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Ecological Indicators 42 (2014) 135–146

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Ecological Indicators 42 (2014) 135–146 Ecological Indicators 42 (2014) 135–146 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Ecological Indicators j ournal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ecolind Applying the concept of spatial resilience to socio-ecological systems in the urban wetland interface a,b,d,∗ d b,c,∗∗ b d Yangfan Li , Yalou Shi , Salman Qureshi , Antje Bruns , Xiaodong Zhu a Key Laboratory of Coastal and Wetland Ecosystems (Ministry of Education), College of the Environment & Ecology, Xiamen University, Xiang’an South Road, 361102 Xiamen, China b Department of Geography, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Unter den Linden 6, 10099 Berlin, Germany c School of Architecture, Birmingham City University, Birmingham B4 7DX, United Kingdom d State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Xianlin Dadao 163, 210023 Nanjing, China a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t Article history: Resilient socio-ecological systems (SESs) can handle negative environmental changes well without Received 29 June 2013 regime shifts. In this study, we introduce the concept of spatial resilience and apply it to the assess- Received in revised form ment, planning, and ecosystem-based management of the urban wetland interface in the Taihu Lake 23 September 2013 watershed in China. From the assumption that spatial indicators in patterns and processes affect SES Accepted 24 September 2013 resilience, spatial resilience in this case focuses on the importance of ecological sensitivity, water qual- ity, and vegetation cover. We consider two criteria in this study, protection and recovery, which are Keywords: further categorized into general and specific types, to examine four resilience scenarios, namely, key Spatial resilience Assessment protection, general protection, general recovery, and key recovery. Spatial resilience is assessed with Planning an indicator-based system, multi-criteria evaluation method, and spatial visualization based on a geo- Urban wetland interface graphic information system (GIS) to create zones. Spatial zonings are evaluated in the context of different Taihu Lake degrees of spatial resilience. Results are integrated with indicators of ecological sensitivity, water quality and vegetation cover, are assessed to determine the practical application of spatial resilience. Zoning maps that show water quality, vegetation cover, and corresponding plans are generated on the basis of spatial resilience assessment, social indicators, and the existing administrative region. These maps can be used by authorities in protection or restoration activities for ecological services in wetlands. © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction The concept of resilience provides a framework to view SES as a system that operates over distinct scales of time and space (Adger Cities in China are undergoing rapid urbanization (Normile, et al., 2005; Folke, 2006; Smit and Wandel, 2006; Walker et al., 2008). According to the Statistical Database of National 2004). Recently, this theory has been applied to urban spheres. Bureau of Statistics of China (http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/ Walker and Salt (2006) discussed five case studies to explore how statisticaldata/), the number of cities and the rate of urbanization resilience thinking can be applied to address challenges in the in China have grown rapidly from 193 and urban population real world. Recent research has focused on the concept of spatial – 17.9% of total population in 1978 to 655 and 44.9% in 2007, resilience and referred to ways in which spatial variation affects respectively. In addition, the urban population and land areas of (and is affected by) system resilience across multiple spatial and 2 cities have grown from 309.7 million and 28,300 km in 1990 to temporal scales (Cumming, 2011). 2 371.6 million and 62,200 km in 2007, respectively. The ecological Spatial resilience, which emphasizes the importance of location, sustainability of China is under serious threat, with wetlands being connectivity, and context in resilience, may have potential applica- among the most affected ecosystem because of rapid urbanization tions in the assessment, planning, and management of ecosystems, (Qiu, 2011; Shao et al., 2006; Li et al., 2010a). landscapes, and environments (Cumming, 2011). Many studies on resilience have shown that the urban ecosystem is a relevant topic for research and case studies because it is associated with urban ∗ Corresponding author at: Key Laboratory of Coastal and Wetland Ecosystems spatial planning and development policy. Alberti and Marzluff (Ministry of Education), College of the Environment & Ecology, Xiamen University, (2004) proposed that resilience in urban ecosystems is a function Xiang’an South Road, 361102 Xiamen, China. Tel.: +86 592 2880256. ∗∗ of the patterns of anthropogenic activities and natural habitats that Corresponding author at: Department of Geography, Humboldt-Universität zu control and are controlled by both