholarios, 2011; Nannono, 2009; universities in Central Uganda. In addition, Ursell, 2009; Bessant & Francis, 2008; Branine, they do not show whether such discrimination 2008; Saunders, Mann & Smith, 2008; Wreder, relates to the employee selection policy Gustavsson and Klefsjo, 2008; Brislin & Zukis, guidelines stipulated by the organisation or it is 2005; Clark & Colling, 2005; Armstrong, 1994, as a result of not observing the guidelines. 2004; Pulat, 2004; Fehlmann, 2003; Maicibi, Yet a number of studies (Tatli & Ozbilgin, 2003; Noeleen, Shaun & Viney, 2003). Some 2009; Taylor, 2009; MacLean, 2006; Eitelberg of this literature indicates that employee & Mehay, 2004; Heather & Limberger, 2004; selection is a human resource management Hays-Thomas, 2004; Jackson et al., 2003) process that begins with winnowing of job indicate that there is a significant relationship applicants by screening all received job between employee selection guidelines, the applications and short listing applicants whose degree to which the guidelines are observed, qualifications and curriculum vitae correspond and discrimination in employee selection. to those required for the advertised vacancy Literature indicates that staff selection that (Maicibi, 2003). The process then proceeds to translates into identification and choosing of the interviewing of the short listed candidates the most suitable employees should have a so as to identify and recommend to the positive relationship with employee selection appointing authority a candidate who emerges guidelines, which are usually outlined in what as the most suitable for the job (Lockyer & most organisations call recruitment and Scholarios, 2011). selection policies or simply recruitment Research has, however, shown that policies (Tatli & Ozbilgin, 2009; Bessant & employee selection is sometimes conducted in Francis, 2008; Roderick, 2008; Armstrong, a manner that is unfair to some candidates 1994, 2004). The selection guidelines are (Garg & Rastogi, 2006). In some developed from the organization’s goals and organizations, employee selection tends to objectives, and are made specific for particular discriminate against job applicants so much jobs through the job analysis, description and that it fails to identify the candidate most person specification processes (MacLean, suitable to fill the available vacancies (Lockyer 2006). When they are included in the general & Scholarios, 2011; Guthrie, 2001). According recruitment policy of an organization, they are to Nannono (2009), such discrimination prescribed under a specific chapter dedicated thrives in circumstances where employee to employee selection (Lee & Dale, 2008). selection is influenced by patronage, nepotism, According to Wreder et al. (2008), following bribery, corruption, personal interests of top ideal employee selection guidelines prevent managers, or favouritism. The discrimination discrimination because they stipulate what occurs in form of deliberately not short listing should be done in order to identify candidates all job applicants who are better qualified than who, on merit grounds, are most suitable for the preferred applicant; not informing the the available vacancies. They specify the shortlisted candidates about the interviews in qualifications that job applicants should have time; conducting selection interviews in a in order to qualify for short listing. The ideal manner that favours particular candidates employee selection policy guidelines also against others by creating a favourable require short listing of all job applicants who interview environment for the favoured possess the qualifications advertised for jobs candidates, asking them direct and simple and interviewing all the shortlisted candidates questions, and awarding them more marks in a professional and unbiased manner so that than those awarded to the un-preferred every contender feels fairly treated, whether candidates, even when the un-preferred have successful or unsuccessful (Lockyer &

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Scholarios, 2011). They also require exposing whom he or she wants to take up the job being all shortlisted job applicants to similar competed for (Nannono, 2009). Any applicant preparatory conditions prior to being whose credentials are deemed more interviewed administering similar interviews in competitive than those of a favoured candidate terms of the questions asked, questioning style is simply eliminated at the winnowing stage by used during the interviewing process; and the just throwing the application in the dustbin nature of the environment in which the (Nannono, 2009). Employee selection interview is conducted (Saunders et al., Brislin guidelines are violated through tendencies in & Zukis, 2005; Clark & Colling, 2005). which interviews or tests are leaked to Ideal employee selection policy guidelines particular job applicants so that they can also require that interviewers administer the prepare before appearing for the interviews interviews in a manner that radiates a feeling in (Lee & Dale, 2008). This is done to create the interviewees that they (the interviewers) are opportunities for favoured candidates to pass acting with integrity; they also require that the selection interviews or tests. In other employees be placed in their respective posts instances, interviewers are bribed to make where they are suitably qualified according to deliberate efforts to violate the selection policy merit established during selection interview; guidelines by being highly subjective rather and that the selection of employees should be than objective when interviewing certain ethical and free of any non-merit interferences, candidates (Tatli & Ozbilgin, 2009; Taylor, including corruption and bribery tendencies 2009; MacLean, 2006; Heather & Limberger, (Ursell, 2009; Bessant & Francis, 2008; Clark 2004; Hays-Thomas, 2004; Jackson et al., & Colling, 2005; Pulat, 2004; Fehlmann, 2003; 2003). They ask simple, straightforward and Noeleen et al., 2003). According to Bessant leading questions to the favoured candidates, and Francis (2008), employee selection policy and ask very difficult and complicated guidelines are developed from an questions to disfavoured candidates (Maicibi, organization’s objectives based on the 2003). This is intended to deliberately fail the rationale that when they are observed as disfavoured candidates and pass the favoured stipulated, they translate into selection of ones (Maicibi, 2003). In effect, these practices employees who are most suited to contribute imply that even when the selection policy to achievement of the organization’s overall guidelines are ideal, there is a possibility for objectives. In fact, it has been observed that them not to be observed, thereby contributing such are the ideal selection policy guidelines to non-merit discrimination against employees. and they lead to high levels of non- Could this be the case in Central Uganda’s discrimination. They do not focus on non- universities? The answer is provided merit discrimination but on discrimination of empirically following the methodology employees based only and only on relevant discussed in the next section. qualifications (knowledge, skills, experience and competency attributes such as aptitude, Methodology agility, self-motivation, self-regulation, social competence, and innovative thinking needed Following the observations made by Rybarova to perform a job as effectively and efficiently (2009), the study from which this paper is as required) (MacLean, 2006; Milonakis & developed was designed as a descriptive cross- Zairi, 2004). sectional survey involving a correlation design Research has however, shown that in some and based on document review and a organizations, stipulated employee guidelines triangulation of qualitative and quantitative are not that ideal (Glen, 2006; Clark & Colling, approaches to data collection and analysis. The 2005; Pulat, 2004). In other organisations, descriptive cross-sectional survey was used to these guidelines are not observed as stipulated, explain the nature of diversity management, even when they are ideal (Saunders et al., 2008; the guidelines prescribed by the recruitment Pulat, 2004). The winnowing of job applicants policies and their observance in universities in is often not conducted as per the prescriptions Central Uganda using first hand quantitative of the selection policy (Saunders et al., 2008; and qualitative data collected from different Pulat, 2004). Applications of many would-be categories of universities’ employees. The suitable tend to be simply thrown in the correlational design was used to test the dustbin, especially when the person doing the hypothesis. Table 1 shows the population and winnowing is favouring a particular applicant sample.

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Table 1: Population, sample and respondents Respondents Population Expected sample Actual sample University administrators 96 76* 50 Academic staff members 136,002 384* 210 Non-academic staff members 62,803 382* 190 Total 198, 901 842 450 *Obtained from Morgan and Krejcie (1970) as cited in Amin (2005). Multistage sampling was used to select the the data using document and qualitative sample. This probability sampling technique analysis as well as the descriptive, Chi Square, was used to facilitate selection of a statistically ANOVA, correlation and regression methods representative sample in a highly cost effective of the SPSS program. and time-saving manner. The universities in Central Uganda were first clustered into the Findings following homogeneous clusters: public The findings are presented according to the universities, denominational universities, and objectives of the paper. The first objective was universities for profit-making. After clustering, to establish the level of discriminating against the lottery technique of simple random employees and would-be employees. Chi sampling was used to select universities from Square and ANOVA findings obtained from each category. Eleven universities were employees in response to this objective are selected. They represented 39.3% of the total presented in Table 2. of 28 universities which, according to the Agreeing to the various indicators in Table 2 Education Statistical Abstract (2010), were in (mean close to ‘4’) implies a zero level of operation in Uganda in the year 2010 when the discrimination practiced in employee selection. data used in this paper was collected. This This is the case especially if the degree of proportion was greater than the minimum of agreeing was strong (mean close to ‘5’). In 30% recommended by Saunders et al. (2003) contrast, disagreeing (mean close to ‘2’) to the as the sample size to the required statistical indicators points to discrimination in this representativeness. The selected universities selection, and a high level of it if the level of were 40.4% public, 35.1% denominational and disagreeing was strong (mean close to ‘1’). A 24.5% profit-making. Each category was close examination of the magnitudes of the further clustered into the following mean values in Table 2 reveals they were all homogeneous sub clusters: university close to ‘1’ or to ‘2’. This implies that administrators, academic staff members, and respondents disagreed to all the indicators, non-academic staff members. Convenience thereby revealing that there was discrimination sampling was used to select respondents from in employee selection in all the universities. It each category; it facilitated the selection of the is worth noting that the level of disagreeing sample according to respondents’ availability was not of the same intensity. Indeed, the and accessibility (Amin, 2005). levels of significance (Sig.) in Table 2 were all Data was collected using document review less than .01, implying that all the of selection policies of the selected universities corresponding Chi Square values (χ2) and the and a self-administered questionnaire designed F-values were significant at the .01 level of for administrators and lecturers according to significance. This reveals that the level of the variables of the study. The questionnaire’s discrimination varied across the selected items were identified from the reviewed universities as a result of their type and literature. Respondents’ perception of the foundation body. A numerical scrutiny of the items was measured using a Likert scale of mean values reveals that as far as the type of responses that ran from Strongly Disagree (1), the universities was concerned, those through Disagree (2), Not Sure (3), Agree (4), corresponding to public universities were close to Strongly-Agree (5). The content validity to ‘2’ while those corresponding to private index for the questionnaire was .921. The universities were close to ‘1’. Cronbach Alpha coefficient of the questionnaire was .903. These indices were far greater than 0.7 which, according to Field (2005), is the minimum acceptable threshold. The questionnaires therefore, contained highly valid and reliable items. The data was analysed

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Table 2: Mean scores on description of level of discrimination in employee selection Type Foundation body Attributes of discrimination G P χ2 Sig. D G P F Sig. When selecting employees, no effort is made 2.41 1.41 9.991 .000 1.15 2.41 1.11 11.15 .000 not to shortlist applicants who are better qualified than the preferred applicants There is no deliberate practice of not 2.21 1.13 12.355 .000 1.16 2.21 1.15 19.41 .000 informing the shortlisted applicants about selection interviews Selection interviews are conducted in a 1.55 1.29 6.334 .000 1.09 1.55 1.39 20.21 .000 manner that if fair to all the applicants No interview questions are leaked to any 2.14 1.33 3.988 .000 1.33 2.14 1.36 4.84 .000 shortlisted candidates before the interview During the selection interviews, there is no 2.19 1.31 8.088 .000 1.03 2.19 1.26 7.87 .000 favouritism in questioning the applicants After the selection interviews, no candidates 2.19 1.15 5.058 .000 1.17 2.19 1.34 9.87 .000 are awarded more marks out of favouritism The selection panel can only recommend the 2.33 1.23 7.179 .000 1.03 2.33 1.20 35.96 .000 best candidate at the interviews KEY: D = Denominational; G = Government; P = Private

This suggests that level of discrimination in were denominationally founded. This was employee selection was higher in private than further corroborated by findings in Table 3, in public universities. A close inspection of the which were obtained from descriptive analysis mean values under foundation body reveals of the responses employees and administrators that those corresponding to denominational gave when they were asked to indicate whether and secular private bodies were close to ‘1’ their size and placement were at department while those corresponding to secular public level numerically balanced in terms of critical universities were close to ‘2’. This reveals that demographic attributes like gender, ethnicity, level of discrimination was higher in nationality, race, political affiliation, and denominational and private secular universities religion. than in public universities. Generally, the Asked to substantiate the imbalances, findings in Table 2 indicate that discrimination thematic and descriptive analysis of the was practiced in employee selection in all the employees’ responses led to findings shown in public and private universities in Central Table 4. Uganda, but its level was more pronounced in private universities, especially in those that

Table 3: Demographic balance at department level (%, N = 450) The staffing of my department is balanced in terms of: Yes Don’t Know No Mean Std. Gender 2.5 2.5 95.0 1.03 .011 Ethnicity 17.5 7.5 75.0 1.33 .101 Nationality 7.5 5.0 87.5 1.35 .067 Race 1.0 2.0 97.0 1.01 .001 Political Affiliation 20.0 22.5 57.5 1.41 .353 Religion 17.5 7.5 75.0 1.33 .101 Gender 20.0 22.5 57.5 1.41 .353 Ethnicity/tribe 17.5 7.5 75.0 1.33 .101 Nationality 12.5 12.5 75.0 1.22 .110 Race 17.5 7.5 75.0 1.33 .101 Political Affiliation 0.0 2.5 97.5 1.01 .001 Religion 20.0 22.5 57.5 1.41 .353

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Table 4: Description of imbalances in staff at department level (N = 450) Attributes Description % Gender Male employees outnumber female employees 95 Female employees outstrip their male counterparts 5 Male employees dominate placement in senior positions 95 Ethnicity Employees from central Uganda are far more than employees from other parts of 65 the country put together. Employees from eastern Uganda are so many that one can think the department is 18 for only employees hailing from eastern Uganda Employees from western Uganda are so many that one can think Runyakitala is 55 the official language in the department The people from the north are the majority in the department 3 Nationality Most of the employees are Ugandan 97 Other nationalities are also represented 3 Race Most employees are of the black (African) race 95 Political Most of the employees in the department are in ruling party 29 Affiliation Most of the employees are in opposition parties 71 Religion Most of employees in the department are Christians 83 Most of employees in the department are Muslims 18

The percentage distribution Table 4 suggests 87% of all its 8,993 staff members were that discrimination practiced in staff selection Christians, 53% of whom being Protestants in the selected universities favoured the male and 47% belonging to the Roman Catholic against female employees; Ugandans against denomination. In another university, the other nationalities; tribes from the western and review indicated that 100% of its 19 council central Uganda against tribes from other members, 100% of its seven members of the regions; Christians against Muslims; and board of directors, 100% of its members of the members of opposition parties against those five senior management, and 83.6% of its 376 inclined to the ruling party. The discrimination staff members were Muslims. The ethnic was further confirmed by the findings analysis of the names and districts of origin of obtained from document analysis. This this university’s members suggested that analysis involved a demographic review of the 70.5% of them hailed from the central region sex, ethnic and religious composition of the of Central Uganda and that 86.3% of them members of the universities’ councils, boards were male by gender classification. Generally, of governors/directors, senior management, document analysis revealed that Christian and staff. employees dominated the composition of The review revealed that in one of the most of the universities’ councils, boards of selected universities, 100% of the 16 members directors/governors, senior management, and of the council, 100% of the five members of staff members. It was only in one university the board of directors, 100% of the six were Muslims dominated. In all the four members of senior management, and 85.7% of reviewed universities, male members the 46 members of staff were all male considerably outnumbered their female Catholics. The review showed that in another counterparts. university, 100% of the 18 members of the The second objective of the paper was to council, 99.5% of the seven members of the investigate the level at which the guidelines board of directors, and 87.5% of the seven prescribed by employee selection policies of members of senior management were all male the universities in Central Uganda were non- Protestants. In another university, 90% of its discriminatory. Selected employees described 31 members of the council, 95% of its nine this level using 5-point Likert scale of members of the board of governors, 98% of responses explained earlier. The findings are its members of the top administration, and shown in Table 5.

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Table 5: Description of level of discrimination in staff selection policy guidelines Indicators of employee selection Mean Std. The university’s employee selection policy requires that all applicants with 4.83 .019 qualifications relevant for the advertised job be shortlisted, irrespective of their non- merit attributes The university’s employee selection policy requires that short listing of job applicants 4.61 .015 be conducted by evaluating their applications based on the advertised job requirements. The university’s employee selection policy requires that interviewing of the candidates 4.54 .043 short listed to fill a vacant post be carried out in a professional and unbiased manner so that every contender feels fairly treated, whether successful or unsuccessful. The university’s employee selection policy requires that all short listed job applicants be 4.74 .041 exposed to similar preparatory conditions prior to being interviewed The university’s employee selection policy requires that all short listed job applicants be 4.83 .019 given similar interviews in terms of questions asked and the questioning style used during the interviewing process The university’s employee selection policy requires that all short listed candidates be 4.61 .015 exposed to similar interview atmosphere during the interviewing process The employee selection policy requires that interviewers conduct the interview process 4.63 .013 in a manner that radiates a feeling in the interviewees that they (the interviewers) are acting with integrity The employee selection policy requires that employees be placed in their respective 4.54 .043 posts purely according to merit established during interviewing The employee selection policy requires that the selection of employees be free of any 4.83 .019 corruption tendencies The employee selection policy requires that employees be placed in posts where they are 4.61 .015 most suitably qualified

The magnitudes of the standard deviations in This level was ascertained by asking employees Table 5 were very small, implying that the to describe it using the response scale stated descriptions of the individual respondents did earlier. Descriptive analysis of their not disperse much from the average descriptions led to findings shown in Table 6. description of the nature of each indicator of The standard deviations in Table 6 were their universities’ employee selection policy numerically very small, implying that the guidelines. The analysis of the mean values dispersion in the employees’ description of the reveals that employees strongly agreed to all observance of the staff selection policy the indicators (the means were close to ‘5’). A guidelines of their universities was low. perusal through these indicators reveals that Therefore, the mean values largely reveal how they represented non-discriminatory policy employees described this observance. A critical guidelines. Therefore, agreeing strongly look at the mean values indicates that the implies that the guidelines were highly non- employees disagreed to all the indicators (the discriminatory. As illustrations, employees means were close to ‘2’), thereby pointing to a strongly agreed (Mean = 4.83, Std. = .019) that zero level of observing the guidelines. This their universities’ policy guidelines required all suggests that the policy guidelines for applicants with qualifications relevant for the employee selection were not followed as advertised job to be short listed, irrespective of stipulated. As an example, employees their non-merit attributes. This implies that the disagreed (mean = 2.01, Std. = .011), thereby guidelines were highly non-discriminatory in showing that the employee selection panels terms non-merit attributes of job applicants. were unprofessional and corruptible when The third objective of the study was to administering interviews for identifying ascertain the degree to which the prescribed candidates most suitable to fill vacant posts. selection policy guidelines were observed This was in contravention of the policy when selecting the employees of universities in guideline that required that these panels to act Central Uganda. with integrity (see Table 5).

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Table 6: Description of observance of staff selection policy guidelines Indicators of employee selection Mean Std. When screening received applications, no application for a vacant post is thrown in a 2.01 .011 dustbin if the applicant has the requirements of the advertised job Interviewing candidates short listed to fill a vacant post is not carried out as a formality 2.19 .012 because the preferred person is decided even before interviews are conducted There is no practice of leaking selection interviews to preferred short listed job 1.95 .017 applicants so as to help them prepare prior to appearing before the interviewing panel When administering selection interviews, no favourable interview climates are 2.01 .011 deliberately created for preferred candidates by asking simple, straightforward and leading questions Employees are not selected to fill vacant posts in university based personal influence 2.19 .012 Only relatives of influential people are selected to fill vacant posts in university 1.95 .017 The selection panel is so professional that it is incorruptible when interviewing to 2.01 .011 identify candidates most suitable to fill vacant posts in university Only favoured candidates are selected to fill the vacant posts 1.95 .017 When selecting employees to fill vacant posts in university, would-be suitable 2.19 .012 contenders are eliminated by exchanging them with preferred candidates It is rare in the university to find a less qualified employee selected to fill a post at a 2.01 .011 rank higher than that of a more qualified employee It is rare to find in the university an employee placed in a post for which he/she has 1.79 .002 no relevant qualifications Employees are placed in their respective posts according to personal influence 2.19 .032 Employees are placed in vacant posts in university based on their relationship with 1.95 .017 influential people Favoured candidates are placed in posts considered competitive in university 1.95 .017

To corroborate the findings from employees, candidates on the basis of non-merit attributes. documentary review was conducted by Further effort was made by asking the selected examining the staff selection policy guidelines university administrators to comment on of some of the selected universities. It was whether the selection of their universities’ discovered that none of the guidelines employees observed the policy guidelines as discriminated against any job applicant who stipulated. One of the administrators had the requirements specified in the job commented: advert. For instance, all the policies stated that: Yeah, it really does (employee selection 1. All job applicants with qualifications, follows the policy guidelines). It is difficult requirements and person specification to select an employee who has not fulfilled specified in the advertised post should be the stipulated requirements. That happens shortlisted and interviewed. only when the university has failed to 2. All short listed candidates for a job should identify the person qualifying on all the be exposed to the same interview climate specified criteria. Even then, we normally and interviewed in the same way and by select the applicant who is close. If none of the same panel. the applicants qualifies, we rather re- 3. The interviewing panel should act advertise the vacancy. In fact, that is what professionally when interviewing we did to get the right internal auditor. shortlisted candidates 4. Selection of a successful candidate should The above narrative suggests that the be based only on his or her performance guidelines were followed to the letter. This was from the interview. however, contrasted by three administrators one of whom did it as follows: The above policy guidelines indicate that they Not really. Following the guidelines in place were intended to give every qualifying job depends on who is selecting and who is applicant an equal chance of going through the being selected. The guidelines apply when selection process in the same way. This selecting some employees, but they do not suggests the guidelines did not indeed apply when selecting others. Do you think discriminate against any job qualifying the Appointments Committee followed the

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guidelines to select the current vice It has happened here not once, not twice chancellor and his predecessor? I highly but several times, even at the top doubt. If the guidelines had been followed management level... as stipulated, that post would have been occupied by two different people at the The preceding findings are self-explanatory. different times. They need no further interpretation as far as their substantiation of what respondent Another administrator replied: employees revealed that the selection policy When recruitment is flawed, what do you guidelines were hardly followed in universities. expect when selecting? If the policy is The fourth objective of the paper was to abused right from the beginning, do you analyse the relationship between the employee expect miracles in the successive stages of selection guidelines prescribed by universities its observance? Non-policy guidelines are in Central Uganda, observance of these used to select employees in this university. guidelines and the level of discriminating of It appears those in charge value their tribes job applicants according to non-merit more than merit... In fact, I remember an considerations. The relationship was instance in which one of the two best established using the bivariate analysis method students had to be retained. When the of the SPSS program based on the Pearson selection committee sat to consider who to coefficient method. This was after developing retain, the student with the better marks was the global components (Level of left out because he did not belong to ‘right’ discrimination in employee selection, tribe! prescribed employee selection policy guidelines and level of observing employee Yet another administrator noted: selection guidelines) out of the responses to I think the guidelines have never been the items administered to measure each of followed as stipulated. It is as if they are not these variables. The components were there. The process of selecting employees is developed using the data transformation based on ‘technical know who’. Do you method of the SPSS program. Findings from know that even when you come out of the correlation analysis are shown in Table 7. interviews as the best candidate, they can

manipulate things and end up selecting someone else? Table 7: Relationship between level of discrimination and employee selection guidelines Variables Prescribed Level of observing Level of employee selection employee selection discrimination in guidelines guidelines employee selection Prescribed Pearson (r) 1 employee Sig. . selection N 450 guidelines Level of Pearson (r) -.554** 1 observing the Sig. .000 . guidelines N 450 450 Level of Pearson (r) -.367* .444** 1 discrimination in Sig. .001 .000 . employee N 450 450 450 selection ** Significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed), *Significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed) From Table 7, the correlation (r = -.367) at the 0.1 level of significance. The correlation between the prescribed employee selection (r = -.554) between prescribed employee policy guidelines and level of discrimination selection guidelines and level of observing the was significant at the .05 level of significance guidelines was negative but significant at the but negative. The correlation (r = .444) .01 level of significance. These findings between level of observing employee selection indicate that the prescribed employee selection guidelines and the level of discrimination in guidelines, their observance and the level of employee selection was positive and significant discrimination in employee selection related

