Ecological Indicators 42 (2014) 135–146

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Ecological Indicators

j ournal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ecolind

Applying the concept of spatial resilience to socio-ecological systems

in the urban wetland interface

a,b,d,∗ d b,c,∗∗ b d

Yangfan Li , Yalou Shi , Salman Qureshi , Antje Bruns , Xiaodong Zhu

Key Laboratory of Coastal and Wetland Ecosystems (Ministry of Education), College of the Environment & Ecology, Xiamen University,

Xiang’an South Road, 361102 Xiamen, China

Department of Geography, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Unter den Linden 6, 10099 Berlin, Germany

School of Architecture, Birmingham City University, Birmingham B4 7DX, United Kingdom

State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Xianlin Dadao 163, 210023 Nanjing, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Resilient socio-ecological systems (SESs) can handle negative environmental changes well without

Received 29 June 2013

regime shifts. In this study, we introduce the concept of spatial resilience and apply it to the assess-

Received in revised form

ment, planning, and ecosystem-based management of the urban wetland interface in the Taihu Lake

23 September 2013

watershed in China. From the assumption that spatial indicators in patterns and processes affect SES

Accepted 24 September 2013

resilience, spatial resilience in this case focuses on the importance of ecological sensitivity, water qual-

ity, and vegetation cover. We consider two criteria in this study, protection and recovery, which are

Keywords:

further categorized into general and speciﬁc types, to examine four resilience scenarios, namely, key

Spatial resilience

Assessment protection, general protection, general recovery, and key recovery. Spatial resilience is assessed with

Planning an indicator-based system, multi-criteria evaluation method, and spatial visualization based on a geo-

Urban wetland interface graphic information system (GIS) to create zones. Spatial zonings are evaluated in the context of different

Taihu Lake degrees of spatial resilience. Results are integrated with indicators of ecological sensitivity, water quality

and vegetation cover, are assessed to determine the practical application of spatial resilience. Zoning

maps that show water quality, vegetation cover, and corresponding plans are generated on the basis of

spatial resilience assessment, social indicators, and the existing administrative region. These maps can

be used by authorities in protection or restoration activities for ecological services in wetlands.

1. Introduction The concept of resilience provides a framework to view SES as a

system that operates over distinct scales of time and space (Adger

Cities in China are undergoing rapid urbanization (Normile,

et al., 2005; Folke, 2006; Smit and Wandel, 2006; Walker et al.,

2008). According to the Statistical Database of National

2004). Recently, this theory has been applied to urban spheres.

Bureau of Statistics of China (http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/

Walker and Salt (2006) discussed ﬁve case studies to explore how

statisticaldata/), the number of cities and the rate of urbanization

resilience thinking can be applied to address challenges in the

in China have grown rapidly from 193 and urban population

real world. Recent research has focused on the concept of spatial

– 17.9% of total population in 1978 to 655 and 44.9% in 2007,

resilience and referred to ways in which spatial variation affects

respectively. In addition, the urban population and land areas of

(and is affected by) system resilience across multiple spatial and

cities have grown from 309.7 million and 28,300 km in 1990 to

temporal scales (Cumming, 2011).

371.6 million and 62,200 km in 2007, respectively. The ecological

Spatial resilience, which emphasizes the importance of location,

sustainability of China is under serious threat, with wetlands being

connectivity, and context in resilience, may have potential applica-

among the most affected ecosystem because of rapid urbanization

tions in the assessment, planning, and management of ecosystems,

(Qiu, 2011; Shao et al., 2006; Li et al., 2010a).

landscapes, and environments (Cumming, 2011). Many studies on

resilience have shown that the urban ecosystem is a relevant topic

for research and case studies because it is associated with urban

∗

Corresponding author at: Key Laboratory of Coastal and Wetland Ecosystems spatial planning and development policy. Alberti and Marzluff

(Ministry of Education), College of the Environment & Ecology, Xiamen University, (2004) proposed that resilience in urban ecosystems is a function

Xiang’an South Road, 361102 Xiamen, China. Tel.: +86 592 2880256.

∗∗ of the patterns of anthropogenic activities and natural habitats that

Corresponding author at: Department of Geography, Humboldt-Universität zu

control and are controlled by both socio-economic and biophysical

Berlin, Unter den Linden 6, 10099 Berlin, Germany.

processes. Pickett et al. (2004) examined a promising new tool, the

E-mail addresses: [email protected] (Y. Li),

[email protected] (S. Qureshi). metaphor of “cities of resilience,” to promote the linkage with urban

136 Y. Li et al. / Ecological Indicators 42 (2014) 135–146

design. Colding (2007) argued that resilience building should be a 2. Methodological framework

part of the agenda of urban spatial planning and design. Blackmore

and Plant (2008) presented a rationale to enhance well-established 2.1. Study area and problem

risk assessment and management tools with concepts of ecosystem

resilience. Ernstson et al. (2010) noted the importance of devel- The study area, Taihu Lake watershed, is located in the south

oping the resilience concept and applying it to human-dominated of Jiangsu Province (Fig. 2). It includes the water body of Taihu

ecosystems because of global trends toward urbanization. Evans Lake and land areas of Suzhou City, Wuxi City, Changzhou City,