socio-economic and biophysical Berlin, Unter den Linden 6, 10099 Berlin, Germany. processes. Pickett et al. (2004) examined a promising new tool, the E-mail addresses: [email protected] (Y. Li), [email protected] (S. Qureshi). metaphor of “cities of resilience,” to promote the linkage with urban 1470-160X/$ – see front matter © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2013.09.032 136 Y. Li et al. / Ecological Indicators 42 (2014) 135–146 design. Colding (2007) argued that resilience building should be a 2. Methodological framework part of the agenda of urban spatial planning and design. Blackmore and Plant (2008) presented a rationale to enhance well-established 2.1. Study area and problem risk assessment and management tools with concepts of ecosystem resilience. Ernstson et al. (2010) noted the importance of devel- The study area, Taihu Lake watershed, is located in the south oping the resilience concept and applying it to human-dominated of Jiangsu Province (Fig. 2). It includes the water body of Taihu ecosystems because of global trends toward urbanization. Evans Lake and land areas of Suzhou City, Wuxi City, Changzhou City, (2011) explored how ecologists embedded adaptive experiments Danyang County (Zhenjiang City), Jurong City (Zhenjiang City), into urban governance to achieve the target of resilience in the Gaochun County (Nanjing City), and Liyang County (Nanjing City). face of climate change. Gotham and Campanella (2011) conceptual- The Protection and Recovery Plan of Taihu Watershed Wetlands of ized urban ecosystems as embodying both resilient and vulnerable the Jiangsu Provincial Government (2011–2020) reveals the area of 2 components. Research on the concept of resilience and its integra- the region is approximately 19,400 km , accounting for 52.6% of the 2 tion in quantitative methods and practical applications should be entire Taihu Lake watershed area. The region consists of 13,700 km 2 promoted. land areas and 5700 km water areas. It contributes to 11.6% of The urban wetland interface, in which the conflict between China’s GDP, even though it only spans 0.4% of China’s total land expansion in urban land use and space in wetland ecosystems is area and is home to 3% of the national population (2008). intensive, has attracted considerable attention in urban-regional Since the 1950s, the demand for land has continuously increased resilience research. Previous studies have explored various inter- because of unabated population growth. A large amount of wet- faces in urban fields, such as the Everglades ridge and slough land in the study area has therefore been reclaimed for farming and communities (Wu et al., 2006), urban estuarine settings (Weinstein, urban development. The Taihu Lake watershed of Jiangsu Province 2 2008), urban nature conservation (Borgstrom, 2009), urban fresh- spans 3548 km , accounting for 27.4% of the entire land area of the water systems (Zambrano et al., 2009), and hydro-social contracts province. In these wetland resources, natural and man-made wet- in the Water Sensitive City (Wong and Brown, 2009). Other stud- lands occupy 66.7% and 33.3%, respectively, of the total wetland ies have contributed insights into the relationship and interaction area. The Taihu Lake remains the most important source of drink- between urban areas and wetlands. Li et al. (2010b) indicated ing and irrigation water for southern Jiangsu. However, the water that the rapid increase in urban built-up lands is related to the quality in the area has deteriorated considerably in recent years large-scale degradation of salt wetlands. Du et al. (2010) con- and drops approximately one grade level every decade (Shao et al., cluded that urban development significantly affects surface water 2006). Nutrient-rich sewage and industrial runoff have turned the bodies and their riparian zones either by size reduction or com- lake into a toxic soup, which is characterized by blue-green algae plete reclamation. Su et al. (2010) used the metrics of insulation coverage (Xin et al., 2010; Guo, 2007). In addition, the natural land- degree to measure and explain the spatial change in the Western scape in the Taihu Lake watershed has been gradually modified by Taihu Lake watershed. They found urban fabric fancy sprawling artificial ecosystems and built-up areas or altered by the interven- along the inner edge of the buffer belt and the edge of nature tion of many non-native species as a result of rapid urbanization patches. (Su et al., 2010). The Taihu Lake watershed is an important ecological area in The hindrances to the efficient watershed management of the China. Based on data from the Statistical Database of National Taihu Lake are as follows: (1) the jurisdictional regions of cities Bureau of Statistics of China, in 2007, the watershed served as do not match ecosystem regions, (2) urban development and shelter to 49.17 million people, accounting for 3.7% of the total ecosystem-based environmental planning are lacking in coordina- population in China, and the urbanization rate in the area reached tion, and (3) resilience knowledge has not been fully considered in about 70% (China: 44.9%).
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