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KIU Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences significantly in the selected universities. After establishing that significant relationships However, while the prescribed guidelines and existed between the three variables, linear the level of discrimination related negatively, regression analysis was conducted to the level of observing the guidelines related determine whether the relationships were positively with the level of discrimination. predictive. Findings are shown in Table 8. These findings are discussed shortly. Table 8: Prediction of level of discrimination in employee selection by prescribed employee selection policy guidelines Std. Beta t Sig. R2 Adjusted F Sig. Std. Error Error R2 of the Estimate (Constant) .635 15.854 .000 .661 .659 99.305 .000 .026 Prescribed .033 - -.795 .876 employee .044 .032 5.615 .000 selection .848 guidelines Level of observing the guidelines

The level of significance in Table 7 indicates significant 65.9% (Table 8). The findings are the corresponding F-value (F = 99.305) was therefore consistent with the observations significant at the .01 level of significance (Sig. made by Tatli and Ozbilgin (2009), Taylor = .000 < .01). Therefore, the corresponding (2009), and MacLean (2006). Each of these Adjusted R-Square value of .659 indicates that scholars found out that a significant both the prescribed employee selection relationship exists between employee selection guidelines and the level of observing them guidelines, the degree to which the guidelines predicted the level of discrimination in are observed, and discrimination in employee employee selection in the selected universities selection. The findings indicate however, that by a significant 65.9%. This implies that the the prescribed employee selection guidelines prescribed guidelines and their observance related negatively with the level of caused discrimination in employee selection in discrimination. This suggests that the two Central Uganda’s universities in a significant variables varied in opposite directions. In other manner. Individually however, the guidelines words, the prescribed employee selection were by themselves not a significant predictor guidelines opposed discrimination. This of this discrimination (Beta = -.032, t = -.795, suggests that following the guidelines Sig. = .876 > .05). Only the level of observing eliminated discrimination in employee these guidelines predicted this discrimination selection, and not following them increased by a significant 84.8% (Beta = .848, t = 5.615, this discrimination. This is reinforced by the Sig. = .000 < .01). These findings indicate that findings in Table 5 as well as those obtained the level of discrimination in employee from document review. These findings selection in Central Ugandan universities was revealed that the guidelines were highly non- opposed by the guidelines but caused by the discriminatory, which suggests that observing level of observing the guidelines. them would definitely eliminate discrimination. This supports Wreder et al.’s (2008) argument that following ideal employee Discussion, Conclusions and selection guidelines prevents discrimination Recommendation because they stipulate what should be done in The findings indicate that employee selection order to identify candidates who, on merit guidelines that the universities which grounds, are most suitable for the available participated in the study prescribed, the level vacancies. of observing the guidelines and the level of Unfortunately, findings in Table 6 and the discrimination in employee selection related qualitative findings obtained from the selected significantly (Table 7). The relationship was university administrators revealed that the predictive indicating that both the prescribed guidelines were not followed as stipulated. guidelines and the level of observing them Moreover, the failure to observe the guidelines determined the level of discrimination by related significantly and positively with the

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Namutebi: Employee Selection Policy & Discrimination in Ugandan Universities level of discrimination (Table 6). In other Operations & Production Management, 11 (19): words, the more the guidelines were not 119-139. observed, the higher was the level of Branine, M. (2008). Graduate recruitment and discrimination. This reveals that discrimination selection in the UK: A study of the recent to which the job candidates were exposed changes in methods and expectations. Career during interview selections was directly as a Development International, 6 (13): 62-80. result of ignoring the selection guidelines. In Brislin, R. W., & Zukis, B. (2005). Evolving fact, individually, the failure to observe these perceptions of Japanese workplace guidelines predicted this discrimination by a motivation: an employee-manager whole 84.8% but the prediction was lowered comparison, International Journal of Cross to 65.9% when it was considered together with Cultural Management, 5: 87-104. the guidelines (Table 8). Clark, I., & Colling, T. (2005). The The findings indicate that there was management of human resources in project discrimination the selection of employees management-led organizations. Personnel required by the universities that participated in Review, 2 (34): 20-35. the study. The discrimination was however, Eiteberg, M., & Mehay, S. L. (2004). not because the universities’ employee Recruitment in the Twenty First Century: selection policy guidelines were discriminatory. What to include in the policy. International It was as a result of failure to observe the Journal of Educational Management, 1(4), 21-34. guidelines. Fehlmann, T. M. (2003). Employee strategic The human resource managers of management. International Journal of Quality & universities in Central Uganda should Reliability Management, 1 (20): 1-21, Retrieved eliminate discrimination in the selection of the February 15, 2009 from needed employees by ensuring that the http://www.emeraldinsight.com stipulated selection policy guidelines are Field, A. P. (2005). Reliability analysis, discovering strictly observed. statistics using SPSS (2nd Ed.). London: Sage. Garg, P., & Rastogi, R. (2006). New theory of job design: Motivating employees' References performance”, Journal of Management Amin, M. (2005). Social science research: Development, 6 (25): 572-587. Conception, methodology and analysis. Kampala: Glen, C. (2006). Key Skills Retention and Makerere University Printery Motivation: The War for Talent Still Rages Amissah, M. B. (2006). The police, the people, and Retention is the High Ground. Journal of the politics and accountability in Central Industrial and Commercial Training, 1 (38): 37- Uganda. Commonwealth Human Rights 45. Initiative. [Online]. Retrieved on December Government of Central Uganda (1995). 27, 2014 from Constitution of the Republic of Central Uganda, http://www.humanrightsinitiative.org/pub 1995. Entebbe: Government Printery lications/police/central Guest, R., & Shacklock, K. (2011). The Uganda_country_report_2006.pdf impending shift to an older mix of workers: Anguyo, I., & Kagolo, F. (2014). IGG halts perspectives from the management and recruitment of UNEB executive secretary. economics literature. International Journal of [Online]. Retrieved on December 27, 2014 Organisational Behaviour, 10 (3): 713-728. from Guthrie, J. P. (2001). High Involvement Work http://www.newvision.co.ug/news/65366 Practices, Turnover, and Productivity: 8-igg-halts-recruitment-of-uneb-executive- Evidence from New Zealand. Academy of secretary.html Management Journal, 1 (44): 180-91. Armstrong, M. (1994). Personnel management Harvey, C.P. (2011). Understanding and managing practice (2nd Ed.). London: Kogan Page. diversity New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc. Armstrong, M. (2004). Human resource Hays-Thomas, R. (2004). Why now? The management practice (8th Ed.). London: Kogan contemporary focus on managing diversity. Page In M. S. Stockdale & F. J. Crosby (Eds.). The Bessant, J., & Francis, D. (2008). Developing a psychology and management of workplace diversity strategy for continuous employee capability (pp. 3–30). Malden, MA: Blackwell. and improvement, International Journal of Heather, C., & Limberger, J. (2004). Can an organization adopt an online recruitment

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Saunders, M., Lewis, P., & Thornhill, A. Visitation Committee (2007). Report of visitation (2003). Research methods for business students (3rd committee to public universities. Kampala. Ed.). London: Prentice Hall. Walusimbi, D. (2014). IGG halts process to replace Saunders, M., Mann, R., & Smith, R. (2008). UNEB’s Bukenya. [Online]. Retrieved on Following employee strategic initiatives December 27, 2014 from right from recruitment: A framework of http://www.observer.ug/index.php?option leading practices. International Journal of =com_content&view=article&id=29722:ig Operations & Production Management, 11 (28): g-halts-process-to-replace-unebs-bukenya 132-145. Wheeler, M. L. (2001). The diversity executive: Scott, P. (2007). The difference: How the power of Tasks, competencies, and strategies for effective diversity creates better groups, firms, schools, and leadership. Report R-1300-01-CR. New York: societies. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton The Conference Board. University Press. Wreder, A., Gustavsson, M., & Klefsjo, B. Tatli, A., & Ozbilgin, M. (2009). (2008). Management for sustainable Understanding Diversity Managers' Role in employee effectiveness and health: A TQM- Organizational Change: Towards a inspired theory based on experiences from Conceptual Framework. Canadian Journal of successful Swedish organizations, Administrative Sciences, 5 (26): 244–258. International Journal of Quality & Reliability Taylor, C. (2009). The multicultural Management, 6, (25): 20-35. organization. Academy of Management Executive, 5 (2): 34-47. Author Bio The Cross-Cultural Foundation of Central Uganda. (2009). Valuing and managing diversity NAMUTEBI, EDITH is a Lecturer in the in Central Uganda: Report of a one-day conference Faculty of Education, Mutesa I Royal held in Kampala on 27th April. Kampala: The University, where she is also in charge of Cross-Cultural Foundation of Central research and pre-service school practice. A Uganda holder of a BA with Education, MSc. in The Observer (2009). Rank saga ruffles NRM Human Resource Management in Education government. [Online]. Retrieved on and PhD in Educational Management from December 27, 2014 from Makerere University, Doctor Namutebi is an http://www.observer.ug/index.php?option experienced educator who has served at =com_content&view=article&id=4823:ar various levels of Uganda’s education system. my-rank-saga-ruffles-nrm-govt Her current research focuses on the Tumwine, C. (2009). National identity management of human resources in development: Reflections on the cases of Central universities in Uganda. Uganda and Tanzania. Makerere University: Unpublished MAPAM dissertation. Ursell, G. (2009). Cross national and sectoral comparisons in human resource strategic management. Management Research News, 3 (12): 19-33.

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INFLUENCE OF HOMEWORK ON STUDENTS’ MOTIVATION AND PERFORMANCE

Mukaila Ayanda Aremu, Rotimi Ayodele Gbadeyan, Abayomi Olumade Sofoluwe University of Ilorin

Moriam Adeyemi Aremu Al-Hikmah University

Abstract. The objective of this study was to examine the influence of homework on students’ motivation and performance in selected secondary schools in Ilorin metropolis. Data were collected from a sample of 440 students. The data were collected using a questionnaire and analysed using frequency counts and simple regression analysis. The findings were that there is a strong relationship between assignment of homework and students’ performance and motivation. Accordingly, the study vindicates homework after which it makes suggestions towards improvement of the ways in which the assignment of homework is done.

Introduction completing sixty minutes of homework each night. One constant issue in a subject Knowing what aspects of learning in the classroom is the completion of homework. In classroom can provide motivation for students order for homework to be a useful tool for to learn and work independently is a topic that student assessment, teachers need to have the teachers need to master. It is important for work brought back into the room. If the teachers to know what will help students learn, homework does not get turned in, it becomes and what makes students to be motivated to a tool that is not an accurate way to analyse the work independently and take charge of their students’ knowledge. If the turn out of the education. Student motivation can influence assignment is very low, this means that the completion of homework assignments and, teacher will not be able to use homework as a subsequently, mastery of the content in which formative assessment of student learning. It is the learner is being instructed. In the past, with this cognizance that this study undertook teachers’ work in the classroom followed a to examine the influence of homework simple routine. The teacher would teach a assessment on students’ motivation and concept, give the students a practice page to performance in selected secondary schools in work on in class, and then give the students a Ilorin metropolis. The following hypotheses homework assignment to demonstrate mastery were formulated to guide the study: level without guidance. The teacher would 1. There is no significant relationship then see the learners’ performance the next between method of assigning and day, or in the block schedule two days. It assessing homework and students would become frustrating for the teacher to motivation; and see so many students without their homework, 2. There is no significant relationship and the ones that did have homework would between method of assigning and not be completing it on a mastery level. The assessing homework and students’ teacher would spend many class periods performance. teaching concepts again that he/she thought the students already had learned and mastered. However, today, testing is held in such a Related Literature high regard (Christopher, 2007) and, as One aspect of a traditional education is Gilliland (2002) pointed out, school systems homework. Homework is an out-of-class operate in such a way that homework is activity that a teacher assigns to students. considered as a valuable part of the teaching Homework tasks are meant to extend and and learning process. According to some supplement in-class activities (Cooper, schools’ philosophy, a student should be

KAMPALA INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY JOURNAL OF HUMANITIES & SOCIAL SCIENCES

ISSN: 2413-9580, VOLUME 4, NUMBER 2, NOVEMBER 2015, PP. 127 - 135

Aremu et al.: Influence of Homework on Students’ Motivation and Performance

Robinson, Patall, 2006). An effective about the value of homework, the majority of homework assignment links to classroom parents, educators and policymakers still content and leads students to a deeper support the practice of assigning homework to understanding of the concepts. all grade levels (Vatterott, 2009). Reading, communicating ideas, taking Purpose and Benefits of Homework notes, listening skills, problem solving, Practice and repetition in a particular subject is planning and prioritizing are life skills that are essential in order to build a foundation of basic often reinforced through homework knowledge and skills. assignments. Homework can also teach Homework enables students to master a students to concentrate, write reports, spend process by practice and to increase time alone and develop a curiosity to be a comprehension and retention of information. continuous learner (Bishop, 2008). There are Students learn best when concepts are other purposes of homework not directly frequently reviewed and practiced. Although related to instruction. One is to help students many students learn concepts in the classroom, develop time-management, study, and mastery of some concepts demands multiple organizational skills (Black, 1996). Students, exposures over time (Chen, 2009). Assigning especially those with learning differences or homework potentially frees in-class time for challenges, succeed in an environment that is more structured activities such as explorations, structured. The required knowledge must be investigations, and cooperative learning giving to the students before assessment opportunities. Practicing skills during in-class (Aremu & Ajayi, 2014). Encouraging students time is an inefficient use of learning time. to keep a daily homework planner to organize Assigning homework is thus an ideal work may develop important organizational opportunity for students to practice skills skills. Students with an established homework without rigid time constraints. There are many routine strengthen and build time- controversies and arguments concerning management and study skills (Scholastic homework with debates waging for decades Parents, 1996). Assignments require students (Vatterott, 2009). Several references on the to be cognizant of time restraints and subject include the following: the Case against deadlines; building responsibility and Homework (Bennett and Kalish, 2006), the accountability into the busy schedules of high Homework Myth (Kohn, 2006) and rethinking school students. homework, best Practices that support diverse Students learn to work on assignments, needs (Vatterrott, 2009). even when they do not want to, and thus adjust The traditional beliefs of the benefits of to the demand of a specific task (Johnson & homework, especially in the elementary grade Pontius, 1989). Self-directed learning can be levels, are now being challenged. The authors, enhanced with homework by requiring however, allude to some benefits of assigning students to use outside resources like libraries, homework to secondary students. In contrast, the internet and various reference materials. some continue to support the idea of Actively engaging in homework assignments homework, although a growing number of encourages students to be advocates of their teachers and parents are beginning to question own learning (Chen, 2009). Another non- and criticize the practice (Vatterott, 2009). The instructional purpose of assigning homework notion that homework will promote a higher is to encourage students to work with their achieving student and that it reinforces peers. The planning of cooperative groups or learning are challenged and discussed at length. suggesting and encouraging study groups are Kohn (2006), states the assumption that beneficial. homework will teach study skills and promote responsibility does not actually pass the test of Parent/Family Involvement in Homework research, logic, or experience. Among those Homework can improve communication who continue to adopt homework as an between families and the school (Centre for essential element of education, questions Public Education, 2007). Discussing remain on how much homework to assign and homework contributes to some of the methods of assessment. Concerns linger on immediate and frequent dialogues between the effects homework can have on grades, families and the school (Gilliland, 2002). attitude and motivation (Johnson & Pontius Parental involvement with the student and the 1989). Even though there is disagreement

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KIU Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences school is a central relationship and can include: boring material and ambiguity produce great rewards for all concerned. material; unclear instructions; difficult and Parental involvement at the secondary level complex homework; homework not a priority; of education does not necessarily mean the forgotten; poor time management, parent is actually on school premises. Support extracurricular activities, and/or after-school in the form of encouragement, sympathy, employment; non-recognition of the benefit, assurance, and understanding all contribute to goal or point of the assignment; the student being an involved parent at the secondary has no place where it is peaceful and quiet to level. work or study; lack of access to the equipment Parents need to be informed and supportive and/or technology needed; family obligations when it comes to the completion of homework and lack of self-study skills and/or habits. assignments (Paulu, 1998). Getting students to do homework can be a challenge and a concern Motivating Students to do Homework for teachers of all grades and disciplines. Early Parental support in helping with homework contact with the family can establish an open and encouraging the completion of homework rapport for future communications. Sharing will lay a foundation that will evolve into good the issues, benefits, and policies of homework study habits and the acceptance of with parents at the onset of a course highlights responsibility that will scaffold into many life its important role in the learning process by skills (Chen, 2009). There are several suggested providing parents an avenue of response and homework tips for both parents and teachers. opening up communication. Parents can establish a routine for their child. Often parents are reluctant or unable to Also, helping students designate a set time and help their student with homework in place where they are comfortable studying mathematics, especially when their child without disruption(s) is essential. Helping reaches a level in mathematics that exceeds students organize is important. Parents can that of the parents’. Parents, however, can still talk with their teen about setting progress goals offer support by quizzing a child, teaching for assignments and courses. study strategies, or securing outside tutoring or Teachers can provide a graphic organizer or other resources. According to Bennett & homework grid for students to record Kalish (2006), a parent’s most productive assignments and due dates (Case, 2008). “job” in the realm of homework is to be a Prioritization by both the parent and the motivational academic role model and teacher is imperative. As students progress cheerleader. through the upper grade levels, homework tasks can be overwhelming. Teachers can also Homework and Student Attitudes help by following a few principles to encourage It is expected that homework should have students to be more compliant with obvious and measurable benefits on the completion of homework assignments. students’ performance. Success in secondary 1. Assign homework activities that are aimed schools’ examinations particularly in Nigeria is at learning powerful curriculum ideas. dependent on the student’s ability to study 2. Give homework assignments that are effectively and efficiently. Students get a sense appropriate in difficulty to challenge of responsibility and accomplishment when students without causing frustration homework is finished. This sense of and/or confusion. accomplishment is even further enhanced 3. Provide students with the needed since the student learns to complete things on resources and tools to do the assignment. their own. Homework, therefore, encourages 4. Weigh the benefits of the assignment with and builds self-discipline in students (Oak, the time and effort required to complete it 2009). Doing homework can lead students to (Black, 1996). develop the capacity to balance the activities in Paulu (1998) gives a number of tips, including their lives. It gives them direction and practice the first three principles listed above, for on managing their time and planning their teachers who give homework to their students. schedule. Homework should be a significant She suggests that the homework expectations part of students’ daily routines. be laid out early in the school year and that There are a number of salient reasons and assignments be varied periodically and not be excuses that made students not to do their the “same-old, same-old”. Personalizing the homework as posited by Case (2008). These assignment can make it more attractive and

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Aremu et al.: Influence of Homework on Students’ Motivation and Performance interesting to the student and bring school and (2000) proposes that extrinsic motivation can community resources into the assignment. vary greatly in the degree to which it is Constructive feedback is essential for students autonomous. For example, a student who does to see the worth and the purpose of the his assignment only because he fears lecturer assignment. Student certainty in the benefits of sanctions for not doing it is extrinsically completing their homework and informed motivated because he is doing the work in supportive parents will encourage students to order to attain the separable outcome of be motivated to complete homework avoiding sanctions. Similarly, a student who assignments. Mathematics is not a discipline attends class because he personally believes it unique to the importance of practicing skills is valuable for his chosen career is also and concepts studied in the classroom, but do extrinsically motivated because he too is doing teachers take the time to discuss the it for its instrumental value rather than for importance of homework and its benefit at the interest. beginning of the term? Do teachers inform Aremu (2014d) suggested that given that parents of the homework policy and the many of the educational activities prescribed in amount of homework they should expect schools are not designed to be intrinsically assigned to their child? Do parents have interesting, a central question concerns how to preconceived beliefs on homework? Students motivate students to value and self-regulate and parents will be more compliant and such activities, and without external pressure, understanding if the purpose and the benefits carry them out on their own. of the assigned homework is discussed along with an opportunity to engage in a dialogue Methodology with questions and answers. The population consisted of all the secondary Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations school students in the study area. However, Intrinsic motivation has been operationally due to considerations for the accessibility of defined in various ways. Basic experimental respondents, the researchers decided to research has rested primarily on a behavioural choose four schools: Government High measure of intrinsic motivation called the ‘‘free School, Adeta, Ilorin, Queen Elizabeth School, choice’’ measure (Deci, 1971). Intrinsic Taoheed Secondary School and Cherubim & motivation is defined as the doing of an activity Seraphim (C&S) Secondary School. The for its inherent satisfactions rather than for judgmental sample technique was used by the some separable consequence. When study. The sample size of the study was four intrinsically motivated, a person is moved to hundred and eighty (480) students that cut act for the fun or challenge entailed rather than across the entire arms of the school system because of external prods, pressures, or (that is, from JSS 1 to SSS 3). Majority (440) rewards. In humans, intrinsic motivation is not of the students returned the questionnaires the only form of motivation, or even of administered to them, representing a response volitional activity, but it is a pervasive and rate of 92 percent. Data were collected using important one (Aremu 2014b). This natural questionnaire. The data was analysed using motivational tendency is a critical element in frequency distribution analysis and simple cognitive, social, and physical development regression analysis. because it is through acting on one’s inherent interests that one grows in knowledge and Findings skills (Aremu, 2014c). On the other hand, extrinsic motivation is a The study revealed that 27.3% students are construct that pertains whenever an activity is male while 72.7% of the students interviewed done in order to attain some separable are female. The implication of this is that the outcome. Extrinsic motivation thus contrasts schools are mixed school and likely to be with intrinsic motivation, which refers to doing dominated by female students. an activity simply for the enjoyment of the It was revealed from the study that 1.8% of activity itself, rather than for its instrumental the students sampled are between 10 – 11 years value. while 10.9% of the sampled students are However, unlike some perspectives that between 11 – 12 years old. 17.3% of the view extrinsically motivated behaviour as students are between 13 – 14 years while invariantly non-autonomous, Ryan and Deci, 38.2% of the sampled students are between 15