(2011) explored how ecologists embedded adaptive experiments Danyang County (Zhenjiang City), Jurong City (Zhenjiang City),

into urban governance to achieve the target of resilience in the Gaochun County (Nanjing City), and Liyang County (Nanjing City).

face of climate change. Gotham and Campanella (2011) conceptual- The Protection and Recovery Plan of Taihu Watershed Wetlands of

ized urban ecosystems as embodying both resilient and vulnerable the Jiangsu Provincial Government (2011–2020) reveals the area of

components. Research on the concept of resilience and its integra- the region is approximately 19,400 km , accounting for 52.6% of the

tion in quantitative methods and practical applications should be entire Taihu Lake watershed area. The region consists of 13,700 km

promoted. land areas and 5700 km water areas. It contributes to 11.6% of

The urban wetland interface, in which the conﬂict between China’s GDP, even though it only spans 0.4% of China’s total land

expansion in urban land use and space in wetland ecosystems is area and is home to 3% of the national population (2008).

intensive, has attracted considerable attention in urban-regional Since the 1950s, the demand for land has continuously increased

resilience research. Previous studies have explored various inter- because of unabated population growth. A large amount of wet-

faces in urban ﬁelds, such as the Everglades ridge and slough land in the study area has therefore been reclaimed for farming and

communities (Wu et al., 2006), urban estuarine settings (Weinstein, urban development. The Taihu Lake watershed of Jiangsu Province

2008), urban nature conservation (Borgstrom, 2009), urban fresh- spans 3548 km , accounting for 27.4% of the entire land area of the

water systems (Zambrano et al., 2009), and hydro-social contracts province. In these wetland resources, natural and man-made wet-

in the Water Sensitive City (Wong and Brown, 2009). Other stud- lands occupy 66.7% and 33.3%, respectively, of the total wetland

ies have contributed insights into the relationship and interaction area. The Taihu Lake remains the most important source of drink-

between urban areas and wetlands. Li et al. (2010b) indicated ing and irrigation water for southern Jiangsu. However, the water

that the rapid increase in urban built-up lands is related to the quality in the area has deteriorated considerably in recent years

large-scale degradation of salt wetlands. Du et al. (2010) con- and drops approximately one grade level every decade (Shao et al.,

cluded that urban development signiﬁcantly affects surface water 2006). Nutrient-rich sewage and industrial runoff have turned the

bodies and their riparian zones either by size reduction or com- lake into a toxic soup, which is characterized by blue-green algae

plete reclamation. Su et al. (2010) used the metrics of insulation coverage (Xin et al., 2010; Guo, 2007). In addition, the natural land-

degree to measure and explain the spatial change in the Western scape in the Taihu Lake watershed has been gradually modiﬁed by

Taihu Lake watershed. They found urban fabric fancy sprawling artiﬁcial ecosystems and built-up areas or altered by the interven-

along the inner edge of the buffer belt and the edge of nature tion of many non-native species as a result of rapid urbanization

patches. (Su et al., 2010).

The Taihu Lake watershed is an important ecological area in The hindrances to the efﬁcient watershed management of the

China. Based on data from the Statistical Database of National Taihu Lake are as follows: (1) the jurisdictional regions of cities

Bureau of Statistics of China, in 2007, the watershed served as do not match ecosystem regions, (2) urban development and

shelter to 49.17 million people, accounting for 3.7% of the total ecosystem-based environmental planning are lacking in coordina-

population in China, and the urbanization rate in the area reached tion, and (3) resilience knowledge has not been fully considered in

about 70% (China: 44.9%). The gross domestic product (GDP) of the urban planning. Therefore, methods that integrate spatial resilience

region is 2864.8 billion RMB, which accounts for about 11.6% of the concepts in the regional planning, management, and sustainable

total GDP of the entire country. The per capita GDP and population development of this extremely threatened SES are urgently needed.

density in the area are three and eight times the national aver-

age, respectively. With such an intensive economic importance and 2.2. Data and analyses

population density, the Taihu Lake watershed has become the most

urbanized and developed region in China. Taihu Lake, China’s third We focused on the key components and relationships among

largest freshwater lake, is a typical example of a social–ecological spatial resilience systems with social indicators of the selected

system (rapid development, wetland ecosystem degradation), that study area.

is under enormous pressure. It provides drinking water to several

cities, including Shanghai, Suzhou, and Wuxi, and this water can be 2.2.1. Selection of indicators

also used for agricultural and industrial purposes. The algal bloom First, we established the indicator system based on the bio-

crisis that occurred in Taihu Lake in the summer of 2007 resulted physical and socio-economic conditions in the target area. The

from nutrient pollution that exceeded the carrying capacity of the assessment model consisted of selected spatial- and resilience-

ecosystem and drew attention from the government, the public, related indicators (Rossi et al., 2008; He et al., 2008; Simoniello

and the scientiﬁc community. Fig. 1 shows the algal bloom condi- et al., 2008), such as ecological sensitivity (positive indicator: high

tions of Taihu Lake in 2010 and indicates the need for the country to ecological sensitivity corresponds to high ecological functional

restore these wetlands. Industrial or urban sewage water discharge value and high resilience), water quality (positive indicator: worse

and runoff from farms or arable land have mainly contributed to water quality corresponds to low resilience), and vegetation cover

eutrophication in the basin (Paerl et al., 2011). (positive indicator: high vegetation cover corresponds to high eco-