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– 16 years old. Only 31.8% of the students assigning homework by teacher motivate sampled are 17 years and above. The students to do their homework better. implication of this is that most of the sample Only 12.0% of the students agreed that students are in senior secondary schools. method of assigning homework by the selected The study also revealed that 11.8% of the secondary schools’ teachers motivate students sample students are in JSS 1 while 5.5% of the to do their homework better. 5.6% of the students are in JSS 2. However, only 2.7% of students disagreed while 2.8% strongly the students are in JSS 3. Majority of the disagreed that method of assigning homework sample students are in SSS 1 and SSS 2 with by teacher did not motivate students on their 22.7% and 50.9% respectively. homework. Only 6.4% of the students in SSS3 were The study also revealed that 66.4% of the captured by the survey. The reason for this was students were strongly agreed that method of that SSS3 students did not have any class as at marking homework by teacher motivate them the time the researchers visited the school. to do homework better. While 20.9% of the The results further revealed that 91.8% of the sampled students also agreed that method of sampled students are Muslims i.e. Islam by marking homework by teacher motivate them religion, while only 2.7% of the respondents to do homework better. The study however, that are sampled are Christian. The study revealed that 7.3% of the student disagreed. further revealed that 1.8% of the students Only 2.7% of the sampled students strongly indicated that they are practicing traditional disagreed. religion. The study also indicated that 74.5% of the The study also revealed that 52.3% of the students strongly agreed that method of students strongly agreed that teachers give assigning homework enhance their them assignment on a daily basis, while 11.8% performance (results) in the examinations. of the students agreed that teachers gave them 13.6% of the students agreed that method of homework on a daily basis. 26.2% of the giving them homework enhance their students disagreed that assignment is not given performance (results) in the examinations in to them on a daily basis while 4.7% strongly the selected secondary schools in Ilorin. disagreed that homework is not given to them However, 6.4% of the students disagreed and on a daily basis. 4.7% of the sample students 5.5% of the students also strongly disagreed. are undecided on homework given to them on This implies that method of assigning a daily basis or not. homework has greatly influenced students’ The study shows that 49.1% of the sampled performance in selected secondary schools in students strongly agreed that teachers gave Ilorin. assignment two times per week, while 33.6% It was further revealed that 71.8% of the of the sampled students agreed that teachers students strongly agreed that method of gave homework two times per week. However, marking homework enhanced their 8.2% and 9.1% of the students disagreed and performance (result) in the examination. The strongly disagreed with this position. This study further revealed that 14.5% of the implies that teachers gave assignment as students also agreed that method of marking claimed by the majority of the students. homework enhance their performance (result) It was clearly revealed from the study that in the selected secondary schools in Ilorin homework are given by the teachers three metropolis. However, 4.5% and 7.3% strongly times per week as 45.5% and 37.3% of the disagreed and disagreed respectively on the sampled students strongly agreed and agreed method of marking homework. They were of respectively. However, 8.2% of the students the opinion that it does not affect their disagreed that teachers did not give them home performance in their examinations. One can work three times per week and also 8.2% of therefore conclude that there is relationship the students strongly disagreed that teachers between homework marking and students’ did not give them home work three times per performance as revealed by the study. week. Only 1 student did not decide on the The study also revealed that 69.4% of the position. The implication of this is that it students’ respondents strongly agreed that means that teachers give homework and those homework has influenced their performance that disagreed may be late comers in the class. (result) in selected secondary schools in Ilorin. It was also revealed that 79.6% of the More also, 13.9% of the students’ respondents respondents strongly agreed that method of agreed that homework has influenced their

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performance (result) in the selected secondary Table 3: Relationship between method of schools in Ilorin metropolis. However, 7.4% assigning homework and students’ of the student strongly disagreed while 6.5% of motivation the students’ respondents disagreed that Model Unstandardized Standardized t Sig. homework has influenced their performance Coefficients Coefficients (result) in the selected secondary schools in B Std. Beta Ilorin metropolis. 2.8% of the students did not Error make any position on the question. Constant .823 .086 9.59 .00 q1 .797 .024 .955 33.38 .00 Test of Hypotheses a. Dependent Variable: students’ motivation

Ho1: There is no significant relationship The coefficient of method of method of between method of assigning and assessing assigning and assessing students is .955 with p- homework and students’ motivation. value of 0.000 less than 0.05% (critical value)

and its corresponding t-test is 33.388. This Table1: Method of assigning and assessing implies that independent variable has homework and students’ motivation contributed to the model. Model R R Adjusted Std. Durbin- Square R Error of Watson Square the Ho2: There is no significant relationship Estimate between method of assigning and assessing 1 .955a .912 .911 .26063 1.892 homework and students’ performance a. Predictors: (Constant), methods of assigning and assessing students Table 4: Relationship between method of b. Dependent Variable: students’ motivation assigning and assessing homework and students’ performance For the first hypothesis, the study observed Model R R Adjusted Std. Error Durbin- that the value of r2 is 0.912. This implies that Square R Square of the Watson method of assigning and assessing students Estimate a account for 91.2% in the students’ motivation. 1 .965 .932 .931 .24794 .929 It means that methods of assigning and a. Predictors: (Constant), method of assigning and assessing students contribute to their assessing homework motivation. b. Dependent Variable: students’ performance

Table 4 shows that the coefficient of multiple Table 2: Method of assigning and determination is 0.932; the implication of this assessing homework and students’ is that about 93.2% of the variation in motivation sustaining competitive advantage is explained Model Sum of df Mean F Sig. Squares Square by variable in the model; that is method of Regression 75.719 1 75.719 1114.726 .000b assigning and assessing homework while the Residual 7.336 439 .068 remaining 6.8% is explained by other factors Total 83.055 440 which are not included in the model. The a. Dependent Variable: students’ motivation regression equation (model formulated) b. Predictors: (Constant), methods of assigning appears to be very useful for making and assessing students predictions since the value of R2 is close to 1. The implication of this is that method of The ANOVA result as presented in table 2 assigning homework is satisfactory. shows that the value of F. Cal is 1114.726 with a significant value of 0.000. Since the Table 5: Method of assigning homework significant value is less than 0.05 or 5%, it and students’ performance means that method of assigning and assessing Model Sum of Df Mean F Sig. students has impact on students’ motivation. Squares Square Regression 90.861 1 90.86 1478.07 .000a Residual 6.639 439 .061 Total 97.500 440 a. Predictors: (Constant), method of assigning and assessing homework

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The calculated ANOVA table is analysed to monitor the amount of homework assigned to see if any of the variables are significant. From ensure its quality and completion. the ANOVA table, F = 1478.071, p-value = The findings of the study also revealed that 0000 < 0.05 (sig.). Since the significant value is students differ significantly in their academic less than 0.05 or 5%, it means that method of performance based on their background hence assigning and assessing students has impact on they must be motivated by giving homework students’ performance. and assignment. The results revealed that continuous giving of homework and Table 6: Method of assigning and assignment will enhance students’ assessing homework and students’ performance. This is line with the result of Oak performance (2009), which stressed that successful student Model Unstandardized Standardized t Sig.have significant higher motivation for Coefficients Coefficients achievement than unsuccessful students. It is B Std. Beta equally important for the teachers in the Error selected secondary schools in Ilorin metropolis Constant 1.059 .068 15.626 .000and other similar schools to ensure that Method of .736 .019 .965 38.446 .000method of assigning and assessing students is assessment carefully examined because it has significant impact on students’ performance. The coefficient of method of method of assigning and assessing students is .965 with p- value of 0.000 less than 0.05% (critical value) Conclusion and Recommendations and its corresponding t-test is 38.446. This The issue of homework ties into many aspects implies that independent variable has of the students’ lives. Homework is a way for contributed significantly to the model. students to take responsibility for their education, and for them to gain more Discussion knowledge and comfort in the content. By the time students enter the middle levels of Homework has been a controversial education they need to be practicing how to educational tool used as an attempt to evaluate study on their own so they could be more and enhance student performance in Nigeria successful in the future as they enter high Secondary School. The historical homework school and college. Homework also provides a controversy has caused an ongoing debate in very needed home and school connection so education and this debate is what led to this that parents can be involved in their children’s research on the influence of homework education. Since the students are at the critical assessment on students’ motivation and age where they need to learn good study habits, performance in selected secondary schools in they also need to have guidance outside of Ilorin metropolis. school to guarantee their success. It is believed that if teachers effectively Though this does not apply to all students, teach a concept, give ample practice and check there is often a correlation between the student submission in class, students would students who are completing their homework not evade learning or practicing a skill correctly on a daily basis and their grades on tests and in as can be done with homework. The findings classroom participation. of this study further validate that homework is The study revealed that there are a few beneficial for students because it will motivate reasons that made students not to consistently the students and enhance their performance in complete their homework. the school. Results of this study have clearly First, if the homework is seen as difficult or shown that, homework had a significant effect has too many questions, the student does not on students’ performance because the entire attempt it, deeming the work as too hypotheses test revealed a positive relationship challenging before even trying. Societies all between the homework and students’ over the world have used education as an performance. However, opportunities and instrument for the achievement of their parental involvement had a positive impact on national interests and objectives. Education is homework completion rates. Teachers must an instrument par excellence for effecting give and assign purposeful homework national development. It fosters the worth and assignments to his/her students and to development of the individual, for the

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Aremu et al.: Influence of Homework on Students’ Motivation and Performance individuals sake and for the general Teachers should be diligent in their duties development of the society (National Policy on and should try to employ the different Education, 2004). All these call for functional methods of teaching in their teaching-learning education for the promotion of a progressive encounter with students based on the outcome and united country. In Nigeria, for example, in of the homework assessment. Parents should order to achieve the goals and objectives of organize home lessons for their children and education, the government set up three levels wards. This will enable them to give any of education: primary education, secondary difficult homework assignment to their lesson education and tertiary education (National teachers. Policy on Education, 2004). Secondary education is the second level of education in References Nigeria. According to National Policy on Education Aremu, M. A. (2005). Motivating and (2004), secondary education is the education Coordinating Workers in a Dynamic children receive after primary education and Environment, In Topics in Modern before the tertiary stage. The goals of Management, Adeoti, J. A. (eds.) 46 – 59. secondary education are to prepare the Published by Department of Business individual for: Useful living within the society Administration, University of Ilorin, and Higher education. The goals will be Nigeria. achieved if the students are closely monitored Aremu, M. A. (2006). Salaries and Wages by giving homework assignment that are Administration System in Nigerian Banks: relevant and are marked by the teachers. Current Trends, in Ilorin Journal of Business Besides, there must be relationship between and Social Sciences, 11(1 & 2): 242 – 255. pay of teachers and work done in order to get Published by Faculty of Business and Social the best in them as stressed by Aremu (2006). Sciences, University of Ilorin, Nigeria. Once there are equitable payment systems for Aremu, M. A. (2014a) Objectives, Hypotheses and teachers, they will be committed to work and Methodology of Research, Paper presented at “A give assignment to students as expected. Day Seminar Workshop on Academic Paper Based on the result of this study, the Writing for Lecturers I and Below” in Al- following recommendations are offered: Hikmah University, organized by Journal Students should be conscientious and and Other Publications Committee (JOPC), empowered to realise that no matter what Al-Hikmah University, Ilorin, 29th Jan. anybody does to motivate them, they play the Aremu, M. A. (2014b). Motivation as a most important role of motivating themselves. strategy for managing employees in No matter the level of assignment giving to Contemporary Issues in Human Resource students to motivate them, if they do not Management, Aremu, M. A. and Isiaka, S. B. respond positively, all the efforts will be a (eds.) 19 – 40. Published by Department of waste. Students should be made to know and Business Administration, College of understand that their destiny lies in their Management Sciences, Al -Hikmah hands. Secondary schools in Ilorin metropolis University, Ilorin, Nigeria. and other Nigeria students should be made to Aremu, M. A. & Ajayi, O. (2014c). Knowledge understand that doing homework is first for management: A fertilizer for enterprises their own benefit as they are beneficiaries of development in Contemporary Issues in Human their academic pursuit before any other Resource Management, Aremu, M. A. and person. They must complete their assignment Isiaka, S. B. (eds.) 140 – 152. Published by within time frame. Teachers should continue Department of Business Administration, to give regular assignment and homework to College of Management Sciences, Al- students in order to enhance their Hikmah University, Ilorin, Nigeria. performance. Schools should give prize and Aremu, M. A. (2014d) Influence of homework awards to students, who perform well, as this assessment on students’ motivation and will help to motivate them. performance in Government High School, Local Government Education section Adeta, Ilorin, Unpublished National should organise awards for best performed Teachers’ Institute (NTI) PGDE Project, schools as this will help both teachers and College of Education Centre, Ilorin, students to improve their academic work. Nigeria.

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Bennett, S. & Kalish, N. (2006). The case against DC: US Department of Education, Office homework. How homework is hurting children and of Educational Research. what parents can do about it. New York: Three Ryan, R. M. & Deci, E. L. (2000) Intrinsic and Rivers Press. Extrinsic Motivations: Classic Definitions Bishop, J. (2008). 10 benefits of homework. and New Directions, Contemporary LessonPlansPage.com.Retrieved13/07/ Educational Psychology 25, 54–67 2014 Scholastic Parents, (1996). Quick click: 12 Black, P. & William, D. (1998). Assessment ways to develop your child’s organizational and classroom learning. Assessment in skills. Retrieved July 13, 2008 from Education, pp. 7 – 74. http://www.scholastic.com/browse/article Black, S. (1996). The truth about homework. .jup?ID=2085 American School Board Journal, 183 (10), 48 – Vatterott, C. (2009). Rethinking homework. Best 51. practices that support diverse needs. Alexandria, Case, A. (2008). Why your students don’t do their VA: ASCD. homework. Retrieved May 15, 2010 from http://www.usingenglish.com/teachers/art Author Bio icles/why-your-students-dont-do-their- homework. AREMU, MUKAILA AYANDA is the Centre for Public Education. (2007). Research current Head and Senior Lecturer in Review: What research says about the value of Department of Marketing, University of Ilorin, homework. Retrieved September 05, 2014 Ilorin. Nigeria. His areas of Interest are: from Strategic Marketing, General Management and http://www.centerforpubliceducation.org/ Financial Management. Chen, G. (2009). Top ten homework tips for parents. Public School Review. Retrieved AREMU, MORIAM, ADEYEMI is a October 19, 2014 from lecturer in the Department of Business http://www.publicschoolreview.com/articl Administration, Al-Hikmah University, Ilorin, es/68 Nigeria. She has degrees in B.Sc. Business Christopher, S. (2007). Homework: A few Administration and M.Sc. Business practice arrows. Educational Leadership, v. 65, Administration from University of Ilorin. She no. 4, (December 2007/January 2008), pp. has defended her Ph.D. Thesis in Business 74-5. Administration at University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Cooper, H., Robinson, J., & Patall, E. (2006). Nigeria. Does homework improve academic achievement? A synthesis of research. Review SOFOLUWE, ABAYOMI OLUMADE is of Educational Research, 76, pp. 1 – 62. the Acting Head and also Associate Professor Deci, E. L. (1971). Effects of externally in Department of Educational Management, mediated rewards on intrinsic motivation. University of Ilorin, Nigeria. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 18, 105–115. GBADEYAN, ROTIMI AYODELE is the Gilliland, K. (2002). Homework: Practice for Pioneer and Senior Lecturer, Department of students or a snack for the dog? Mathematics Marketing, University of Ilorin, Nigeria. His Teaching in the Middle School, September, 2002. areas of Specialization are: Small Business Johnson, K. & Pontius, A. (1989). Homework: Marketing, Quantitative and Health Marketing. A survey of teacher beliefs and practices. Research in Education, 41, pp. 71 – 78. Kohn, A. (2006). The homework myth. Why our kids get too much of a bad thing. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press. Oak, M., (2009). Benefits of homework. Buzzle.com. Retrieved April 24, 2009 from http://www.buzzle.com/articles/benefits- of-homework.html Paulu, N. (1998). Helping your students with homework: A guide for teachers. Washington,

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DOMESTIC VIOLENCE AND PRIMARY SCHOOL PUPILS’ ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT IN NIGERIA

Adesoji A. Oni, Weli Furo Adelinah Faculty of Education, University of Lagos

Abstract. The study examined the relationship between pupils’ exposure to domestic violence against mothers and their academic achievement. It also investigated whether differences exist due to gender and age in the effect of pupils’ exposure to domestic violence against mothers on their academic achievement. The study adopted a descriptive survey and the semi- structured interview method. A sample of 1,023 pupils was drawn from the total population of 1,468 pupils in the schools. Two research instruments were used in the study namely: “Child Exposure of Domestic Violence against Mothers Questionnaire” and “Pupils’ Academic Results in Science, Mathematics and English”. The data were analysed with the use of Pearson product moment correlation and Two-Way ANOVA. The results showed that there was significant relationship between pupils’ exposure to domestic violence against mothers and their academic achievement. However, differences due to gender and age were found to be insignificant. It was concluded that parents need to ensure that the home atmosphere is peaceful and motivate their children for higher academic achievements.

towards other children or frustration with Introduction academic material by behaving disruptively. Childhood is regarded as a period of special Moreover, children with deficits in emotion protection and rights in most countries regulation, empathy, and understanding including Nigeria. Children’s development is emotions tend to be rated as less popular and expected to unfold within a secure and more rejected by their peers. nurturing environment. Where the Research studies such as Belsky (1981), environment is infected by violence and fear, Omoegun and Oni (2008) and Richards (2011) all the normal tasks of growing up are likely to consistently have found the presence of these be adversely affected. School aged pupils categories of childhood problems associated exposure to domestic violence against their with exposure to domestic violence: mothers can result in ‘regressive’ symptoms behavioural, social and emotional problems, such as increased bedwetting, delayed language cognitive and attitudinal problems and long- development and more anxiety over separation term problems. Children also display specific from parents (Margolin and Gordis, problems unique to their physical, 2000).These symptoms may affect children’s psychological and social development. For ability to learn, concentrate in school and get example, infants exposed to domestic violence along with other children. against their mothers may have difficulty Researchers (Zeanah, Danis, Hirshberg, developing attachments with their caregivers Benoit, Miller and Heller, 2009; Margolin and and in extreme cases suffer from “failure to Gordis, 2000) have observed that exposure to thrive”. Primary school pupils may regress domestic violence against mothers is related to developmentally or suffer from eating and difficulties regulating anger, frustration, and sleeping disturbances. They may also, struggle other negative feelings, as well as deficits in with peer relationships, academic performance understanding and experiencing empathy for and emotional stability. Adolescents are at a the feelings of others. These difficulties can higher risk for either perpetrating or becoming lead to significant cognitive challenges and victims of teen dating violence. Reports from social problems for children. As noted above, adults who reportedly witnessed domestic one way in which children deal with violence as children show that many suffer overwhelming negative feelings is through from trauma-related symptoms, depression behavioural distraction. Performance in and low self-esteem. Children who witness academic settings will suffer if violence- violence against their mothers are likely to have exposed children attempt to cope with anger academic problems including grade repetition,

KAMPALA INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY JOURNAL OF HUMANITIES & SOCIAL SCIENCES

ISSN: 2413-9580, VOLUME 4, NUMBER 2, NOVEMBER 2015, PP. 137 - 146

Oni & Adelinah: Domestic Violence and Pupil’s Academic Achievement failing grades, and a need for private lessons and to experience emotional problems, sexual (Wildin, Williamson and Wilson, 2001). problems, and alcohol/substance abuse. At Academic achievement or how well pupils birth, a baby’s brain is 25% of its adult weight, deal with educational challenges and demands increasing to 66% by the end of the first year includes motivation to complete academic due to the ‘brain growth spurt’ which occurs work, success in meeting academic between the seventh prenatal month and the requirement, academic effort and satisfaction child’s first birthday. The developing brain is with the learning environment. Academic most vulnerable to the impact of traumatic achievement is generally regarded as the experiences during this time. New research on display of knowledge attained or skills brain development suggests that exposure to developed in school subjects. Such extreme trauma will change the organisation of achievement is indicated by test scores or by the brain, resulting in difficulties in dealing marks assigned by teachers. It is the school’s with stresses later in life (Perry, 2007). evaluation of the students’ classroom work as Cummings, Pellegrini, Notarius, & qualified on the basis of marks or grades Cummings (2009) identified childhood (Busari, 2002). Academic and social success exposure to domestic violence as being form an integral part of the child’s life. When associated with a variety of aggressive and academic achievement is good, it means the otherwise maladaptive behaviours that can student has done well and when it is bad, it disrupt children's school adaptation and means there is academic failure. Academic academic competence. Such behavioural achievement is the degree to which problems not only interfere with classroom performance exceeds or falls short of what learning, they also hamper children's efforts to would be predicted on the basis of aptitude make friends. According to Tull & Taylor alone. When a child’s academic achievement is (2012), school aged children who witness and consistently low, there is the need to identify are exposed to domestic violence against their the cause and proffer solution for mothers may exhibit symptomatic behaviours’ improvement. Academic achievement may and emotional responses such as: disruption of decrease for children who are exposed to sleep, social isolation, an increase in deviance, domestic violence, as they may be either too lack of compliance, aggression, a pro-violence tired or too distracted and worried to attitude, low self-esteem and poor academic concentrate in class and study at home. Of results. School aged children who witness equal if not more critical importance to violence in their homes may also have academic achievement is the home difficulty concentrating on a task, completing environment. or comprehending assignments. A home Maxwell and Carroll-Lind (2008) described beseeched with domestic violence may affect the impact of domestic violence against children cognitively as they will be unable to mothers on children’s educational opportunity study in a tense atmosphere. Young children as disabling children’s ability to learn. One can who live in households with violence are said compare the loss of liberty for an adult who is to be at higher risk of maladjustment than imprisoned with the loss of education for a children who do not live with such violence child for whom learning is the key to their (Graham-Bermann and Levendosky, 2011). whole future. As with pre-schoolers, school- Studies have also shown that exposure to age children exposed to violence are more domestic violence at a young age may have likely to show increases in sleep disturbances, serious negative effects on children such as: and less likely to explore and play freely and to aggression, phobia, insomnia, low self-esteem, show motivation to master their environment. depression, poor social competence, poor They often have difficulty paying attention and academic performance and problem solving concentrating because they are distracted by skills (Fantuzzo, Boruch, Beriama, Atkins, & intrusive thoughts. In addition, school-age Marcus, 1997). children are likely to understand more about Omoegun and Oni (2010) observed that the the intentionality of the violence and worry society is being engulfed by a lot of social vices about what they could have done to prevent or and criminal behaviours perpetrated mostly by stop it. In addition, studies show that as children and youngsters who themselves have children get older, those who have been experienced some kinds of abuse from abused and neglected are more likely to deficient family structures. Yet, children in perform poorly in school; to commit crimes; families in which such violence occur have

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KIU Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences remained largely invisible as victims. Families children who at an impressionable age are affected by violence against women touch all exposed to violence. The mental and systems and lives in every community. emotional scars they suffer may damage them, Children exposed to domestic violence are in and have long-term effects on their academic our schools, day-care centres, health care achievement. The potential harm of exposure institutions, neighbourhoods and to domestic violence against mothers on communities. As vicarious victims/witnesses, children necessitates this study. they are likely to be affected in so many ways, particularly in the area of academic success. Purpose of the Study Thus, most schools are burdened with The findings of this study would provide students’ behavioural problems such as solutions to the decline in the academic stealing, bullying, truancy, examination achievement of pupils. The data on the impact malpractice, dishonesty, abortion, sexual of domestic violence against mothers on harassment, drug abuse, disrespect, disobeying children who are exposed to it would help the school rules and regulations, laziness, loitering, government and schools to proffer solutions noisemaking, quarrelling, sexual perversion, to the problem through counselling in schools lying, fighting, aggression, vandalizing, playing to both parents and pupils in Rivers State with around and magic, cultism, unwillingness to possible extension to the nation at large. read and riotous living. The thrust of the study therefore is that Research Questions children who are exposed to domestic violence In order to provide answers to the problem of against their mothers have remained invisible the study, three research questions were asked: and their plight ignored. The study sets out to 1. What is the nature of the relationship investigate domestic violence against mothers, between pupils’ exposure to domestic particularly its impact on the academic violence against mothers and their achievement of the primary school pupils’ who academic achievement? are exposed to it in their homes 2. Is there any difference due to gender in the effect of pupils’ exposure to domestic Statement of the Problem violence against mothers on pupils’ Domestic violence against women has been academic achievement? acknowledged worldwide as a violation of the 3. What would be the difference in the effect basic human rights of women, but with the of pupils’ exposure to domestic violence prevalence of domestic violence against against mothers on their academic mothers in the country, children who are achievement due to age? exposed to violence may develop cognitive and psychological problems at home, school and Hypotheses the community. The number of pupils The following hypotheses were formulated: enrolling for secondary school has increased 1. There is no significant relationship only marginally and the massive failure at between pupils’ exposure to domestic national examinations is a course for concern. violence against mothers and their Many Nigerians recognize the grave harm that academic achievement. domestic violence causes to the abused 2. There is no significant difference due to women, but too little attention has been paid gender in the effect of pupils’ exposure to to the harm suffered by the millions of domestic violence against mothers and children who are exposed to domestic violence pupils’ academic achievement. against their mothers. In some cases, the 3. There is no significant difference due to children may also be abused. Also, the age in the effect of pupils’ exposure to Nigerian mass media is awash with cases of domestic violence against mothers and violence against women, not much has been their academic achievement. reported about the children who witness their mothers been abused. The recent legislation with respect to child marriage is a clear Methodology indication of the magnitude of the problem. The study adopted a descriptive survey design Whatever form it takes, domestic violence and the semi- structured interview method. against mothers may affect members of the The descriptive survey design was adopted to household in one way or the other, particularly

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Oni & Adelinah: Domestic Violence and Pupil’s Academic Achievement facilitate the collection of information about the semi- structured interview was part of the the characteristics of the population studied sample selected for the study. Three pupils using a smaller group (a sample) carefully were used for the interview session in 6 of the drawn from the population and the findings 14 public primary schools used for the study. from the sample used to make inferences The schools were used because the researcher about the population. Also, semi-structured identified some pupils in the schools who were interview is a form of qualitative research in very passionate about sharing their experiences which a selected number of pupils are of exposure to domestic violence against their interviewed about their perception, opinions, mothers than the other schools. beliefs and attitudes towards the problem Two research instruments were used in the being investigated. This design is suitable for study namely: “Child Exposure of Domestic this research in the sense that the study Violence against Mothers Questionnaire identified, systematically described and (CEDVAMQ)” (Weli, 2015), and “Pupils’ analysed data on domestic violence against Academic Results in Science, Mathematics and mothers and its impact on the social English (PARSME)” (Weli, 2015). The “Child adjustment of selected public primary six Exposure of Domestic Violence against pupils. Mothers Questionnaire (CEDVAMQ)” is a All the primary six pupils in all the public 25-item questionnaire designed to assess primary schools in Port- Harcourt metropolis, children’s exposure of domestic violence Rivers State, Nigeria constituted the target against mothers. The items were generated population for the study. There were 114 from a comprehensive review of literature on public primary schools in the two local domestic violence against mothers, namely government areas that made up the Port- social, physical, economic, emotional and Harcourt metropolis. The researcher used 10% psychological factors. It has two sections. of the 114 public primary schools in the two Section one focused on the Bio-data of local government areas that made up the Port- participants’ including sex, age, class, name of Harcourt metropolis. About fourteen schools student, and name of school. Section two were used. Port Harcourt metropolis was measured the participants’ exposure of purposely used for the study sample because as violence against his/her mother. This the State capital, it has a good representation comprises twenty-five statements measuring of all the ethnic groups in the state and also has participants’ exposure of violence against a good representation of pupils from other women and the impact on them. The response states. They were between ages 9 and 13 years formats used was a four-point Likert scale: SA- and most appropriate for this study, as they Strongly Agree, A- Agree, D- Disagree, SD- were likely to give accurate information on Strongly disagree. violent incidents experienced by their mothers The second instrument “Pupils’ Academic at home, and also describe their own reaction Results in Science, Mathematics and English to the situation. (PARSME)” (Weli,2015), was the aggregate The selection of the schools for the study mean scores of the pupil’s (who are exposed to was done through systematic random sampling domestic violence against their mothers) in technique. In this case, 114 schools were English, Mathematics and Basic Science at the arranged in alphabetical order, numbered from end of first and second terms of 2011/2012 1 to 114, and picked every 8th school in the list were obtained from the schools to assess their of the 114 schools. The final sample consists academic achievement. These subjects were of 8, 16, 24, 32, 40, 48, 56, 64, 72, 80, 88, 96, chosen, as these are the subjects with whom 102 and 110th schools, making a total of 14 the primary six pupils are assessed for public primary schools were randomly selected placement into secondary schools as there is in Port-Harcourt Metropolis. A sample of no common entrance examination in Rivers 1,023 pupils was drawn from the total State. The three subjects are also indices of population of 1,468 pupils in the schools. literacy, numeracy and basic science, they are These pupils were selected to participate in the the foundation for educational growth and research after their response to the researchers’ development. The internal consistency of the Pre- Assessment Questionnaire indicated that instruments was conducted and established they were exposed to domestic violence using Split-half reliability method. The Split- against their mothers. The sample size consists half method was preferred because of the of 476 male and 547 female. The sample for desire to determine the internal consistency of

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KIU Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences the instruments for data collection. A total of Table 1: Pupils’ exposure to domestic violence forty subjects (20 girls and 20 boys) were against mothers and academic achievement randomly selected and administered Variables Mean Sd Df r-cal r-tab questionnaires, which was split into the even- Violence 70.05 8.44 1021 0.491 0.062 numbered items and odd-numbered items Against separately. This procedure provides two scores Mothers for each participant and was later correlated to Pupils’ 65.71 9.98 Academic provide a measure of internal consistency and Achievement reliability. The Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient *Significant at 0.05; df = 1021; r-cal =0.491; r- obtained was 0.78 for the instrument, critical = 0.062 indicating a high internal consistency. Also, Spearman Brown Split-half reliability Table 1 shows that the mean and standard coefficient was 0.84. These co-efficient values deviation of violence against mothers were were acceptable as appropriately high for study 70.05 and 8.44 respectively while the mean and of human behaviour due to its complexity. standard deviation scores of pupils’ Academic Consequently, the instruments were accepted Achievement score were 65.71 and 9.98 as being stable over time hence their usage in respectively. The r-calculated value of 0.491 is this study. greater than r-critical value of 0.062 given 1021 The hard copies of the questionnaires were degree of freedom at 0.05 level of significance. administered to the respondents by the Therefore the null hypothesis is rejected which researcher with the assistance of the research implies that there is a significant relationship assistants and class teachers who helped in between violence against mothers and pupils’ administering the instruments in the selected academic achievement. schools and all the copies distributed were Hypothesis Two: There is no significant collected. The questionnaires were explained difference due to gender in the effect of pupils’ to the pupils before administrating them, the exposure to domestic violence against mothers class teachers also helped in explaining the and their academic achievement. The results of questionnaires to the pupils. They were the analysis are as presented in Tables 2 and 3. retrieved from the respondents immediately after completion. Pupils who participated for Table 2: Effect of pupils’ exposure to the interview sections were those who domestic violence against mothers on indicated interest in expressing their view and academic achievement by gender sharing their experiences from their exposure Gender Effect of N Mean Std. to domestic violence. Interviews were Violence Deviation conducted at the schools of the pupils. A tape Male Low 150 63.72 9.08 recorder was also used to record the interview. effect The 1023 questionnaires administered were Moderate 113 65.29 10.31 returned correctly filled and used for the effect analysis. The data obtained for this study to High 213 66.85 10.36 test the hypotheses were analysed with the use effect of Pearson product moment correlation and Total 476 65.28 9.91 Two-Way Analysis of Variance statistical Female Low 165 63.51 9.34 methods. All hypotheses were tested at 0.05 effect level of significance. Moderate 133 66.20 10.37 effect High 249 67.32 9.74 Results effect Hypothesis One: There is no significant Total 547 65.67 9.81 relationship between pupils’ exposure to domestic violence against mothers and their Table 2 shows that out of 476 male pupils’ academic achievement. The results of the 150 indicated low effect of exposure to analysis are as presented in Table 1. domestic violence against their mothers with a mean and standard deviation of 63.72 and 9.08, 113 male pupils indicated that the effect was moderate, and had mean and standard deviation of 65.29 and 10.31 while the

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Oni & Adelinah: Domestic Violence and Pupil’s Academic Achievement remaining 213 male pupils had high effect of the f-calculated of 0.233 is less than f-critical domestic violence, had mean and standard value of 3.00 given degrees of freedom of 2 deviation of 66.85 and 10.36 respectively. For and 1017 at 0.05 level of significant p > 0.05. the female counterparts, out of 547 assessed, Hence the null hypothesis was accepted which 165 female pupils indicated low effect of means that there is no significant gender domestic violence against women on pupils’ difference in the effect of witnessing domestic academic achievement with a mean and violence against women on pupil’s academic standard deviation of 63.51 and achievement. 9.34. 133 pupils indicated moderate effect with a mean and standard deviation of 66.20 Hypothesis Three: There is no significant age and 10.37 respectively, while the remaining 249 difference in the effect of domestic violence pupil had mean and standard deviation of against women on pupils’ academic 67.32 and 9.74 respectively. In order to achievement. The results of the analysis are as determine whether gender difference existence presented in Tables 4. in the effect of exposure to domestic violence against mothers on pupils’ academic Table 4: Effect of pupils’ exposure to achievement, a two–way Analysis of variance domestic violence against mothers on was done and the result is presented in the academic achievement by age Table 3. Age Effect of N Mean Std. Violence Deviation Table 3: ANOVA in academic 9 - 11 Low 208 63.42 8.94 achievement by gender years effect Source Sum of Df Mean F Moderate 179 65.29 10.57 Squares Square effect High 316 67.08 10.39 Corrected 2374.01 5 474.80 4.856 effect Model Total 703 65.26 9.96 Gender 36.26 1 36.26 0.371 12 - 13 Low 107 63.96 9.59 Effect of 2254.45 2 1127.22 11.53 years effect Violence Moderate 179 67.07 9.92 Gender * 45.56 2 22.78 0.233 effect Effect of High 146 67.15 9.22 Violence effect Error 99433.49 1017 97.77 Total 320 65.67 9.57 Corrected 104143.77 1022 Total Not Significant at 0.05; df = 2 & 1017; f-cal = Table 4 shows that out of 703 pupils that were 0.233; f-critical = 3.00; Not Significant at 0.05, df between the age of 9-11 years, 208 indicated = 1 & 1017; f-cal =0.371; f-critical =3.85; * low effect of domestic violence against Significant at 0.05; df = 2 & 1017; f-cal =11.53; mothers on the academic achievement with a f-critical = 3.00 mean and standard deviation scores of 63.42 and 8.94 respectively. 179 indicated moderate Table 3 shows that for gender the calculated f- effect and had a mean and standard deviation value of 0.371 is less than critical f-value of scores of 65.29 and 10.57 while the remaining 3.85 given 1 and 1017 degrees of freedom at 316 pupils exhibited high effect with a mean 0.05 level of significance; p > 0.05 hence the and standard deviation scores of 67.08 and null hypothesis was accepted that gender does 10.39 respectively. Out of 320 pupils between not significantly affect pupils academic the ages of 12-13 years, 107 pupils indicated achievement. For the difference in terms of low effect of domestic violence against women effect of domestic violence against women, it on academic achievement with a mean and is seen that the f-value of 11.53 is higher than standard deviation scores of 63.96 and 9.59. the f-critical of 3.00 given 2 and 1017 degrees 107 of the pupils had moderate effect of of freedom at 0.05 level of significance p < domestic violence against women with a mean 0.05 which leads to the conclusion that effect and standard deviation scores of 67.09 and of domestic violence against women 9.52 respectively while the remaining 146 significantly affect pupils’ academic pupils indicated high effect with a mean and achievement. However, for interaction effect, standard deviation scores of 67.15 and 9.22

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respectively. In order to determine whether pupils’ exposure to domestic violence against there is age difference in the effect of pupils’ mothers and their academic achievement exposure domestic violence against women on shows that there is a significant relationship academic achievement, a two–way analysis of between exposure to domestic violence against variance was done and the result is presented mother and their academic achievement. This in the Table 5. supports the research findings of Omoegun, (2001), Campton and Shelton, (2004) and Table 5: ANOVA in academic Busari, (2009) on the impact of witnessing achievement by age domestic violence by children. This finding is Source Sum of df Mean F in line with the findings of Marshall and Watt Squares Square (2009) who stated that childhood exposure to Corrected 2471.89 5 494.39 5.06 domestic violence against mothers is Model associated with a variety of aggressive and Age 128.95 1 128.95 1.32 otherwise maladaptive behaviours that can Effect of 1979.53 2 989.77 10.13 disrupt children's school adaptation and Violence academic competence. Such behaviour Age * 97.57 2 48.78 0.49 problems not only interfere with classroom Effect of learning, they also hamper children's efforts to Violence make friends, another essential task of Error 99335.61 1017 97.68 childhood and an important dimension of Corrected 104013.55 1022 school adaptation. The finding is consistent Total with Maduewesi (2005), whose research Not Significant at 0.05; df = 2 & 1017; f-cal findings revealed that pupils from violent =0.49; f-critical = 3.00; Not Significant at 0.05, df homes can be low academic achievers when = 1 & 1017; f-cal =1.32; f-critical =3.85; * parents are not involved in how their children Significant at 0.05; df = 2 & 1017; f-cal = 10.13; f-critical = 3.00 perform at school and if their homework is done. Table 5 indicated that for age the calculated f- Further, the finding confirms Margolin and value of 1.32 is less than critical f-value of 3.85 Gordis (2000) postulation that school-aged given 1 and 1017 degrees of freedom at 0.05 children face the developmental challenges of level of significance, p > 0.05 hence the null adapting to the school environment and hypothesis was accepted that age did not establishing relations with peers. These tasks significantly affect pupils academic require the ability to regulate emotions, show achievement. For the effect of domestic empathy and attend to increasingly complex violence against women, it is seen that the f- cognitive material. Such tasks are best value of 10.13 is greater than the f-critical of supported by safe, secure relationships with 3.00 given 2 and 1017 degrees of freedom at parents. While the research data on impacts of 0.05 level of significance (p < 0.05 ), which exposure to domestic violence on school leads to the conclusion that pupils’ exposure to performance is equivocal, many children and domestic violence against mothers young people report in qualitative studies that significantly affects their academic the violence adversely affected their school achievement. Also, for interaction effect of age performance. and domestic violence against mothers, the f- As noted above, this researcher is of the calculated of 0.0.49 is less than f-critical value opinion that early academic achievement of 3.00 given degrees of freedom of 2 and 1017 enhances later academic achievement. at 0.05 level of significant (p > 0.05), hence the Performance in academic settings diminishes null hypothesis was accepted which means that as violence-exposed children attempt to cope there is no significant interaction effect with anger towards other children or between age and the effect of domestic frustration with academic material by behaving violence against mothers on pupils’ academic disruptively. Moreover, children with deficits achievement. in emotion regulation, empathy, and understanding emotions tend to be rated as less popular and more rejected by their peers. Discussion Adults exposed to domestic violence as The result of the analysis of Hypothesis One children have been found to have completed on whether any relationship exists between significantly fewer years of school and

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Oni & Adelinah: Domestic Violence and Pupil’s Academic Achievement reported more episodes of truancy during their Chraiber, França-Junior and Barros (2011) time in school compared to non-exposed who reported no significant. Age-related peers. In addition and perhaps related to their differences might result from older children's lack of schooling, adults exposed to domestic more fully developed cognitive abilities to violence in childhood also are at greater risk understand the violence and select various for arrest for a violent crime, and for earlier coping strategies to alleviate upsetting and more chronic involvement in criminal symptoms. This supports the findings of behaviour. Perhaps this could be a cogent Knapp (1998) and Graham-Berman and reason why there is incessant interruption of Levendosky (2011) who stated that children of academic work and school calendar in all ages develop negative psychological effects Nigerian tertiary institutions owing to from exposure to domestic violence and this disruption caused by cult activities on would lead to their academic ineffectiveness. campuses. The findings are similar to that of Omatseye The result of the analysis of Hypothesis (2006), who found that children of all ages may Two indicated that there is no significant or may not have a conducive house, if the gender difference in the effect of pupils’ home is unstable, the children will lack exposure to domestic violence against their emotionally and cognitively. A pupil during the mothers and their academic achievement. This Semi- Structured Interview had said: finding is consistent with Blanchard, Molloy “If my parents are quarrelling I have and Brown, (2002) who reported that both problem concentrating and cannot ask for boys and girls expressed that being exposed to help. My worst moments were when my dad domestic violence against their mothers said he was going to throw my mother out affected their school performance. This is in of the house and when he said he was going line with the result of the Semi- Structured to cut my mother’s ears off, if she does not Interview as reported by the researcher by one listen and do as he says. I was not the only of the pupils. She said: one that could not do my homework; my “If my parents are quarrelling I have brother too was not able to do his problem concentrating and cannot ask for homework,” help. My worst moments were when my dad said he was going to throw my mother out He added that they were too scared to ask their of the house and when he said he was going fathers to help them with their academic work to cut my mother’s ears off, if She does not for fear that he may be violent. Some said that listen and do as he says’’. their lack of sufficient sleep due to the violent situations in their homes makes them sleepy in The result of the analysis of Hypothesis Three class thus causing them to be less attentive to shows that there is no significant difference the teacher during classes therefore affects due to age in the effect of pupils’ exposure to their academic achievement. Therefore, domestic violence against women and their children of different ages and developmental academic achievement and domestic violence stages exhibit differing responses to witnessing against mothers. The hypothesis is not domestic violence. rejected; this implies that there is no significant It is the researchers’ opinion from the age difference in the effect of exposure to findings of this study from the questionnaires, domestic violence. It was revealed that pupils semi- structured interview and the pupils’ that were between the age of 9-11 years academic achievement that exposure to indicated low effect of domestic violence maternal violence affects pupils performance against women on the academic achievement at school irrespective of their age. than pupils who indicated moderate and high effect. Further, pupils between the ages of 12- Conclusion and Recommendations 13 years indicated low effect of domestic violence against women on academic On the basis of the findings for this study, it achievement than pupils with moderate and can be concluded that the problem of poor high effect of domestic violence against academic achievement of school aged children women respectively. Irrespective of their ages, also emanates from a violent home. The study they were all affected by exposure to domestic has confirmed that both boys and girls violence against their mothers. This finding is exposed to domestic violence against mothers supported by earlier studies by Durand, are affected in their school performance. Also

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KIU Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences the study shows that the age of the pupils U.S. cities. Journal of the American Academy of exposed to domestic violence against their Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36 (1), 116- mothers is insignificant as both boys and girls 122. are affected by poor mastery of academic Gall, M. D., Gall, J. P & Borg, W. R. (2007). concepts such as basic maths. Important Educational Research: An Introduction. Pearson developmental challenges set violence- Education, Inc. exposed children on a trajectory towards Graham-Bermann, S. A. & Levendosky A. A. maladaptive outcomes and academic (2011). How intimate partner violence affect achievement. The findings of the study also children. The American psychological association. revealed that the home environment has to be Mercury Publishing, U.S.A. conducive and stable in order for children to Knapp, J.F. (1998). The impact on children strive at school both academically. Parents witnessing violence. Journal of Paediatric clinic need to ensure that the home atmosphere is of North America, 4(5) 355-363. peaceful and motivate their children for higher Maduewesi, E. J. (2005). Benchmarks and global academic achievements. Both the government trends in education. Benin City: Dasylva and schools need to focus on parent awareness Influence Enterprise. programmes in education. It could lead to Margolin, G. & Gordis, K.A. (2000). better pupil’s academic achievement. Posttraumatic stress in children and adolescents exposed to family violence: Overview and issues. Professional Psychology: References Research and Practice, 38,613−619. Belsky, J. (1981). Early human experience: A Maxwell, L. & Carroll-Lind, P. (2008). The family perspective. Development - Psychology, development of posttraumatic stress 56, 407-414. disorder (PTSD) in a sample of child Blanchard, K., Molloy, D. & Brown, C. (2002). witnesses to mother assault. Journal of Family Assessing treatment change among family violent Violence, 12, 241−257. offenders: Reliability and validity of a family violence Marshall, M.A. & Watt, E. P. (2009). The treatment assessment battery. Ottawa: Research impact of federal and state laws on children Branch, Correctional Service Canada. exposed to domestic violence. Journal of the Busari, A, O. (2000). Stress Inoculation training Future of Children, 9, 50-66. and self-statements monitor techniques in the Omatseye, B. O. J. (2006). Family Violence: reduction of test anxiety among adolescent The Hidden Epidemic: Knowledge Review. underachievers in Ibadan metropolis, Nigeria. 12(4) 2-6. Unpublished PhD. Thesis, University of Omoegun, O. M. & Oni, A. A. (2008). Effects of Ibadan. Family Values on the perception and Social Campton, M. & Shelton, J. (2004). A Study of Adjustment of the African Child: A case study of selected adolescent problems as presented selected Nigerian Children in Lagos State Schools. in Contemporary Realistic Fiction for Spo Leczenswo Rodzina. (Society and middle school students. New York: Oxford Family) No. 17, Volume 4, 2008. Published Press. by Faculty of Social Science Stalswa, Wola. Cummings, J. S., Pellegrini, D. S., Notarius, C. The John Paul II. Catholic University of I. & Cummings E. (2009). Children’s Dublin. Poland pp.43-50. responses to angry adult behaviour as a Omoegun, O. M. (2001) A Functional approach function of marital distress and history of to practicum in Guidance and Counselling. Lagos: inter-parental hostility. Journal of child Bab Sheriff Limited. development. 60, 1035-1043. Perry, J.L. (2007). Process and outcome in Durand, D. Chraiber, F. França-Junior, E. & small groups for children of battered Barros, R. (2011). Identifying and women. In E. Peled, P.G. Jaffe, & J.L. responding to the mental health service Edleson (Eds.), Ending the cycle of violence: needs of children who have experienced Community responses to children of battered violence: community-based approach. women (pp. 77-96). Thousand Oaks, CA: Journal of Clinical Child Psychology and Sage Publications. Psychiatry, 8 (2), 187-203. Richards, S. (2011). Children: The unintended Fantuzzo, J., Boruch, R., Beriama, A., & victims of marital violence. American Journal Atkins, M. (1997). Domestic violence and of Orthopsychiatry, 51, 4, 692-699. children: Prevalence and risk in five major

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Tull, K. & Taylor, S. (2012). Collateral damage: Zeanah, K. Danis, O. Hirshberg, H. Benoit, K. Children exposed to Domestic Violence in Violence Miller, M. & Heller, D. (2009). Are Battered and Abuse in Society. ABC/CLIO, LLC Women Responsible for Protection of Their Publishers. Children in Domestic Violence Cases? Stagg, V. Wills, G.D. & Howell, M. (2001). Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 13, 2, 289-293. Psychopathology in early childhood witnesses of family violence. Topics in Early Author Bio Childhood Special Education, 9, 73-87. Weli, F. A. (2015). Domestic Violence against ADESOJI A. ONI (PhD) is a senior lecturer Women and its impact on Senior Primary School in the Department of Educational Pupils’ Social Adjustment and Academic Foundations, Faculty of Education, University Achievement in Port-Harcourt of Lagos, Nigeria. He specializes in Sociology Metropolis. Unpublished PhD. Thesis, of Education and Foundation Studies in University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria. Education. His area of research focus includes Wildin, S.R., Williamson. W.D. & Wilson, G.S social problems in education, teacher (1991).Children of battered women in education, social change in education and development and learning profiles. Journal of social deviances in education—with particular Clinical paediatrics, 30, 299-304. focus on cultism in Nigerian HEIs. He has Yates, T.M. Dodds, M.F. Sroufe, A. and published widely in these areas. Egeland, B. (2003). Exposure to partner violence and child behaviour problems: A WELI FURO ADELINAH (PhD) is of the prospective study controlling for child Department of Educational Foundations, physical abuse and neglect, child cognitive University of Lagos, Nigeria. She specializes in ability, socioeconomic status, and life stress. Sociology of Education with particular focus Development and Psychopathology, 15,199−218. on Gender studies.

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FEMALE LECTURERS’ PARTICIPATION IN CIVIL ENGINEERING RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES AT ONE POLYTECHNIC IN ZIMBABWE

Chikuvadze Pinias, Mugijima Samuel Mutare Polytechnic, Zimbabwe

Matswetu Vimbai Sharon Bindura University of Science Education, Zimbabwe

Abstract. This study sought to explore female lecturers’ participation in civil engineering research and development activities at one polytechnic in Zimbabwe. A case study design was chosen to narrate events and to make comparisons and predictions. The data collected was analysed thematically. The findings revealed that the female lecturers’ participation in research and development activities is of paramount importance since it enables the lecturers to showcase their innovative skills in civil engineering. It was further noted that in the quest to involve female lecturers in civil engineering research and development activities, low self- esteem, lack of confidence and inadequate support are encountered. Notwithstanding, female lecturers at the institution have managed to participate actively in civil engineering research and development activities. It is recommended that the institution: 1) sensitizes its lecturers on the importance of females’ participation in research and development activities; and 2) supports the lecturers to participate in these activities.

improve their socio-economic status. Today Introduction most, competitive technologies are research Gender equality and equity has been an issue based (Thulstrup, 1996) and knowledge is in a number of countries and studies reveal relevant in science (civil engineering) and that gender differences have been a research technology fields is a necessity, for the focus for number of years (Sperandio, 2011). development of new technologies and Studies in various countries, like Australia modification of the existing ones. All should (Tessens, et al, 2011), Greece (Kyriakoussis be under taken by a human resource base of and Saiti, 2006), California (Wickham, 2007), females and males in a society which the Solomon Islands (Akao, 2008), Turkey perpetuates certain behaviours among females (Celikten, 2005), Uganda (Sperandio and and males through socialization (Mapfumo, et Kagoda, 2010), Papa New Guinea (Vali, 2010) al, 2002). Gender socialization starts at birth and Zimbabwe (Nani, 2011) show an under- and it is a process of learning cultural roles representation of females in different according to one’s sex (UNICEF, 2007); as capacities at all levels of the education system, people learn to behave in a certain way, as including polytechnic institutions. The under- dictated by societal beliefs, values and representation of females in different spheres attitudes. Bem (1981) highlighted that humans of the economic raises issues of sustainable learn about what it means to be male and development, social justice and equity and also female from the culture in which they live. a loss of experience and talent to countries and Social traditions and cultural beliefs may make their communities (Sperandio, 2011). it unacceptable for a female to make decisions The economic development in a country is for herself or participating in activities with increasingly dependent on its human males of her age. resources, while the importance of, for According to Amadi and Role (2013) social example, raw materials and proximity to rich traditional environment, creates barriers that markets is declining in an era of globalisation rob females of their human identity and social (Thulstrup and Koswara, 2001). Hence the rights. Gender stereotyping is prevalent in need for the developed and developing nations different settings including the home, school to have a well trained workforce in order to and workplace. Control of females’ lives, as

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Chikuvadze et al.: Female Lecturers’ Participation in Civil Engineering Research & Development Activities well as roles, they perform are some of the According to Mutekwe, et al (2012) in cultural barriers impeding them access to Zimbabwean context, there are challenges of education (Begum and Iqbal, 2007). This is incorporating gender and empowerment better exemplified by the treatment of the discourse into mainstream political and females in issues such as science and occupational landscape. As Zimbabwe is technology (Mapfumo, et al, 2002); where striving to achieve total democracy there is males are believed to be born with certain need for full realization that among the myriad natural abilities, aptitudes or talents that are of exploitative structures such as fighting different from those of females. ideological impediment to the females’ liberty Although the reasons for gender inequalities to participate actively in the previous male vary somewhat across national, cultural and dominated occupational structures such as occupational contexts, the studies also reveal civil engineering. The equitable distribution that females’ careers are influenced by gender and creation of science and technology is stereotypes, gender differences in family necessary prerequisite for the development responsibilities and inadequate workplace and improvement of the human wellbeing structures and public policies (Vali, 2010). The (Aderemi, et al. 2013). However, the disadvantaged polytechnic female civil participation of females in civil engineering has engineering lecturers run the risk of being been and still low around the world (Kishore, neglected and eventually failing if the higher 2008). Generally females are under- and tertiary education, science and technology represented in almost every area of recognised development system falls short in addressing scientific activity (McCarthy, 2003) though their needs. Thus females have internalized participation is increasing in the 21st century negative beliefs about themselves; they (British Council, 2001). perceive themselves as unequal and inferior to In 1999, the Presidential Commission of males (UNICEF, 2004). Traditionally females Inquiry into Education and Training in were seen as nurturers and mainly as providing Zimbabwe presented its findings noting, support for males who work to provide for the among other things, that gender disparities family. However, the liberation struggle persisted at all levels of education ushered in new platforms in which no one was (Nziramasanga, 1999). As a follow up, the supposed to be discriminated against in terms Government of Zimbabwe launched the of sex, ethnicity and religious affiliation in all National Gender Policy in March 2004 whose spheres of life (Chibaya and Gudhlanga, 2001). goal inter alia, was “to eliminate all negative Zimbabwe’s commitment to social justice is economic, social and political policies, cultural more pronounced through the signing, and religious practices that impede equality ratification and acceding to several Sub- and equity of sexes” (National Gender Policy, Saharan Africa and international declarations 2004:3). However, in spite of the existence of and protocols to enable the creation of a policies and measures there appears to be little favourable environment for the attainment of impact in practice. For example, at Mutare gender equity, equality and empowerment Polytechnic, there are fewer female lecturers (Mawere, 2013). than males are participating in civil engineering Gender equality, equity and female research and development activities. This has empowerment are core development prompted researchers to conduct a study objectives, fundamental for the realisation of guided by the following research question: To human rights and key to effective and what extent are female lecturers participating sustainable development outcomes (United in civil engineering research and development States International Agency for Development, activities at the institution? The study had the 2012). The position of females from time following sub-questions: immemorial in the structure of societies in 1. Of what importance is the participation of Africa has never been considered as the same female lecturers in civil engineering pedestrian as that of males. Hence most research and development activities? countries the world over are calling for gender 2. What challenges are encountered by equity, equality and empowerment in political female lecturers when participating in civil structures and career opportunities. However engineering research and development in most instances females remain marginalised activities? in political, workplaces and career decision- making structures in these countries.

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Methodology same time when conducting interviews, which requires “the need to satisfy the needs of your A case study design was used to generate rich line of inquiry while simultaneously putting and relevant information, since researchers forth ‘friendly’ and ‘non-threatening’ questions sought to explore female lecturers’ in your open-ended interviews” (p.107). The participation in civil engineering research and open-ended questions enable the interviewer development activities at the institution under to probe further, giving the interviewees a study. According to Yin (2009) a case study chance to qualify their responses (Dhliwayo design should be considered as an option when and Keogh, 2002). The informants were the phenomenon under investigation cannot offered the opportunity to construct reality be separated from its context. It was important and to think about situations which produces to have a clear comprehension of work more understanding (Yin, 2009). The personal environment of female civil engineering interviews provided the researchers with an lecturers, which could give insight into the opportunity to inquire about informants’ work experiences and life patterns of female feelings, motives and interpretations of the lecturers (Sperandio, 2011). The researchers events (Singleton and Straits, 2010). The were immersed and closer to the social worlds responses given during the interviews were of the informants which enabled the patterns recorded by means of both field notes and tape to be viewed holistically (Stake, 2005). It recording. In designing the questions provided an in-depth analysis which, in turn, researchers were guided by the insights from yielded richness and completeness of the gender neutral approach and literature on the findings (Yin, 2003). This design enabled the topic as well as the demands of the research researchers to understand what informants questions. The findings were coded and were thinking and feeling, as well as how they ‘analysed by hand’ according to emerging communicated, verbally and non-verbally themes (Creswell, 2012). (Easterby-Smith, et al, 2008). Since the study focused on the participation of female lecturers in research and Findings and Discussion development activities purposeful sampling Civil engineering lecturers both females and was used to select the three (3) ‘information- males through day-to-day interactions were rich female lecturers’ as informants from the asked to highlight the importance of female Civil Engineering Department to share their lecturers’ participation in research and experiences in the area under study (Kombo development activities at the institution. Since and Tromp, 2006). For triangulation purposes the respondents are adults and professionals, it the researchers randomly selected male civil is very probable that apart from their interest engineering lecturers to be part of the study. and intellectual acumen, which may predispose This gave the researchers basis to assume that them to participate in research and the informants were knowledgeable on the development activities, there might be other topic under study, hence there were high importance, which may influence them to chances of them providing authentic participate in research and development information. The selection of the informants activities. The importance attached to the was based more on the potential of learning female lecturers’ participation in civil more from them than on the engineering research and development representativeness of the target population activities is therefore discussed in this section. (Stake, 2005). In an interview with one of the female For this study the researchers were the lecturers it was acknowledged that, primary tools for data generation, implying “Our participation in research and that they were at the centre of research development activities enable us to put into activities and this enabled them to subjectively practice the knowledge and skills acquired select events that were investigated. As a during training thereby improving our level primary tool of data generation the researchers of competence in civil engineering.” solicited data through open-ended questionnaire and personal interviews. The This concurs with Andoh, et al (2012) who informants were interviewed individually at the highlighted that the low participation of work places. Yin (2009) emphasizes the females in education generally and science in importance of operating on two levels at the particular hinders the rapid actualisation of

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Chikuvadze et al.: Female Lecturers’ Participation in Civil Engineering Research & Development Activities international goals and aspirations. Females’ takes place in a way that both sexes accept it participation in science and technology without force (Chabuya, et al, 2009). positively correlates with several national and In addition it was revealed by the one male international goals and aspirations, some of civil engineering lecturer through an interview which include economic productivity, social that, development, social equity and sustainable “Most female lecturers in the department, development (Abbe and Momodu, 1999). yes they are actively involved in research In the focus group discussion one male and development activities but they do not lecturer revealed that, want to play a leading role.” “The involvement of female civil engineering lecturers in research and Coleman (1988) in Gyan, et al (2014) as cited development provide them with the in noted that females are less likely to take up opportunity to contribute towards the challenging activities due to lack of confidence social, economic and technological and a relative hesitancy to take up science development of the country by providing related opportunities. This is due to the way solutions to existing problems or new female lecturers are socialised, hence the ideas.” assumption that they cannot take up any leading role in research and development On exploring the challenges encountered by activities in civil engineering the so-called male female civil engineering lecturers when territory. As a female scientist transverse the participating in research and development male dominated science world, low self-esteem activities, the following themes which emerged contributes to fear of failure and fears of being are discussed. An analysis of the staff labelled incompetent (UNESCO, 2011). composition in the department revealed that Mapfumo, et al (2002) noted that the society they were more male civil engineering lecturers perpetuates certain behaviours among males (15) than females (3). Thus they are still under- and females through the way they are brought represented in many occupational sectors of up. Powell and Graves (2003) asserted that the economy especially in the public spheres in when females believe that they are areas such as politics, engineering, sciences and disadvantaged, they may be less likely to technology in general (Jansen, 2003). From express interest in vacant top leadership jobs the generated data the respondents revealed than equally qualified males. This is further that female lecturers’ low self-esteem and lack supported by Onsongo (2004) who noted in of confidence are a hindrance to their many communities, traditional perceptions of participation in civil engineering research and females as inferior to males continue to prevail development activities at the institution. as many people invoke the preservation of According to UNESCO (2011) lack of African culture to justify the subordination of confidence poses a major barrier to females. Therefore female civil engineering self-development for females in science and lecturers at times internalise these barriers and technology industry. this results in a creation of a psychological glass One female lecturer mentioned that, ceiling (Burns, 2007). “As female lecturers in the department we The findings concur with the informants’ are not prepared to play a leading role in sense of self-efficacy as indicated by Nevid some of the departmental activities (2003) and Hellriegel and Slocum (2004). although at times we have better Other studies, such as those of Mitroussi and qualification than our male counterparts, we Mitroussi (2009) noted that females need to tend to come in handy to support whatever feel well-prepared before playing the leading is being done.” role in engineering and technology, while Cowie and Crawford (2008) maintained that This concurs with Kyriakoussis, et al (2006) preparation for leadership roles can help who revealed that females’ reluctance to put broaden their outlook and self-belief. themselves forward for promotion is Data generated from both female and male attributed to the lack of ambition, among other lecturers revealed that female lecturers are not factors. This shows that although gender getting the much needed support to participate socialisation in a patriarchal society creates fully in civil engineering research and discrimination between females and males, it development activities. One female lecturer highlighted that,

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“Yes female lecturers are involved in was further noted that female lecturers research and development activities but we encountered some challenges when are always playing second fiddle to the males participating in research and development in the department, who in most cases are activities in civil engineering. In general, it can assigned leadership positions by the be concluded that at the institution under administration to spearhead most of the study, to a larger extent female lecturers have projects. Due to their posts can influence managed to participate actively in civil most of the decisions pertaining to how engineering research and development things should be done.” activities, despite various challenges encountered during the process. Therefore, it Thus the relegation of females to the is recommended that: background negates the usefulness as a part in 1. Lecturers’ sensitization on the importance the systematic mechanism that yields of females’ participation in research and sustainable development (Ofor and Ben- development activities in the civil Chende, 2011). This concurs with Eagly and engineering department is recommended. Carl (2003) cited in Botha (2013) who argued 2. The polytechnic under study is that males working in the male dominated recommended to come up with a sound environments have better chances for institutional gender policy to direct the promotion whereas females in those situations participation of both females and males in may leave their jobs because of male work related activities. dominance. Therefore females appear to be facing considerable difficulties when References advancing in their career in the civil engineering industry (Moshupi, 2013). From Abbe, F.A., Momodu, A. (1999). Women the focus group discussion one male lecturer education: Implication for good citizenship and noted that, national development. Nigerian Journal of The department has no strategy in place on Citizenship Education, 1(1, 2): 159-166. how female lecturers should be motivated, Aderemi, H.O., Hassan, O.M., Siyanbola, supported or taken aboard in different W.O., Taiwo, K. (2013). Trends in enrolment, activities, for example there is no graduation and staffing of science and technology departmental policy to deal with gender education in Nigeria tertiary institutions: A gender related issues.” participation perspective. Education Research and Reviews 8(21): 2011-2020. This is against the background that the Akao, M.A. (2008). Seen but not heard: women’s National Gender Policy (2004) advocates for experiences of educational leadership in Solomon the elimination of all forms of discrimination Islands secondary schools. Unpublished master’s against females and males in education and dissertation, University of Waikato, New skills training which science and technology. Zealand. This concurs with Priola and Brannan (2009) Andoh, P.K., Bosiakoh, T.A., Afraine, S. findings which associated females’ hesitance to (2012). Motivation and career aspirations of female actively in professional programmes with students studying sciences at Achimota School in insufficient preparation and a lack of training Accra, Ghana. Educational Research and to support those involved in research and Reviews, 7(19): 401-409. development activities. Thus, female lecturers Botha, A. (2005). The role of self-management in in civil engineering department felt that female leadership. Unpublished Master’s discrimination was implicit in the dissertation. University of South Africa: organisational structure or in the attitude of Pretoria. those in authority. British Commission (2001). Women in science, engineering and technology: UK experience. Briefing Sheet 16. Conclusion and Recommendations Burns, G.W. (2007). Invitational leadership in The findings of the study revealed that female public schools. Unpublished dissertation in lecturers’ participation in research and partial fulfilment of Doctor of Education. development activities is of paramount Columbia, Missouri: University of Missouri- importance as it enables them to show case Columbia. their innovative skills in civil engineering. It

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Celikten, M. (2005). A perspective on women master’s dissertation. University of South principals in Turkey. International Journal of Africa: Pretoria. Leadership in Education, 8(3): 207-221. Nani, G.V. (2011). Challenges faced by urban Cowie, M., Crawford, M. (2008). ‘Being’ a new Zimbabwean women entrepreneurs. Unpublished principal in Scotland. Journal of Educational doctoral thesis, University of the Free State, Administration, 46(6): 676-689. Bloemfontein. Creswell, J. (2012). Educational research, planning, Nevid, J. S. (2003). Psychology: Concepts and conducting and evaluating quantitative and applications. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. qualitative research (4th Ed.). Boston: Pearson Nziramasanga Commission (1999). Report of the Education. Presidential Commission of Inquiry into Education Easterby-Smith, M., Thorpe, R., Jackson, P. and Training in Zimbabwe. Harare: (2008). Management research (3rd Ed.). Government Printers. London: Sage. Ofor, M.O., Ben-Chende, N.G. (2011). Government Publication (2004). National Sustainable development and female participation in Gender Policy. Harare: Government Printers. dynamic global community. Journal of Gyan, C., Mabefam, M.G., Baffoe, M. (2014). Agriculture and Social Research, 11(2): 168- Push out or drop out? Taking a critical look at the 173. performance and drop out of students of JSS/HS Onsongo, J. (2004). Factors affecting women’s programme in Ghana. Academic Journal of participation in Universities in Kenya. Gender Interdisciplinary Studies, 3(1): 409 - 420. Issues Research Report Series no. 21. Hellriegel, D., Slocum, J.W. (2004). Priola, V., Brannan, M.J. (2009). Between a rock Organisational behaviour (10th Ed.). Ohio: and a hard place: Exploring women’s experience of South-Western. participation and progress in managerial careers. Jansen, J. (2003). What education scholars write Journal of Equal Opportunities about curriculum in Namibia and Zimbabwe? In International, 28(5): 378-397. W. Pinar (Ed.): International Handbook of Singleton, R.A. Jr., Straits, B.C. (2010). Curriculum Research. New Jersey: Approaches to social research (5th Ed.). New Lawrence Erlbaum. York, N.Y: Oxford University Press. Kishore, L. (2008). Girls, women in science and Sperandio, J. (2011). Creating and supporting technology education. Merinews online women’s leadership in education: Charting the effects publication. of international, national organisational cultures. Kombo, D., Tromp, D. (2006). Proposal and An IIEP Evidence-based Forum, 3 - 4 thesis writing: An introduction. Nairobi: October 2011, Paris. Retrieved November Pauline’s Publications Africa. 23, 204 from Kyriakoussis, A., Saiti, A. (2006). Under- http://doc.iiep.unesco.org/wwwisis/repdo representation of women in public primary school c/SEM313/SEM313_18_eng.pdf. administration: The experience of Greece. A Sperandio, J., Kagoda, A. (2010). “Context and Referred Academic Journal of Leadership in the gendered status of teachers: Women teachers’ Learning 10(5). Retrieved November 29, aspirations to school leadership in Uganda.” 2014, from Journal of Educational Management, 24(1): http://www.ucalgry.cal~iejll/volume10/K 22-33. yriakoussis-Saiti-htm. Stake, R.E. (2005). Qualitative case studies. In McCarthy, G. (2003). Where are the women in N.K. Denzin and Y.S. Lincoln (Eds.). The Australian science? Australian Science and Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research Technology Heritage Centre. Available (pp. 443-466). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. online at Tessens, L., White, K., Web, C. (2011). Senior http:/www.austehc.unimelb.edu.au/wisa/w women in higher education needs and support. saabout.html. Accessed 20, May 2014. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Mitroussi, A., Mitroussi, K. (2009). Female Management, 33(6): 653-665. educational leadership in the UK and Greece. Thulstrup, E.W. (1996). “Strategies for research Gender in Management: An International capacity building through research training.” In Journal, 24(7): 505-522. “Research training for Development” (Ed.). Moshupi, M.M. (2013). Career developmental E.W. Thulstrup. Copenhagen: Roskilde experiences of women in senior leadership positions University. within civil engineering industry. Unpublished Thulstrup, E.W., Koswara, J. (2001). Participation of East Asian women in higher

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education with particular emphasis on science based fields. International Journal of Sociology Social Policy, 21(1/2): 72-83. UNICEF (2004). The comprehensive review of gender issues in education sector. Harare: UNICEF. UNESCO (2011). An assessment of women scientists’ participation in science, engineering and technological industries in Tanzania. UNESCO: Dar es Salaam. Vali, K.S. (2010). Women leading in silence in Papa New Guinea higher education. Unpublished master’s dissertation, University of Waikato, New Zealand. Yin, R.K. (2003). Applications of case study research (2nd Ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Yin, R.K. (2009). Case study research design and methods: Applied social research methods series (4th Ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Wickham, D.M. (2007). Female superintendents: Perceived barriers and successful strategies used to attain the superintendence in California. Unpublished doctoral thesis, University of the Pacific, California.

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CLIMATE CHANGE AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA

Abayomi Olumade Sofoluwe, Ijeoma Charity Ogbudinkpa University of Ilorin

Abiodun Olatoun Akinsolu Osun State University

Abstract. This paper examines climate change and sustainable development in Nigeria. This was necessary because Nigerians are increasingly being confronted with challenges relating to environmental pollution, poverty, flooding, drought, vector-borne diseases, waning biodiversity and desertification. The paper discusses the concepts of climate change and sustainable development after which it identifies some of the barriers foiling development before suggesting strategies for dealing with these barriers. It is argued that, for the nation to survive, it is imperative that restrictions on emission of greenhouse gases are effected. It is also recommended that people engage in economic activities that create wealth whilst leading to technological progress.

Introduction Intergovernmental Panel on Climate The changes that are confronting modern Change (IPCC) (2001) opines climate change societies affect many areas: economic, as statistically significant variations that persist geopolitical, sociocultural and the for an extended period, typically decades or environment. Climate change is the increase in longer. It includes shifts in the frequency and the average temperature of the earth’s near – magnitude of sporadic weather events as well surface our and oceans since the mid-20th C as the slow continuous rise in global mean and its projected continuation. Climate change surface temperature. is a long term change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over period of Radiation Process that lead to Climate time that range from decades to millions of Change years. In the context of environmental policy, A quick explanation of how weather work will climate change usually refers to changes in lead to easier understanding of the concept of modern climate. It may be qualified as climate change. According to Spore (2008) anthropogenic climate changes, more generally each day, the sun emits rays of light onto the known as global warming or anthropogenic earth’s surface. The earth absorbs part of the global warming (AGW). heat reflects another share into the atmosphere The UN Framework Convention on and sends out a third share in the forms of Climate Change (1992) defines climate change intra-red rays. These rays are cushioned by the as “a change of climate which is attributed clouds and water vapour, which stabilizes the directly or indirectly to human activity that earth’s temperature under normal alters the composition of the global circumstances. The gases absorb the terrestrial atmosphere and which is, in addition to natural radiation from the earth and re-radiate the heat climate variability observed over comparable back to earth, thereby, leading to a general time periods. In the latter sense, climate increase in temperature known as global change is synonymous with global warming. warming (Figure 1).

Sunshine

Reflected rays of light from Absorbed by the Earth Intra-red rays from the Earth the Earth Figure 1: Radiation Process Leading to Climate Change

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Sustainable development is the Studies (1989) sees sustainable development as development that meets the needs of the involving the maximization of the next present without compromising the ability of benefits of economic development subject to future generations to meet their own needs. maintaining or enhancing the service and Sustainable development contains two key quality of natural resources over time. concepts – the concept of needs, in particular Akorede and Onuka (2008) sees sustainable and the essential needs of the world’s poor, to development as a way by which the society is which overriding priority should be given. managed in an effective and efficient manner Bebbington and Gray (2001) opines that such that it benefits all and sundry, with sustainable development is a pattern of enough resources still available for the resources use, that aims to meet human needs, continuation of the human race. This is while preserving the environment so that these achievable through the judicious and needs can be met not only in the present but The sustainable development hub seeks to also for generations to come. Sometimes, promote prosperity (economic objective) taught as ELF – Environment, Local People, through growth, equity and efficiency in all and Future. United Nations (1987) used the sectors of development. It seeks to support term sustainable development as to meet the people (social objectives) through needs of the present without compromising empowerment participation of all the ability of future generation to meet their stakeholders, social mobility, cultural identity own needs. The United Nations (2002) World and various institutional developments. Summit Outcome Document refers to Finally, in the tripod, it seeks to maintain the sustainable development as economic planet (ecological objectives) through development, social development, improving the state of the ecosystem, environmental protection and cultural biodiversity conservation, ensuring adequate development. The International Union for the carrying capacity and responding in sustainable Conservation of Nature’s (IUCN) Sahel manners to other global issues (Figure 2).

Economic objectives (Growth, Equity & Efficiency)

Sustainable development hub

Social objectives (Empowerment, Ecological objectives Participation, Social (Ecosystem, Carrying mobility, Cultural identity capacity, Biodiversity & & Institutional Global issues) Development)

Figure 2: Viable Solutions towards Achieving Sustainable Development Source: Onuoha (2001)

It is the increase in the average temperature of Causes of Climate Change the earths near – surface air and oceans since Climate change is already happening and the mid – 20th century and its projected represents one of the greatest environments, continuation. Causes of climate change are social and economic threats facing the planet. attributed to historical and archaeological

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KIU Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences evidence, greenhouse gases, human activity,  Dendrochronology is the analysis of tree solar variation, orbital irregularities, and land ring growth patterns to determine the age use. of a tree. It also indicates the climatic Climate change is defined as a description of conditions for a given number of years. the meteorological average and extremes in a Wide and thick rings indicate a fertile, limited area. Climate is naturally variable with well-watered growing period, whilst thin, the seasons and years. This variability is normal narrows rings indicate a time of lower and is due to the fluctuations of various natural rainfall and less than ideal growing factors: sea currents, volcanic eruptions, solar conditions. radiation and other components of the climate  Pollen Analysis–Palynology is used to system that are still not fully understood. infer the geographical distribution of plant Furthermore, our climate has extremes (e.g. species. Changes in the type of pollen heavy rainfall, droughts, hail, tornadoes and found in different sedimentation levels in hurricanes), which can have considerable lakes, bogs or a river delta indicates impacts on regions of the world. changes in plant communities. Climate change refers to any change, climate  Insects – Remain of beetles are common over time, whether due to natural variability or in freshwater and land sediments. as a result of human activity and is widely Different species of beetles tend to be recognized as the most serious environmental found under different climatic condition. threat facing our planet today. (Ozor, 2009). According to IPCC (2007), the changes in climate are attributed directly or indirectly to Greenhouse Gases human activities and alter the composition of Greenhouse gases are produced mainly by the the global atmosphere over comparable time burning of fossil fuels. The GHG effect is the periods. These changes occur due to variations process by which absorption and emission of in different climate parameters such as cloud infrared radiation by gases in the atmosphere cover, precipitations, temperature and vapour warm a plant’s lower atmosphere and surface. pressure (Federal Republic Government of Naturally, occurring GHGs have a mean Nigeria, 2003). warming effect of about 33oC (59oF) – The major GHG forcing contributions include: Historical and Archaeological Evidence Water vapour which causes about 36-70%, Carbon dioxide (CO2) which cause 9-26%, Archaeological evidence, oral history and Methane (CH4) which causes 4-9% (enteric historical documents offer insights into past fermentation), Clouds – composed of liquid changes in the climate. The evidence includes: water or ice, and Nitrous oxide from fertilizer.  Glaciers–most sensitive indicators of climate change, advancing when climate cools and retreating when climate warms. Aerosols  Isotopic composition of snow, corals and Aerosols are small particles or droplets stalactite suspended in the atmosphere: Sources of  Examining records of the time of crop aerosols are: biomass burning such as slash and harvests, the treeline in various locations burn deforestation. Aerosols produced are and other historical records to make primarily black carbon; Industrial air pollution, inferences about the temperature. which produces soot and airborne sulphates,  A change in the type, distribution and nitrates and ammonium; Dust produced by coverage of vegetation occur and give a land use effects such as desertification; these change in the climate. Larger, faster or aerosols exert a cooling effect by increasing the more radical changes, results in vegetation reflection of incoming sunlight. stress rapid plant loss and desertification in certain circumstances. Human Activity  Ice cores – Analysis of ice in a core drilled from an ice sheet such as the Antarctic ice Presently, the scientific consensus on climate sheet is used to show a link between change is that human activity is very likely the temperature and global sea level cause for the rapid increase in global average variations. temperatures over the past several decades. The crucial component that causes a

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greenhouse gave such as CO2, Methane, forest land is destroyed, carbon dioxide is Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC’s), and Nitrous released into the air thus, increasing the long Oxide to be released into the atmosphere is wave radiation and trapped heat. As we lose human activity. The burning of fossil fuels (i.e. millions of acres of rainforest a year, the nation non-renewable resources such as coal, oil and is also losing wildlife habitat, natural natural gas) has significant effect on the environment. Furthermore, worldwide, warming of the atmosphere. The heavy use of livestock production occupies 70% of all land power plants, cars, airplanes, buildings and used for agriculture, or 30% of the ice-free other man-made structures release CO2 into land surface of the Earth. FAO (2006) the atmosphere and contribute to global attributes more than 18% of anthropogenic to warming. The report of U.S.A. National livestock and livestock – related activities. Academy of Science (2007) emphasized that Specific attributions to the livestock sector “Greenhouse gases are accumulating in include: 9% of global carbon dioxide Earth’s atmosphere as a result of human emissions; 35-40% of global methane emission activities, causing surface air temperatures and and 64% of nitrous oxide emissions. subsurface ocean temperatures to rise. Temperatures are in fact, rising”. Volcanism Volcanism is a process of conveying material Solar Variation from the crust and mantle of the Earth to its The sun is the predominant source of energy surface. Volcanic eruptions, geysers and hot input to the Earth. The energy output of the springs, are example of volcanic processes sun increased and atmospheric composition which releases gases into the atmosphere. changed, with the oxygenation of the atmosphere being the most notable alteration. Effects of Climate Change on Sustainable The luminosity of the sun will continue to Development increase as it follows the main sequences. These changes in luminosity and the sun’s Climate change manifests in a number of ways. ultimate death as it becomes a red giant and The environmental effects of climate change then, a white dwarf will have large effects on include: environmental, social, economic, climate, with the red giant phase possibly oceanic acidification, melting of the polar ice ending life on Earth. Furthermore, over the gaps, albedo, monitoring and publicity and last decades, proxy evidence of local or climate conventions. planetary warming has been observed on Mars Pluto, Jupiter and Neptune’s largest moon Environmental Effects (Wilson & Hugh 1991). This has affected The increase in the warming of the global warming on Earth. atmospheric has significant effects on both natural environment and human life. Obvious Orbital Irregularities effects include glacial retreat, arctic shrinkage and worldwide sea level rise. As climate Slight variations in Earth’s orbit lead to changes, everything changes from the natural changes in the amount of sunlight reaching the habitats of wildlife to the culture and Earth’s surface and how it is distributed across sustainability of a region. IPCC (2001) the globe. The three types of orbital variations reported that glacial retreat, ice shelf, are variations in Earth’s eccentricity, changes disruption, such as that of the sea level rise, in the tilt angle of Earth’s axis of rotation and changes in rainfall patterns and increased precession of Earth’s axis. Combined together, intensity and frequency of extreme weather these produce Milankovitch cycles which have events are attributable in part to climate a large impact on climate change are notable change. Other expected effects include water for their correlation to glacial and interglacial scarcity in some regions and increased periods (Gale 1989). precipitation in others, changes in mountain snowpack and some adverse health effects Land Use from warmer temperature. Another cause of global warming is the land- use changes such as deforestation. When

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Social Effects organism’s ability to absorb nutrients to The social effect is exacerbated by growing changes in chemical equilibrium and therefore population densities in affected areas. natural marine habitats. Temperature regions are projected to If global warming continues to melt glaciers experience some benefits such as fewer cold – in the Polar Regions, as expected, the supply related deaths. There is an increase in intense of freshwater may actually increase. tropical cyclone activity in the North Atlantic Freshwater from the melting glaciers will Ocean in correlation with the increase in the mingle with salt water in the oceans and surface temperature. Anticipated effects become too salty to drink. The increased ocean include: sea level rise of 0.18 to 0.59 metres; violence will cause sea level to rise, new trade routes resulting from arctic contaminating freshwater to sources along shrinkage; possible thermohalline circulation coastal regions with seawater. slowing; increasingly intense (but less frequent) hurricanes and extreme weather events; Strategies for the Sustainability of Climate reduction in the ozone layer; changes in Change agricultural yields; increased atmospheric CO2 increases to amount of CO2 dissolved in the Increase in temperature has led some nations, ocean and changes in the range of climate corporations and individuals to implement dependent disease vectors which has been strategies for the sustainability of climate linked to increase in prevalence of malaria and change. These include mitigation, adaptation, dengue fever and ocean oxygen depletion. geoengineering, economic cost, politics and monitoring, desalinization, United Nations Economic effects Environmental Programme Building Nigeria Responses to climate change, national Carbon IPCC (2001) reveals that the average social credit Train and Green walls and African cost of carbon is US $ 12 per ton of CO2. Union (AU). Extreme weather might reduce global gross domestic product by up to 1% and that in a Mitigation worst–case scenario global per capital consumption could fall by the equivalent of Mitigation of global warming is accomplished 20% (DNEP 2002) opines that economic through reductions in the rate of sectors likely to face difficulties related to anthropogenic greenhouse gas released. In the climate change include: banks, agriculture, case of Nigeria, mitigation measures should transport and other developing countries include rebuilding and re-introducing rail dependent upon agriculture will be particularly transport in order to reduce the present harmed by global warming. massive use of long distance travel using buses, re-arranging urban transportation to introduce Melting of the Polar Ice Caps car-free zones and urban mass transit system, massive electrification of the entire country to One of the most obvious effects of global reduce the use of generating sets. Efforts warming involves the melting of the polar ice should be made to put an end to the present caps. According to Archer (2005) there are illegal practices of gas flaring in our oil fields in 5,773,000 cubic miles of water: ice caps, the Niger Delta and establishing a nationwide glaciers and permanent snow on our planet. As programme of re-afforestation. these continue to melt, sea levels rise. Rising sea levels are also caused by expanding ocean Adaptation water, melting mountain glaciers, and the ice sheets of Greenland and Antarctica melting or A wide variety of measures have been sliding into the oceans. Rising sea levels result suggested for adaptation to global warming. in coastal erosion, coastal flooding, increased These measures include installation of air salinity of rivers, bays and aquifers and conditioning equipment, infrastructure shoreline retreat. With the continuous melting projects, such as abandoning settlements of ice, there will be less habitat opportunities threatened by sea level rise. Other measures and a risk in extinction of the species. include water conservation, water rationing, Furthermore, as Carbon Dioxide emissions adaptive agricultural practices, construction of increases, the ocean becomes more acidic. This flood fences. acidification affects everything from an

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Geoengineering Deforestation and Degradation (REDD) and Geoengineering is the deliberate modification Consultant (www.specialcc.unit.nigeria.org). of Earth’s natural environment on a large scale to suit human needs. An example is Green Walls and African Union Challenge greenhouse gas remediation, which removes greenhouse gases from the atmosphere, usually The AU met in Libya in 2006 to endorse the through carbon dioxide air capture. Solar Green Wall Sahara Programme for 23 African radiation management reduces absorbed solar countries affected by drought and radiation through painting roofs of houses desertification with the overall objective of white. controlling land degradation, enhancing environmental sustainability, promoting Desalinization integrated natural resource management contributing to poverty reduction as well as The world’s population is growing rapidly. The creating job and wealth. United Nations estimates that the world population – approximately 6.5 billion in 2006 will grow to 9.4 billion by 2050. As a way of Climate Conventions strategizing, environmental stakeholders The United Nations Framework Convention should invest in desalinization and purification on Climate Change (UNFCCC) came into of water. being in 1992 in order to prevent any dangerous disruption of climate. In order to Building Nigeria’s Responses to Climate strengthen this convention, the Kyoto Change Protocol was signed in 1997 entering into force in 2005, after bitter negotiations. The Kyoto Building Nigeria’s responses to climate change protocol provides for penalties if a country (BNRCC) is to build informed responses to does not achieve its reduction target. climate change in Nigeria by enhancing Another convention is the Copenhagen capacity at the community, state and national COP – MOP. This is an environment in which levels for the implementation of effective countries meet to discuss action to tackle adaptation strategies, policies and action, an climate change. The COP – MOP stands for improved livelihood, health, access to national Conference of the Parties – Meeting of the resource, equality and governance. The Parties Meaning Conference of the Parties to BNRCC project is funded by the CIDA and the UNFCCC and Meeting of the Parties to will be managed by the consortium of CUSO the Kyoto Protocol. and Marbek Resource Consultants, both of United Nations Governmental Programme Ottawa (www.cuso.org; www.marbek.ca). It (UNGP) helps developing countries to reduce will be implemented in partnership with the vulnerabilities and build resilience to the Nigerian Environmental Study Action. impact of climate change. UNGP supports national efforts to integrate climate change The National Carbon Credit Train Centre adaptation measures into development of planning and ecosystem management It is aimed at stakeholders groups from the practices. It provides guidance and advice to rural and urban poor to policy – makers and government on reducing GHG emissions and managers in the public and private sectors and preparing for the consequences of changed help them better understand the nature and climate, and to develop international benefit of climate change for developing agreements on climate change. countries and the forms of mitigation which are possible in their specific contexts. Key players in the activities include: Federal Conclusion ministry of Employment; Clean energy Global In this paper, an attempt has been male to look Systems Limited; The Environment at the facets of climate change and sustainable Communications; CDM Consultants; Bank development. Climate change encompasses and other financial institutions; Decentralized rising temperature (global warming), changes Renewable Energy (DRE); Product in other meteorological (changing wind Manufacturers; Reduced Emissions for precipitation patterned), oceanic parameters (rising sea level, acidification and sea currents)

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KIU Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences and biodiversity. Strategies in achieving climate Perspective, framework and priorities. change for sustainable development include http://www.fao./org./icata/og/inter- mitigation, adaptation, geoengineering, ehtm.Retrieved 13/2/2011. publicity and monitoring, economic cost, Federal Republic of Nigeria (2003). Nigeria’s companies investing in water or desalinization first national communication under the and climate conventions. Therefore United Nations Framework Convention on government should establish a climate change Climate Change. Abuja: FME. advisory unit within the Ministry of Science Federal Republic of Nigeria (2003). Nigeria’s and Technology. Government should work in first national communication under the collaboration with institutions, private sectors, United Nations Framework Convention on the scientific community and Non- Climate Change. Abuja: FME. Governmental Agencies. An agency should be Gale, A. S. (1989). A Milankovitch scale for set up to work for the actualization of diverting Cenomonian time: Terra Nova 1.420. from oil to Ethanol Programme. The use of doi.10,1111/j.1365-3121.1989tb00403x. ethanol is to reduce gasoline use as a car fuel. IPCC – Intergovernmental Panel on Climate To bring climate change to a halt, global Change (2001). Impacts, adaptation and greenhouse gases emissions must be reduced vulnerability contribution of working significantly. Group III to the 3rd Assessment report of IPCC. http://www.IPCC.ch/pdf/assessment- References report/ar4/wg3/ar4-wg3entml.Retrieved Akorede, S. F., & Onuka, A.O.U. (2008). 5/3/2011. Managing Gender and Youth education for IPCC – International Panel on Climate Change sustainable development in Nigeria. Nigerian (2000). Third assessment report: Climate Journal of Education Administration and Planning change 2000. London: Cambridge (NAEAP) Vol. 8(1), 95-107. University. Archer, D. (2005). Fate of fossil fuel CO2 in IPCC (2007). Impact, adaptation and geologictime (PDF) vulnerability contribution of working http://geosci.uchicago.edu/archer/reprints Group 1 of the IPCC to the Third /archer. Assessment report of IPCC. London: Boulanger, P.M. (2008). Sustainable Cambridge University. development indicators: A scientific Jacobson, M. Z. (2005). Studying ocean challenge, a democratic issue. acidification with conservative stable (http://sapienecevves.org/index 166.htm). numerical schemes for non-equilibrium air- Environmental Resource Management (ERM) ocean exchange and ocean (2002). Predicted impact of global climate equilibrium chemistry. change on poverty and the sustainable http://www.grida.no/climate/IPCC.far/w achievement of the MDGs Report Prepared g2/index.htmRetrieved 4/3/2011. for DFID by Environmental Resources Onuoha, C.M. (2001). Climate change and Management. http://www.carbon.eu sustainable development in Nigeria: The rope.org/education/index/php//my. mitigating role of green wall Sahara Nigeria Environmental Resources Management programme. (ERM) (2002). Predicted in impact of global http://www.IPCC.ch/pdf/assessment- climate change in poverty and the report.ar4/mgl//ar4.Wg1-SPMpdf sustainable achievement of the MDES retrieved 5/3/2011 Report Prepared for DFID by Ozor, N. (2009). Implications of Climate Environmental Resources Management. change for in national development – the http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/2003/ way forward. 2002GLO16038.shtml.Retrieved 5/3/2011. PDF.http://www.stanford.edu/group/efm FAO (2007). Adaptation to climate change in h/Jacobson/2004JD005220.pdf. Retrieved agriculture, forestry and fisheries: 20/09/2010. perspective, framework and priorities. Ponce, V. M. (2008). The 33 facts about global http://www.fao.org/ warming. Scotland. Monckton. icatalog/inter.e.htm.Retrieved 13/2/2911. Reis, E. (1992). An econometric model of FAO (2007). Adaptation to climate change in amazon deforestation. Riode Janeiro. IPEA. agriculture, forestry and fisheries:

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Schelling, T. (2010). Developing countries will org/wiki.attribution of recent climate suffer most from global warming (PDF) change. Resources before. William, J. B. (2006). How to cool a planet http://www.rff.om/publications/ http://www.nytimes.com/2006/ Resources/Documents/164/RFF- 06/27/science/earth/27coolhtml?ex=1151 Resource-164.Retereived on. 985600. Sofoluwe, A.O. (2001). Refocusing University Wilson, R. C., & Hugh, S. H. (1991). The sun’s education in the 21st C. in Orinifo, S.O. luminosity over a complete solar cycle. Nwaokolo, P.O.E., & Igborgbor, P.C. http.//www.nature.com/nature/journal/v (Eds.). Refocusing Education in Nigeria. 351/n6321/abs/ 35104aOhtml. Faculty of Education, p. 391-398. Benin: World Summit Outcome Document (2005). University of Benin. http://www.who.int/hiv/ Sofoluwe, A. O. (2008). University education universalaccess2010/worldsummitpdft. and youth entrepreneurship in Nigeria. Retrieved on 5/3/2011. International Journal of Educational Management (IJEM). 5(1), 17-126. Author Bio http://universityunilorin.edu.ng/esjournals /index.php/ijem/issue/current. SOFOLUWE ABAYOMI OLUMADE Solomon, L. (2009). Look to mars for the truth (PhD), is an Associate Professor and Acting on global warming. Head of Department of Educational http://www.canda.com/nationalpost.story. Management, University of Ilorin, Nigeria. He html?id=edge9952-3c3e-47ba-913f- completed his first Degree in Business 735a5c7f723&k=0.Retrieved 5/13/2011. Education at Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria Solomon, S., Plattner, G. K., Knuffi, R., & in 1987. He holds an M.Ed. and PhD Friendlingstein, P. (2009). Irreversible (Educational Management and Planning) in climate change due to carbon dioxide the year 1993 and 2000 respectively. emission. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science. 106(6): 1704- OGBUDINKPA IJEOMA CHARITY is a 1707doi:10:1073/pnas.0810721106.PMID1 research fellow in the Department of 9179281. Educational Management, University of Ilorin, Spore, C. C. (2008). A bi-monthly magazine of Ilorin, Nigeria. She is currently on her PhD. the Technical Centre for Agricultural and research work in Educational Management at Rural Corp. (TA) Wgeningen. the Department of Educational Management, Sustainable Development Network (2004). University of Ilorin, Nigeria. Climate change and sustainable development. London: Hanuay. AKINSOLU ABIODUN OLATOUN The Kyoto Protocol–UNFCC. (PhD), is an Associate Professor of http://unfcc.int/resource/docs/convkp/ Educational Management at the Osun State kpeng.html. University, Department of Educational US Department of the Interior (2006). Management, Osun State, Nigeria. She holds a Volcanic gases and their effect. PhD in Educational Management with United Nations (1987). Report of the World speciality in planning from the University of Commission on Environmental and Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria. Her research interest development. includes Educational Management and (http://111.un.org/documents/ga/res/42 Planning, Policy Analysis in Education, /ares42-187.htm). Teacher Education, HIV/ AIDS and Gender United State Nation/Academy of Science issues. She has written extensively in these (2007). areas in Local and International journals. Untied Nation (1992). United Nations Framework Convention in Climate Change. A/AC 237/L14. Wikipedia (2010). Sustainable development. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/sustainablede velopment. Retrieved on 9/2/2011. Wikipedia (2011). Attribution of recent climate change. http://en.wikipedia.

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ACADEMIC AUTONOMY OF PUBLIC UNIVERSITIES IN ETHIOPIA

Demewoz Admasu Gebru Kotebe University College, Addis Ababa

Abstract. This study explores the academic autonomy of public universities in Ethiopia. It assumes that increased academic autonomy is critically important because it enables public universities to respond to the changing needs of the public. The study considered related policies and practices with specific reference to the relations between public universities and government. The study attempted to respond to a general research question: do public universities in Ethiopia have legal and effective academic autonomy? The researcher employed a mixed methods design. Following a concurrent transformative strategy, data on legal issues were collected from legislative documents while survey data were collected from a random sample of 300 academic staff drawn from three universities. The qualitative and quantitative data were analysed using content analysis and chi-square respectively. It was found that the universities exercise control over teaching, evaluation and conferment of degrees but not over standards of quality, student selection, termination and introduction of academic programs. These findings are discussed and conclusions drawn after which areas requiring attention are highlighted.

autonomy at this time public universities are Introduction flourishing. Public universities in Ethiopia have become critical components driving for economic Statement of the Problem competitiveness and strategic thinking. Ethiopia has continued to register dramatic Notwithstanding this, expectations have changes in the sector as part of its ambitious increased and diversified with regard to plans to transform itself from rampant poverty creating knowledge, improving equity, and stricken land to middle income. Therefore, it responding to public and market needs was not enough anymore for public including transforming the country to middle universities in Ethiopia “to be in the world” income level by 2025. In response, the but "to be part of the world,” Neave (nd). In Government is phenomenally expanding the line with, academic autonomy helps public sector and establishing public universities. This universities to develop alternative strategies endeavour raised the number of public and thereby to effectively and variably respond universities to 35 in 2015 from two1 in mid to societal needs. 1990s. Eleven more are under foundation to Academic autonomy, extensively studied in be operational in the coming five years. other parts of the world, has not been studied This expansion is fuelled by globalization, in Ethiopia. Only Admasu (2013), Asgedom internationalization, regionalization, and (2007, 2008), Raza (2009), Assefa (2008), and localization of knowledge. Semela (2007) considered it just as an aspect of Internationalization, a widespread and academic freedom and institutional autonomy. strategically important phenomenon (Teichler, Motivated by both lack of information and by 1999), for instance, is used to identify internal practical concerns, this research intends to fill changes in teaching, research, and social knowledge gap and make meaningful service (Knight & De Wit, 1995). In order to contribution in the area. Central questions of effectively meet these needs, public research interest were student admission, universities in Ethiopia demand robust academic programs and content, language of academic autonomy. This research is a instruction, and quality assurance. With this response to curiosity about state of academic contention, the problem to be studied was the

1 There was a third in Asmara, the then capital city of the Region known as Eritrea which became independent in 1991.

KAMPALA INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY JOURNAL OF HUMANITIES & SOCIAL SCIENCES

ISSN: 2413-9580, VOLUME 4, NUMBER 2, NOVEMBER 2015, PP. 163 - 177

Gebru: Academic Autonomy of Public Universities in Ethiopia state of academic autonomy of public governance. With that, public universities can universities – both policy and practice - in perform efficiently and effectively, and hence Ethiopia visa vies government and university serve intended purpose better. Ethiopian relations. public universities cannot remain exception. In line with, university government relations are Purpose of the Study the mirrors of academic autonomy. The purpose of this research was to explore the state of academic autonomy of public Public Higher Education in Ethiopia: An universities in Ethiopia and thereby to Overview contribute to the understanding of the issue at Traditional higher education in Ethiopia this phenomenal expansion of the sector. related to church and ruling kingdoms spans Following Estermann, Nokkala, and Steinel over 1700 years (Saint, 2003). Modern higher (2011), academic autonomy is conceptualized education, however, is since 1950 with the as the ability of public universities to exercise establishment of University College of Addis control over decisions on student number and Ababa which gave birth to Haile Selassie I selection; introduction, termination and University in1962, renamed Addis Ababa designing content of academic programs; University in 1975. The second was Alemaya choice of language of instruction; quality University of Agriculture now named Haramya assurance mechanisms. With this framework, University, an upgrade of Alemaya Agricultural the study intended to explore whether public College in 1985. The country had only these universities in Ethiopia have legal and effective two universities and a few colleges (e.g., Arba- academic autonomy over those issues based on Minch Water Technology, Bahir Dar College government and public university relations. of Teacher Education, Jimma College of Health Sciences) until the turn of this century. Significance of the Study Because the Ethiopian modern higher The Ethiopian government is committed to education has been challenged for being elitist expand higher education and establish public and nonresponsive to equity and access universities not as ends in themselves but as (Wondimu, 2003; Semela, 2007; Wagaw, 1990; critical components of global competitiveness Yizengaw, 2005), the current government has and strategic thinking. In line with, embarked on massive expansion of the sector. expectations have increased and diversified as This expansion makes public higher education regards to creating knowledge, improving as critically important venture for global equity, and responding to public and market competitiveness and considers it instrumental needs. As learnt from long established to fulfil its ambitious plan of becoming middle literature, academic autonomy has income country. These were furnished considerable benefits and importance in this with major legislative provisions such as regard. Decisions on student matters (e.g., the Education and Training Policy (1994), admitting able and prepared students), and the Constitution (1995), and Higher Education academic programs (i.e., content and modality) Proclamation (No. 650/2009). can be instances. Describing and analysing The expansion has moved the sector from existing provisions governing academic close to 5% in 2007 (Semela, 2007; World autonomy has both theoretical and practical Bank, 2006; Yizengaw, 2007), to 8.4% in 2015, contributions and implications. The study including those in the private sector in fact. As contributes to furthering academic discourse a result, the number of public universities has as well. In all, the study informs policy makers, grown from two in mid 1990s to 35 in 2015, practitioners, other stakeholders and and planned to grow to 50 by 2020. It is worth researchers on the current state of academic noting that the status of university in Ethiopia autonomy, and what needs to be done in today is provided to institutions that offer future. degree level and above training with regular student intake of 2000 in at least three colleges and with graduating record of three Research Context and Conceptual consecutive batches (Proclamation No. Framework 650/2009). The study contends that greater academic Democratic and participatory governance in autonomy is at the heart of university general and academic autonomy in particular are said to be legally provided. Such provision

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KIU Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences and requirements are introduced and there an ideal model that fits all situations. It implemented with growing dependence on rather is a set of basic principles that constitute government for public resource and interest. crucial elements and legal frameworks of Since the introduction of modern higher analysis derived from development, culture, education and establishment of universities in and traditions of national higher education the country, expatriate staff took the leading systems (Dean, 2005; Estermann & Nokkola, role both in designing and implementing 2009). It appears logical to Berdahl (1990) to educational and governance structures, suggest the negotiation between government curriculum, and degree nomenclature, to and public universities. With this contention, mention. Academic institutions are shaped, most countries blend government influence dominated, and organized according to the and university academic autonomy. The European model (Teferra & Altbach, 2004). ongoing research challenge, however, remains Both in birth and development, higher in striking balance. This can be ensured if education in the country is in the hands of government focuses only on limited number Westerners, albeit the country’s heritage of of specific policy goals and strategies where traditional higher education (Admasu, 2013). public interest considerations in universities Student enrolment in the country was the are clear cut (OECD 2003) and universities lowest in the world (Altbach, Reisberg & strive to meet those goals and local needs, Rumbley, 2009). With this scenario and the overcoming challenges via their institutional rapid expansion and diversification of programs, strategies, and operations. Bearing resources, less able and ill prepared students this in mind, the research considers the above join higher education institutions. Meeting variables vis-à-vis the relation between expectations in response to globalization, government and public universities focusing internationalization, and local situations, on legal and effective practices. public universities require reasonable and ‘culturally relevant’ academic autonomy. Such Methodology autonomy allows them to innovatively and flexibly respond to public and stakeholder Research Design needs efficiently and competitively. Mixed methods design was used because either the quantitative or the qualitative approach Conceptual Framework was inadequate to best understand the research Areas of research interest were: students, problem. This design enables to benefit from curriculum and teaching, academic standards, the strengths of both quantitative and language of instruction, and student qualitative research. Taking advice of Creswell administration in public universities in (2009), the researcher wanted both to Ethiopia. This goes in line with the works of generalize findings to a population as well as to Admasu (2013), Anderson and Johnson develop a detailed view of meaning of (1998), Commonwealth DEST (2006), phenomena understudy. With this contention, Estermann, Nokkala, and Steinel (2011), variables to study were explored from Helms (2008); Moses (2007); Saint (2009); literature and policy documents, and studied World Bank (2000). While variables under with a larger sample of individuals as well. This students include student admission such as is because, collecting both close-ended determining criteria, size and equity issues; quantitative data and open-ended qualitative placement, progression and certification; data proved advantageous (Creswell, 2009). variables under curriculum and teaching The qualitative data, for instance, benefits include introducing or terminating academic from analysis of policy and legislative programs, content and mode of teaching, and documents. In all, with the philosophical assessment. On the other hand, variables assumptions of both qualitative and under academic standards include setting quantitative approaches, and the mixing of academic standards, and procedure of both approaches (Creswell, 2009; Gay, Mills & accreditation, quality and standards, evaluating Airasian, 2009), the design builds on the courses and programs, and carrying out peer synergy and strength that exists between reviews. quantitative and qualitative research methods. There are no hard and fast boundaries on This helped to understand the academic university academic autonomy. Neither is autonomy more fully than is possible using

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Gebru: Academic Autonomy of Public Universities in Ethiopia either method alone. That design provides the University has four colleges, four institutes, most informative, complete, balanced, and three faculties and one school. useful research results,” (Johnson, Situated 628 km Southeast of Addis Ababa Onwuegbuzie & Turner, 2007). and located in the capital of Somali National In line with, Concurrent Transformative Regional State Jigjiga, Jigjiga University (JJU), strategy has been employed, for its the first university in the region, came into appropriateness. This approach is guided by existence in 26 March 2007. JJU officially the researcher’s use of a specific theoretical started its operation with 712 students and 66 perspective as well as the concurrent collection academic and 99 administrative staffs in 3 of both quantitative and qualitative data. This faculties in 2007. During the last four years, entails the conceptual framework as reflected student enrolment has grown to a total number in the purpose, questions and variables of of 14,948 students (in regular, summer, in study. In addition, this has been the driving continuing and distance education programs). force behind all methodological choices such The university is undertaking its business with as identifying the design and data sources; 516 academic staffs who are divided into 31 analysing and reporting results. This approach departments organized in 9 faculties. allows triangulation. Once data were collected, Furthermore, in three support processes, the they were merged for discussion. university has 311 permanent and 497 contract employees (http://www.jju.edu.et/index.php, Sampling accessed on 14 October 2013). Its student Three universities, namely Addis Ababa population of all programs and levels as University (AAU), Bahir Dar University reported by the Ministry (2011/12) is 11,533 (BDU), and Jigjiga University (JJU) were (F = 32,202) while its academic staff is 323 (F selected. AAU runs teaching (both = 13). undergraduate and post graduate including These and other public universities in PhD in many fields) in regular, distance, and Ethiopia tomorrow, will face growing summer in-service modalities and research dependence on the market (budget, for programs. Likewise, BDU runs both instance). Such dependence will become part undergraduate and post graduate, though its of the reality in which those institutions PhD program is at its infancy. In contrast, JJU operate under increased competition for runs only undergraduate programs. Also resources, for complex demands from multiple noteworthy is the fact that AAU is a better stakeholders, and objectives and preferences. staffed national university in the country (Wagaw, 1990) while JU is emerging, as Data Collection highlighted in the following paragraphs. Legislative documents and survey Established as the University College of questionnaire formed the building blocks of Addis Ababa in 1950, the Addis Ababa data. In addition, secondary data were drawn University (AAU), is the oldest educational from literature and reports. The tools and institution in Ethiopia. AAU has gone from procedures are presented below. just over 30 students in 1950, to close to 50,000 Legislative Documents. Since legal documents today (including over 1,700 PhD students). were the bases, initial analyses were made on The university has grown to have a staff those documents. While doing this, the contingent of more than 6,000, including over researcher adhered to principles that help to 24,000 academics. Its 14 campus made up of maintain quality control criteria such as nearly a dozen colleges, and 8 research trustworthiness, credibility, dependability and institutes. Bahir Dar University was established transferability (Mogalakwe, 2009; Lincoln & by merging two former higher education Guba, 1989). Authenticity, for instance, has institutions; namely the Bahir Dar Polytechnic been employed in order to prove whether the and Bahir Dar Teachers’ College following the evidences were representative. In addition, Council of Ministers regulation no. 60/1999 meaning was considered in order to prove GC. The University was inaugurated on May 6, whether the evidence would be clear and 2000. Bahir Dar University is now among the comprehensible (Mogalakwe, 2009). largest universities in Ethiopia, with more than Following the qualitative tradition 45,200 students in its 70 undergraduate and 93 (Creswell, 2009; Gay, Mills & Airasian, 2009), masters and 15 PhD programs. Bahir Dar the researcher checked validity, taking him/ herself and readers of the report into account.

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Likewise, taking advice of Gay, Mills and similar to intended research participants (Gay, Airasian (2009), reliability has been checked to Mills, & Airasian, 2009). examine whether the data would be collected Furthermore, validity in terms of consistently if the same techniques were trustworthiness and understanding the utilized. This has been carried out by qualitative aspect of the research were employing multiple strategies such as checking established taking into account the complexity transcripts, defining codes clearly, cross of the issue (e.g., governance history, political checking codes, and triangulation (Creswell, culture) and openness of intended participants. 2009). With this, relevant documents that need Context-relevant descriptive statements were to be studied both in their own right, and can included in order that participants and readers serve as bases for effective exercise were can see the setting for themselves. Care has purposively selected. also been taken as to ensure stability, neutrality Survey Questionnaire. The survey and objectivity. Peer debriefing, collecting questionnaire has been prepared in English detailed description of context, establishing and pilot tested. It included items derived audit, practicing triangulation, and reflexivity, from literature in both closed- and open- among others, were exercised (Gay, Mills & ended form. International declarations and Airasian, 2009). In light of stated facts and related documents (Ethiopia is committed to using feedback collected through the pilot test, and entered into agreement), on university the tools were improved. autonomy in general and academic autonomy Data Collection Procedure. First, three research in particular were used for developing the tool. assistants (i.e., one for each university) were These included UN Lima Declaration on recruited with minimum qualification of M.A. Academic Freedom and Autonomy of in relevant social science field and relevant Institutions (1988); Dar es Salaam Declaration experience. Following, one day training on on Academic Freedom and Social how to collect data using the survey Responsibility of Academics (1990); Kampala questionnaire was conducted on campus. Declaration on Intellectual Freedom and Following, 496 questionnaires (i.e., 252, 167, Social Responsibility (1990); and UNESCO and 77 to AAU, BDU and JJU respectively) Recommendation Concerning the Status of were handed over. Higher Education Teaching Personnel (1997). During data collection, January 2012 to Equally important were national policy April 2012, each participant was contacted for documents such as the Constitution of the his or her convenience, briefed about the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia research and consent taken. Then, the (1995), the Education and Training Policy questionnaires were distributed for self- (1994), the Higher Education Proclamation administration and collected when everyone (No. 650/2009), regulations of Council of was finished. Of all dispatched, 397 were Ministers to establish universities, and returned out of which 348 (i.e., 70.16%) were university legislations. In addition, research complete and usable. reports of Admasu (2013), Asgedom (2007 & 2008), and (Semela, 2007) were used. Data Analysis The questionnaire requested respondents to Legislative documents were analysed following evaluate academic autonomy, as exercised in the interpretive constructivist approach. This their respective university. Each close-ended helped to get different experiences and statement had to be rated on a five point scale perceptions of policy (Atuahene, 2006). This from Strongly Agree (i.e., 5) to Strongly approach was most consonant with natural Disagree (i.e., 1). Four areas of academic settings where the researcher is the primary autonomy indicated somewhere above have gatherer and interpreter of meaning (Greene, been presented. In addition, demographic data 1998 cited by Atuahene, 2006). In line with, preceded by a cover letter stating the purpose summative content analysis approach has been of the research, potential benefits, anonymity, adapted. For one, the research can benefit confidentiality, anticipated time and from previous literature while identifying procedures to fill in has been used. Content thematic words and concepts. Second, validity was judged by two experts (holding a relevant texts for analysis from legislative rank of lecturer) in the field. Next, the documents related to academic autonomy questionnaire was pilot tested selecting four could be selected purposively. Third, it enabled individuals who were thoughtful, critical and

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Gebru: Academic Autonomy of Public Universities in Ethiopia the researcher to answer the research questions Legal Academic Autonomy both on legal provisions and requirements. Following the core research questions, analysis Once the researcher established the sample of selected legislative documents is presented texts, the basic units of analysis were identified. below. The units may be entire policy texts (e.g. Legal autonomy over student admission. The policies), grammatical segments (e.g. words, whole of Section Three of Part Two of the themes), or simply chunks of text that reflect a Higher Education Proclamation single theme (Ryan & Bernard, nd). (No.650/2009) deals with student matters. As the success of content analysis depends The Ministry of Education both administers on the coding process, codebooks that used the Ethiopian University Entrance mnemonic devices to identify specific themes Examination (EUEE) and decides on in those legislative documents were developed eligibility for admission of undergraduate and refined as the research went along. The students to public institutions (Article 39.2). code book included a detailed description of While admissions to undergraduate programs each code, inclusion and exclusion criteria, and of any institution from preparatory schools exemplars of real text for each theme. bases on completion of preparatory program Following grounded theorists, careful line-by- and obtaining necessary pass marks in the line reading of selected texts for it helps to start Ethiopian University Entrance Examination with some general themes derived from (Article 391), there is also a special admissions reading the literature (Williams et al. 1990; procedure and/or provision for citizens that Miles and Huberman, 1994). The researcher’s deserve affirmative action. The latter provision general theoretical orientations and prior is determined by regulations of the Council of experience, richness of existing literature, Ministers, and is implemented in accordance characteristic of phenomena being studied with directives issued by the Ministry of influenced the themes (Agar & Hobbs, 1985). Education (Article 39.5). The content analysis focused on what the text The Proclamation labels the current student says. Words, sentences or paragraphs placement as centralized. Put in explicit terms, containing relevant aspects were considered as public universities are said to have a consulting meaning unit (Graneheim & Lundman, 2004). position while that of the Ministry of This analysis allowed objective, systematic and Education decisive one. In line with, the quantitative description of the manifest of Proclamation spells: content. The Ministry of Education shall consult the While the qualitative data were categorized, public institutions concerning student coded and analysed thematically framework, placement so long as the current centralized the quantitative data were subject to placement of students in public institutions descriptive and inferential statistical analysis shall continue. As and when direct selection of such as frequencies, percentage, mean and chi- students for admission by public institutions square using SPSS Version 17.0 (for windows). becomes feasible and desirable, the Ministry To test significance, alpha was set at .05 level. shall limit itself to administering the EUEE, Basing on the conceptual framework, the deciding on pass marks and eligibility for researcher integrated the two data bases admission, including entitlement to affirmative following Creswell (2009). While both sets of action, monitoring the admission process and data were collected concurrently, they were ensuring compliance by institutions to its presented in separate sections but integrated directives, (No. 650/2009, Article 39.6). for interpretation. Using the concurrent Taken all together, public universities in transformative approach, the quantitative and Ethiopia have legal control over few areas such the qualitative data collection were presented as progression (pass and failure) of students, in separate sections, but the analysis and awarding degrees, and discipline of students. interpretation combined the two to seek On the other hand, government has absolute convergence or divergence between the control over student admission including results. admission criteria, minority groups, and placement to universities. Findings and Discussion Legal academic autonomy over curriculum and Legal and effective academic autonomies will teaching. The freedom of universities to exercise be presented in separate sections in order by control over their own institutional strategy in discussion. structure and content of academic programs -

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KIU Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences to introduce, terminate or revise programs, develop and implement curricula and academic syllabi and courses, choosing and exercising programs by their own. Provided that public suitable teaching methods, evaluating students universities are observing national directives, are issues of interest. they are provided legal control over their own With regard to curriculum development, it academic programs and curricula. was stated that every university should guide By the same token, senates are legislated to curricular development by its academic units set criteria for admission of students, through appropriate learning outcomes (No. determination of academic standards and 650/2009, Article 21.2). In the same vein, the graduation; to regulate disciplinary matters; Ministry is said to have legitimacy to assume and to examine and decide on petitions (No. two responsibilities: coordinating curricula 60/1999, Article 9.4). Taken all together, development common to public institutions, “Rules and procedures governing teaching and issuing directives (No. 650/2009, Article methods and assessment, grading and 21.7). Other than these, curricula development determining academic status of students shall seemed to be left to the discretion of public be provided in the senate statutes of every universities - jointly or in isolation. That is, institution and shall be further elaborated in “Curricula common to public institutions may guidelines issued by the appropriate academic be developed jointly through the participation units,” (No. 650/2009, Article 41.10). This of of the public universities responsible for their course should be exercised under the umbrella implementation. This curricula, however, is of continuous assessment strategy, the national not mandatory in its application other than direction set. From this it can be drawn that serving the minimum requirements applicable public universities in Ethiopia are legally (No. 650/2009, Article 21.4). Put explicitly, entitled to have limited control over student “Without prejudice to national interests and assessment and related matters (by senate or relevance, every institution shall enjoy the appropriate lower academic unit). liberty of developing and implementing Legal autonomy over introduction and termination curricula for all its academic programs, of academic programs. Be it dividing, merging, including programs for which nationally changing, or closing academic programs, all fall applicable curricula may be developed through only in the hands of government as spelled by joint efforts of institutions (No. 650/2009, the following extracts. “A public institution Article 21.5). Given these conditions, it seems may be divided into two or more public fair that the Ministry might establish national institutions or merged with another public body to coordinate and monitor curricula institution or its name be changed by review, development and implementation (No. regulations of the Council of Ministers or in 650/2009, Article 21.8). accordance with a state's law,” (No. 650/2009, The following extracts show the directive Article 59.1). Similarly, a public institution may stance of government, Ministry of Education be closed down only by decision of the Council in this case, both on the designing of courses of Ministers or the appropriate organ of state and on teachers’ teaching. “The designing of (No.650/2009, Article 60.1). On the contrary, courses and their delivery shall be such that the universities are entitled to establish and run courses shall cultivate the knowledge and skills faculties, colleges and other academic and students already have, cultivate constructive research units, and to design and implement professional values, and bring about positive undergraduate and postgraduate programs attitudinal development in students at the end (No. 60/1999, Article 5.1 &2). Through their of the courses,” (No. 650/2009, Article 41.3). senates, public universities are empowered to From these legal provisions the following approve the various academic programs (No. conclusions can be drawn. For one, the 60/1999, Article 9.2). government through the Ministry controls and Taken together, there appears contradiction coordinates curricula development. This is between legal autonomy in dividing, merging, enshrined when there is a need to set minimum changing, or closing of academic programs requirement. Government does this. Secondly, between regulations to establish universities this happens when there is a need for and the proclamation for higher education. curriculum common to public universities. In Since the Proclamation is the bigger umbrella this case as well, the Ministry coordinates that governs all others, what is provided in it concerned universities. This being one will be binding. With this contention, it can be dimension, public universities are entitled to drawn that public universities have no control

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Gebru: Academic Autonomy of Public Universities in Ethiopia over the dividing, merging, changing, or measure of quality covering professional closing of academic programs. development of academic staff, course Legal autonomy over academic standard affairs. As contents, teaching-learning processes, student it has some relevance to standards, respective evaluation, assessment and grading systems public universities take part in the decision on (No. 650/2009, Article 22.2). Then follows common courses through the overall developing quality standards, undertaking coordination of the Ministry Education. With academic audit on a periodic basis, maintaining this limited role of public universities, appropriate documentation of the audit and validation of bachelor degree programs goes to submitting report regularly (No. 650/2009, the Ministry of Education as it is entitled to Article 22.4). determine the requirements for all degree In this process, the Higher Education programs including the Bachelor’s (No. Relevance and Quality Agency, buffer body, 650/2009, Article 88.2). advises the Ministry of Education. The Agency Producing quality graduate partly goes to sets national frameworks, guides institutional quality entry behaviour, determination of quality enhancement efforts, and supervises admission criteria is worth discussing. As due exercise. In line with, public universities admission to undergraduate programs is develop institutional mechanisms, and ensure decided by the Ministry of Education so standards maintained. From these legal decided is the entry cut-off point. This is provisions, it can be drawn that the clearly spelled as, “The Ministry shall government distances itself from strict control administer the university entrance examination but rather supervises setting national and decide on eligibility for admissions to any directives. [public] institution,” (No. 650/2009, Article Given the above facts, it can be concluded 39.2). With this power, the Ministry decides that the Ministry decides on university entry on student admission from graduates of behaviour, validation of degree programs, and preparatory schools that pass the university frameworks for quality standards. Though entrance examination (No. 650/2009, Article these provisions are in the hands of 3a). Public universities assume only a government, public universities are given the consultative role as indicated above. freedom to decide on graduation requirements Determination of common courses has including conferring degrees. much relevance to academic standards, as well. Legal academic autonomy over administration. The These courses can serve a moratorium purpose autonomy of interest under includes student and to maintain quality standard throughout numbers in the university, student the study both of which need the control of proportions, closure and merger of respective university. As stated above, institutions, nomenclature of degrees, duration however, curricula common to public of undergraduate degree programs, duration of universities is developed jointly through the academic year, and university rules and participation of the public institutions regulations. responsible for implementation. Such curricula Student Matters. Regulations to establish serve to keep the minimum requirements public universities give the institutions the applicable to public universities. Turning to freedom to set criteria for admission of setting standards in particular fields, no legal students, determination of academic standards statements have been spelled out. and graduation; and regulating disciplinary Legal academic autonomy over quality standards. matters (No. 60/1999, Article 9.4). Whether Each public university determines standard of this attributes to capacity of universities or quality using its internal system of quality otherwise, entrance examination, student enhancement. This is done following the admission point and placement were decided national qualifications' framework which centrally by the Ministry. Likewise, student determines core learning outcomes or graduate proportion and equity issues could be decided competencies (No. 650/2009, Article 22.7). As by the Ministry as it sets criteria of student spelled in the Proclamation, every public admission and uses it across public university should have a satisfactory and universities. continuously improving internal system for Closure and merger of institutions. The Senate quality enhancement (No. 650/2009, Article examines and approves recommendations by 22.1). To undertake this every public university the president in respect of opening, closure, is required to provide clear and comprehensive merger or change of name of academic units

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(No. 650/2009, Article 49.11). In addition, the As can be depicted from Table 1, public University Council advises the president on universities in Ethiopia are said to have control institutional proposals regarding plans, budget, over decisions on all student affairs presented organizational structures, academic programs, except quota of minority groups. Public agreements of cooperation, and on division, universities are said to be autonomous on merger, and closure of academic units (Article certifying or awarding degrees (80.7%), 57.2). However, division, merger, closure, or discipline of students (68.9%), pass and failure change of names of public universities remain of students (62.6%) and placing students to in the hands of the Council of Ministers (No. fields of study (once they are assigned to the 650/2009, Articles 59 – 60). university, 51.7%). All results reported were Nomenclature of Bachelor Degrees. Public found statistically significant, p < .001. On the universities determine the conditions of other hand, though well over a third (42%) conferring degrees, diplomas, and certificates responded as agreeing to exercising control as well as medals, and prizes (No. 60/1999, over quota of minority groups, this was not Article 9.3). As regards observing that the statistically significant. This is not surprising minimum standard of an academic year of since about a third of the participants (35.2%) regular programs, the Senate is given the disagreed while close to a quarter (22.7%) power to examine and determine academic remain undecided. calendar (No. 60/1999, Article 9.1; No. From this, one can conclude that public 650/2009, Article 49.1). universities in Ethiopia have academic Two articles (17 & 18) of the Higher autonomy to decide on student affairs only Education Proclamation (No. 650/2009) once they are assigned and admitted to devote themselves to autonomy of public respective university. universities and of academic units within the university. Both articles acknowledge Effective Autonomy over curriculum and necessary autonomy of public universities as teaching follows. Every public university is granted the Table 2 below presents results in proportions necessary autonomy in pursuit of its mission followed by test of significance and internal (Article 17.1). Areas of academic autonomy consistency. stated include: developing and implementing relevant curricula and research programs; Table 2: Autonomy over curriculum and creating new or closing existing programs. teaching (%)

The university does 2 Effective Academic Autonomy exercise control over: SD DA UD AG SA X Effective academic autonomy over student admission. Methods of teaching 2 7 8 51 32 205.235a Five decision areas were presented to Methods of 2 6 10 53 29 214.731a participants (academic staff) to show their examination agreement or otherwise (on the scale) of the Introduction of new 9 12 19 36 24 53.639a university’s exercise of control over. Table 2 fields presents the proportions responded in Termination of 9 16 20 37 18 51.538a agreement or otherwise, test of significance, programs and results over internal consistency. Selection of teaching 6 11 19 45 19 104.479a contents Table 1: Autonomy over student Selection of text 6 13 10 45 26 119.017a admission and progression (%) books The university SD DA UD AG SA x2 Reliability ( = 0.786) does exercise control over: As can be read from the Table above, academic Placement to 15 23 11 29 23 24.311a staff reported that public universities in fields of study Ethiopia have effective academic autonomy as Quota of 16 20 23 26 16 8.555a regards to curriculum and teaching in general minority (e.g. and the six specific issues presented in gender, ethnic, particular. Put succinctly, the universities are disabled) reported as autonomous on the method groups selection (82.70% agreed), methods of Reliability ( = 0.739) examination (82% agreed), selection of

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textbooks and references (71.1% agreed), the six affairs are rated not well above a third selection of contents of teaching (63.8% quarter even some of which even go as low as agreed), introduction of new fields of study about a third, triggers doubt. For instance, (59.6% agreed), and termination of academic 37.1% disagreed on their autonomy (while programs (55.1% agreed). All the results about a fifth remain undecided) on entry cut reported were found statistically significant, p off point. Likewise, about a third 33.9% < .001. disagreed (while well over a quarter, 28.4% As those institutions are established for remain undecided) in setting standards in academic purposes and their autonomy has particular fields. Again, about a third (32.2%) much relevance to pursue their mission, the disagreed while about a fifth (26.3%) remain fact that the universities exercise control over undecided on the actual exercise of autonomy those areas is quite commendable. Yet, the fact over determination of quality audit standards. that they have the academic autonomy on Not much different was the result on termination of academic programs such as exercising control over decisions on education, and introduction of new fields a bit determination of common courses (i.e., 31.6% higher than average, though statistically disagreed). significant, is reported low. From reported results (Table 4 above), it can be drawn that public universities in Autonomy over Academic Standards Ethiopia have effective academic autonomy Under this, six issues were presented as shown only on decisions regarding graduation in Table 3. requirements, validation of bachelor degree programs and common courses. On the other Table 3: Autonomy over academic hand, their autonomy seem low in the areas standards such as setting academic standards in particular The university SD DA UD AG SA x2 does exercise fields, determination of quality audit standards, control over: and determination of entry cut off points. Validation of 6 10 11 48 25 135.314a Students’ entry behaviour and academic bachelor degree standards are among the determinants of programs success of students and the institutions Determination of 22 16 20 28 15 13.105b themselves. If public universities are not fully, entry cut of at least highly, autonomous in deciding on points these affairs (including setting admission Determination of 12 19 10 42 17 77.072b criteria), one can hardly say that they exercise common courses control over academic matters. Decision on 3 9 10 50 27 171.924a graduation Autonomy over Administration requirements a Determination of 11 22 26 28 13 29.254 Table 4: Effective academic autonomy quality audit over administration standards The university does SD DA UD AG SA x2 Setting standards 29.551a 13 21 28 27 11 exercise control in particular over: fields Student numbers 20 16 14 34 16 30.363a Reliability ( = 0.837) Student proportions 25 20 16 27 13 17.156a b As can be read from Table 3, public Closure and merger 10 16 25 37 12 57.517 of institutions universities in Ethiopia are said to have Nomenclature of 9 9 15 50 17 137.367a effective academic autonomy over academic bachelor degrees standards, as all results were found statistically Duration of study 19 25 16 27 13 15.553a significant, p < .001. Put explicitly in order of program effective autonomy, it goes as decision on Duration of the 11 13 15 41 20 67.916a graduation requirements (77.1%), validation of academic year bachelor degree programs (72.5%), University rules and 5 9 11 52 23 167.156a determination of common courses (58.7%), regulations determination of entry cut of points (42.6%), setting standards in particular fields like As can be depicted from Table 4, public technology (37.7%). Yet, the fact that nearly all universities are perceived to be practically

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KIU Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences autonomous in many of the issues raised. The determining size of admission, in placing major ones include rules and regulation (74.3% students to fields, etc. plays a significant role. agreed), nomenclature of bachelor degrees Hence, public universities need to exercise (66.7% agreed), and duration of academic year academic autonomy in many more areas, such (60.8% agreed). With a lesser degree, agreed as in setting admission criteria and preparing upon effective autonomies include: student and effecting entrance examinations. numbers (49.4% agreed), closure and merger Curriculum and teaching matters. Public of courses (48.8% agreed), duration of universities are said to exercise control over undergraduate programs of study (40.1%), and some areas like selection of methods of student proportions (39.3% agreed). On the teaching and assessment, selection of contents, other hand, close to a half (45.1%) and over a texts, and reference books of teaching. On the third (36.9%) disagreed on effective other hand, they have no control over the autonomy over student proportions to fields dividing or merging, introducing or closing of of study and student numbers in the university academic programs. respectively. These proportion results have The fact that public universities exercise been found statistically significant, p < .001. control over course, content, method and From the data of administration, it can be assessment of teaching, have significance in drawn that public universities in Ethiopia have the pursuit of their roles through academic effective autonomy only in some of their programs. Yet, academic programs would affairs like university rules and regulation. But benefit more if they are designed, at least their effective autonomy seems low or perhaps shaped by academic staff who have academic none to decisions on student matters (both and professional expertise to do so. In line size of admission and proportion to the with it can be argued that public universities in different fields) and duration of undergraduate Ethiopia need more autonomy in academic study. Leaving other reported data as they are, programs, be it opening new ones, terminating effective academic autonomy of public others and/or revising existing ones. universities over student and academic matters Academic standards. Public universities are have a strong, perhaps negative, bearing on the given the freedom to decide on graduation mission of public universities. Put other ways, requirements, conferring degrees, and the lack of effective academic autonomy in validation of bachelor degree programs. On these two areas may adversely affect the the other hand, the Ministry of Education institutions’ role in student preparation and decides on university entry behaviour, mission of universities. validation of degree programs, decision on graduation requirements, validation of bachelor degree programs, and frameworks for Discussion quality standards. These show that public This section brings together the legal and universities do not have control over major effective academic autonomy presented in academic standard issues which are pertinent previous separate sections. Following, some to pursuant of their mission. discussion that paves the way for major Universities operate better if they are in findings is made. control of their destiny including academic Student matters. Public universities exercise standards. If this were the case, public control over some areas such as progression of universities would benefit the system and of students, awarding degrees, and discipline of themselves. students. On the other hand, they have no Administration. Public universities have control over student admission including control over academic calendar, and degree addressing minority groups, placement to nomenclature. They, however, do not exercise universities and fields of study. They exercise control over student admission matters control over student matters only once (enrolment size and proportion), closure and students are assigned to them and admitted to. merger of institutions, and duration of Students are the major input that go academic programs. through the process and come as end products Administrative autonomy includes student of universities. As competent graduates are, in admission matters, closure and merger of part, a matter of entry behaviour (preparation, institutions. These have not been granted to interest, potential), the participation of public universities in Ethiopia, however. For universities in setting admission criteria, in the benefit of the sector and of the system,

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Gebru: Academic Autonomy of Public Universities in Ethiopia public universities need academic autonomy in should not see itself as omnipotent actor and these areas as well. The academic staff with its institutions as policy implementers. Put expert knowledge and research informed explicitly, if the institutions are given the policy and practice can consider the social and freedom to exercise control (both in theory economic condition of the country, and design and practice) over major academic affairs relevant programs as deemed necessary. At the pursuant to their mission, they can serve as same time, academia can terminate academic dynamic centres of knowledge production and programs provided that research proves transfer, and play their prime role in producing programs less relevant as compared to others. competent citizens. Once the findings on academic autonomy The study draws on the following major of public universities are synthesized and findings. Academic autonomy defined as the discussed, it becomes imperative to wind up freedom (both legal and effective) of public the section drawing some more contextual universities to run their own affairs without conclusions. This necessitates citing some direct interference from government basic principles behind academic autonomy of authorities, areas of research include: students, public universities from reviewed literature. curriculum and teaching-, academic standards For one, the basic principle behind and administration. Each area dealt with more institutional autonomy is that public specific issues pertinent to public universities. universities perform better if they are in Public universities exercise control over control of their academic and administrative student matters only once they are assigned to affairs. Second, public universities contribute them and admitted to the university. better to overall national development if Specifically, they have autonomy on provided the freedom to design alternative and progression (pass and failure) of students, innovative strategies as they think fit. Third, certification or awarding degrees, and higher education expansion is a phenomenon discipline of students. On the other hand, of these two decades. This entails shortages of they have no control over student admission resources including qualified and competent criteria including addressing equity/minority personnel to effectively exercise the granted groups, placement to universities, and even to autonomy. Given these and other conditions, fields of study. pertinent questions to pose will be not that Public universities are said to exercise government provides all freedom or none to control over some areas like selection of public universities. Rather it will be, what methods of teaching and assessment, selection powers should be retained at the Ministry and of contents, texts and reference books of what powers should go to public universities? teaching. On the other hand, they have no Government (the Ministry of Education) control over the dividing, merging, changing limits itself to setting overall policies and or closing of academic programs. directives of the sector, strategic planning of Public universities in Ethiopia are given the the sector and respective institutions, freedom to decide on academic matters on negotiating funding (formula) with sector areas such as decision on graduation ministries (Ministry of Finance and Economic requirements, conferring degrees, and Development). On the other hand, other validation of bachelor degree programs. On details of autonomy on academic affairs better the other hand, the Ministry decides on be left to the universities themselves. These university entry behaviour, validation of degree include: student admission and assessment of programs, decision on graduation progression, introduction and termination of requirements, validation of bachelor degree academic programs, content and method of programs, and frameworks for quality teaching, participation in leadership selection standards. directly or through their representatives. As regards administrative affairs, public Taking government’s initiative of universities have control over academic phenomenally expanding the sector, public calendar, degree nomenclature, and internal universities should be part of this initiative and rules and regulations but not over student endeavour. To that end, not only the admission matters (criteria, size and institutions move toward those public ends but proportion), closure and merger of also take a leading role towards the end. To do institutions, duration of academic programs. so, both government and the institutions need to transform themselves in that government

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Conclusions and Areas for Future procedure. Therefore, given the global Attention trend and of the research context (meagre resources for instance) and government’s As the thesis of the research is not just interest (for fast growth), greater academic unlimited academic autonomy of public autonomy remains at the heart of public universities, but reasonable and culturally universities in Ethiopia. responsive legal and effective autonomy in 4. Academic autonomy is not simply a theory order that the universities can freely and to be legislated but has to be functional. alternatively respond to the varying and This needs a balanced exercise between changing needs of the public, the above the legislative provisions and the effective findings heads to the following concluding practice at institution level. It is assumed remarks. that when the legislative provisions and 1. The expansion of the sector and the practice get balanced, public establishment of public universities based universities will have the capacity to define on regional equity are commendable and pursue their mission, and to adjust initiatives and acts of the government. internal structures for instance. Taken all This raised the number of public these into account, what is eventually universities to 35 today from two in mid sought for Ethiopian public universities is 1990s. This, as well, brought about a sharp a coherent national framework that increase in student enrolment, though it focuses on and regularly reviews policy still is at 8.4%. Behind the expansion and practice that balances government agenda is the instrumentality of the sector control and university freedom over for overall development. It again is academic autonomy. commendable that all these endeavours 5. In all, driven by both internal and external are guided by legal frameworks such as the pressures, government should distance Education and Training Policy (1994), the itself from strict control but steer and Higher Education Proclamation (No. monitor from a close distance. This may 650/2009), Regulations of Council of allow public universities to be reasonably Ministers, etc. free to manage their own academic affairs 2. Undoubtedly, along with the expansion, in pursuit of their missions and in effecting less able and ill prepared students would government policies. This somehow prevail in the sector. This fuelled by the borrows from the global governance trend global competition, necessitates greater which states that governments steer public academic autonomy of public universities universities at arm’s length by increasing pursuant to their mission. Hence, greater their academic autonomy. It is only then academic autonomy is crucial for that the society and the individual benefit Ethiopian public universities in all areas out of the sector and out of established 3. The higher education sector in Ethiopia is public universities. 63 years old while rapid expansion is just

of the past two decades. As well, the The instrumentality of public higher education history of higher education in the country institutions in Ethiopia, as it is elsewhere in the is the history of the public sector. In world, rests not only huge expansion of the addition, government is the founder and sector. Neither is it only for the rise in the financier of public universities. Given this, number of universities and students, neither is it sounds logical to talk of two- it only an agenda of political interest. What is dimensional relationship between more, it is the governance arrangement whose government and public universities. With legal framework and effective practice allow this scenario, it may not surprise readers if increased academic autonomy. government exerts greater control over At this competitive edge, public universities public universities. But once universities that operate with reasonable academic are established, the system benefits if autonomy benefit their system and their government withdraws from detail stakeholders (including academia, students and exercise of control over administration the market). In order to compete in their matters like designing curriculum, closure teaching, knowledge production and and merger of academic programs, and dissemination, and in producing competent student admission criteria and selection graduates those universities need quality

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Gebru: Academic Autonomy of Public Universities in Ethiopia academic programs. Furthermore, quality National University: Centre for Continuing programs and institutions may be born of Education. quality leadership. Asgedom, A. (2008). Development, Academic If public universities are not in effect given Freedom and the Idea of a University: The the necessary academic autonomy, missions Case of Addis Ababa University (1950- sought of public universities (teaching, 2005). Ethiopian Journal of Development research and community services) may be Research, 30(2), pp. 21- 54. jeopardized. This may inhibit intellectual Assefa, T. (ed. 2008). Academic Freedom in dynamism, knowledge production and Ethiopia: Perspectives of Teaching dissemination, and promotion of democratic Personnel, Addis Ababa: Forum for Social and progressive culture. Studies. Atuahene F. (November 2006). A Policy Analysis of the Financing of Tertiary Areas for Further Research Education Institutions in Ghana: An First, this research has focused on the Assessment of the Objectives and the relationship between federal government and Impact of Ghana Education Trust Fund, public universities following Van Vought PhD Dissertation, Ohio University. (1994). Further research that considers Bahir Dar University. Available online at multiple actors (e.g., students, market) may be http://www.bdu.et.org. Retrieved April 15, of interest. 2011. Second, this research has dealt with theory Creswell, J. W., Plano Clark, V.L. (2007). and effective practice, the latter as perceived by Designing and Conducting Mixed Methods academic staff. Perhaps one of the next Research, Thousand Oaks, CA: Cage. research avenues may be directed to explore Creswell, J.W. (2008). Educational Research: the gap between the theory and the effective Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating practice as perceived by various actors. Quantitative and Qualitative Research (3rd Ed.). Third, the specific institutional history and Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill. the type of leadership at a certain point in time Estermann, T. & Nokkala, T. (2009). University have effect on the problem under study. As Autonomy in Europe I: Exploratory Study, indicated above, though the sector as a whole European University Association (EUA), is in its infant stage, some public universities available at www.eua.be. are well established and better staffed as Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia compared to others which are under [FDRE]. (11th May 2011). Addis Ababa establishment and under construction. University Re-establishment Council of Therefore, the research suggests specific Ministers Regulation No. 214/2011, Federal institutional or case studies with a focus on a Negarit Gazeta of the Federal Democratic specific time. Republic of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa: Berhanena Selam Printing Press. References Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia [FDRE]. (22nd December 1999). Bahir Dar Addis Ababa University. Available online at University Establishment Council of http://www.aau.et.org. Retrieved April 15, Ministers Regulation No. 60/1999, Federal 2011. Negarit Gazeta of the Federal Democratic Admasu, D. (2013). University Autonomy: Republic of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa: Berhanena The Ethiopian Experience (In press). Selam Printing Press. International Journal of Educational Reform, Vol. Gay, L.R., Mills, G. & Airasian, P. (2009). 22, No. 3. Educational Research: Competencies for Analysis Altbach, P.G. (2007). Introduction: The and Applications, New Jersey: Pearson Underlying Realities of Higher Education in Education, Inc. the 21st Century. In P. G. Altbach & P. M. Jigjiga University. Available online at Peterson (Eds.) Higher Education in the New http://www.Jigjiga.et.org, accessed April 15 Century: Global Challenges and Innovative Ideas, 2011. Boston: Boston College and Sense Johnson, R. B., Onwuegbuzie, A. J. & Turner, Publishers. L. A. (April 2007). Towards a Definition of Anderson, D. & Johnson, R. (1998). University Mixed Methods Research. Journal of Mixed Autonomy in Twenty Countries. The Australian

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Methods Research, Volume 1 Number 2, pp. Teferra, D., Altbach, P. G. (2004). African 112 – 133. Higher Education: Challenges for the 21st Ministry of Education. (2008). Statistics Century. Higher Education, 47, pp. 21 – 50. Annual Abstract, 2007/08: Education Transitional Government of Ethiopia [TGE]. Sector Development Program Planning and (1994). Education and Training Policy. Addis Policy Analysis Department, Ministry of Ababa. Education, Addis Ababa: Wagaw, T. G. (1990). The Development of Moses, I. (2007). Institutional Autonomy Higher Education and Social Change: An Revisited: Autonomy Justified and Ethiopian Experience. Michigan: Michigan Accounted, Higher Education Policy, 20, pp. State University Press. 261-274. Wondimu, H. (2003). Ethiopia: County Profile Neave, G. (2009). Institutional Autonomy in African Higher Education: An International 2010–2020. A Tale of Elan - Two Steps Handbook. In D. Teferra & P.G. Altbach, back to make one very Large Leap Forward. (Eds.), Indiana University Press. USA, pp. In B. M. Kehm, J. Huisman & B. Stensaker, 316 - 325 The European Higher Education Area: World Bank, the. (2003). Higher Education Perspectives on a Moving Target, Rotterdam Development for Ethiopia: Pursuing the Vision. /Boston/Taipei: Sense Publishers, pp.3-22. African Region Human Development Saint, W. (2004). Higher Education in Working Paper Series No. 65, A World Ethiopia: The Vision and Its Challenges. Bank Sector Study. World Bank. JHEA/RESA, 2(3), p.p. 83 – 113. Yizengaw, T. (2007). The Ethiopian Higher Saint, W. (2009). Guiding Universities: Education: Creating a Space for Reform, Addis Governance and Management Arrangement Ababa: St. Mary’s UC Printing Press. around the Globe. World Bank: Human Development Network. Author Bio Semela, T. (2007). The Status of Governance, Academic Freedom, and Teaching DEMEWOZ ADMASU GEBRU (PhD), is Personnel in Ethiopian Higher Education Assistant Professor of Higher Education Institution: A Synthesis of Institutional Case Governance and Leadership, Department of Studies, FSS Research Report No.2, Addis Education, Kotebe University College, Addis Ababa: Forum for Social Studies. Ababa, Ethiopia.

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KIU Journal of ISSN 2413-9580 Humanities & Volume 4 Number 2 Social Sciences August 2015 Contents 1 Editorial 3 Pontian G. Okoth, Geostrategic Challenges of Terrorism for Integration in the African Great Lakes Region 19 Ngozi M. Nwakeze, The Demographic-Economic Paradox: Issues and Policies 33 Peter Nwadinigwe Ikechukwu, Esther Olufunmilayo Abe, Youth Unemployment in Nigeria: Implications for Counselling 41 Mathias Ssamula, Criminal Socialisation and Career: a Review of Social Learning Theoretical Perspectives 57 Hadiza Talatu Mohammed, Use of Information among Primary Healthcare Workers in Rural Areas of North Western Nigeria 71 F. N. Bolu-Steve, T. A. Ajiboye, Counselling Needs of Psychiatric Patients as Perceived by their Medical Personnel in Federal Neuropsychiatric Hospital, Abeokuta 79 Raheem Adaramaja Shehu, Isaac Opeyemi Oguntunji, Adijat Mojisola Abdulaheem, Ibraheem Ologele, Sources of Stigmatization among HIV/ AIDS Patients attending the ARV Clinic in State Hospital, Oyo, Nigeria 87 Livingstone Ddungu, Performance Appraisal as a Predictor of Ugandan University Lecturers’ Participation in Community Service 97 Lester Brian Shawa, Toward Deliberative Experiences in Malawian Universities 107 Rakiya Ahmed, Examination Malpractice in Nigeria: Incidence and Suggestions for Mitigation in Pursuit of Sustainable Development 113 Edith Namutebi, Employee Selection Policy and Perceived Discrimination in Universities in Central Uganda 127 Mukaila Ayanda Aremu, Rotimi Ayodele Gbadeyan, Abayomi Olumade Sofoluwe, Moriam Adeyemi Aremu, Influence of Homework on Students’ Motivation and Performance 137 Adesoji A. Oni, Weli Furo Adelinah, Domestic Violence and Primary School Pupils’ Academic Achievement in Nigeria 147 Chikuvadze Pinias, Mugijima Samuel, Matswetu Vimbai Sharon, Female Lecturers’ Participation in Civil Engineering Research and Development Activities at one Polytechnic in Zimbabwe 155 Abayomi Olumade Sofoluwe, Ijeoma Charity Ogbudinkpa, Abiodun Olatoun Akinsolu, Climate Change and Sustainable Development in Nigeria 163 Demewoz Admasu Gebru, Academic Autonomy of Public Universities in Ethiopia

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