This study aims to assess the spatial resilience of the urban logical functional value and high resilience) in the Taihu Lake

wetland interface to establish an ecologically functional zone watershed. All these indicators could be obtained by spatial data

and propose a framework of ecological governance. This research and presented by maps. After further assessing the entire system,

determines how spatial resilience theory can be applied in the sys- we assigned the weights to the indicators. The indicator system has

tematic assessment of urban wetlands and how a resilient spatial three sub-systems, namely, sensitivity assessment, water quality

planning method can be built for a trans-administrative urban wet- evaluation, and vegetation cover assessment system of the wetland

land region. in the Taihu Lake watershed.

Y. Li et al. / Ecological Indicators 42 (2014) 135–146 137

Fig. 1. Blue-green algae salvaged from the Taihu Lake (photographed in 2010, by Hu Zhang).

Through the sensitivity assessment, the wetlands were further low ecological sensitivity), population density or population per

categorized into key-sensitive, sub-sensitive, and general-sensitive unit area (positive indicator: high population density corresponds

areas. After assessing each sub-indicator system, we clearly deﬁned to high ecological sensitivity), and economic density or GDP per

the wetlands in the planning area. These wetlands were either those unit area (positive indicator: high economic density corresponds

that need key restoration or general restoration or those that need to high ecological sensitivity) (Xian et al., 2007; He et al., 2008;

key protection or general protection through water quality and Rossi et al., 2008).

vegetation cover. In this study, ecological sensitivity is a comprehensive indica-

tor for ecological sensitivity assessment and weights assignment

2.2.2. Ecological sensitivity assessment derived with the use of Delphi method, multi-criteria evaluation

Ecological sensitivity reﬂects the degree to which human activ- and weighted linear combination methods (Li et al., 2010a) (Table 1,

ities and natural changes reﬂect on the ecosystem, as well as the Eq. (1)):

degree to which regional ecological and environmental problems

can possibly occur (Ouyang et al., 2000). Assessing ecological sen-

ES = Wj × Xj (1)

sitivity involves three factors: distance from important ecological

functional areas (negative indicator: high distance corresponds to 1

Fig. 2. Map of the study area.

138 Y. Li et al. / Ecological Indicators 42 (2014) 135–146

Table 1 Table 3

Indicator systems of sensitivity assessment. Criteria for water quality evaluation.

Indicator Sub-Indicator Weight Value of P Pollution levels

≤ Ecological sensitivity Distance from the important ecological 0.5 P 0.2 Clean

indicators functional areas 0.2 < P≤0.4 Little polluted

Population density (population per 0.2 0.4 < P≤0.7 Lightly polluted

unit area) 0.7 < P≤1.0 Moderately polluted

Economic density (GDP per unit area) 0.3 1.0 < P≤2.0 Heavily polluted

>2.0 Seriously polluted

Data source: Wetland thematic data, vector type, and shapeﬁle (.shp) from Wetlands

Investigation Report of Jiangsu Province (2009). Data source: Environmental Quality Report 2009 of Changzhou, Wuxi and Suzhou,

Assessment of the distance from important ecological functional areas. Jiangsu Province, China.

Assessment of the population density in the Taihu Lake watershed.

Assessment of the GDP per unit area in the Taihu Lake watershed (the GDP was

Table 4

found to be a dominant factor for the initial blooming date, from Duan et al. (2009)).

Classiﬁcation of vegetation cover.

Value Level

Table 2

Criteria for ES assessment. 0.0–0.2 Low

0.2–0.4 Relatively low

ES Low sensitivity Moderate sensitivity High sensitivity

0.4–0.6 Moderate

0.6–0.8 Relatively high

Value <2 2–3 >3

0.8–1.0 High

Data source: Wetlands investigation report of Jiangsu Province (2009).

where n is the number of criteria, Wj is the weight of criterion j, and remote sensing data and ﬁeld investigations in the summer of 2008

Xj is the normalization of criterion j. of the Wetlands Investigation Program of Jiangsu Province.

Table 4 shows the classiﬁcation of vegetation cover. X − X i min Xj =

Xmax − X

min 2.2.5. Spatial resilience assessment and zoning

Basing from the results of the assessments, we combined

where Xj and Xi are the values before normalization, and Xmax

different scenarios of the sensitivity indicator and water qual-

and Xmin are the maximum and minimum values of all indicators,

respectively. ity/vegetation cover and then established the wetland resilience

zoning rules for the Taihu Lake watershed (Table 5).

Table 2 shows the criteria of ES.

Table 6 shows the four zoning types.

We assigned the results of the water quality/vegetation cover

2.2.3. Water quality monitoring and evaluation

and ecological sensitivity assessment of the wetlands in the Taihu

The evaluation method included representative indicators

Lake watershed according to the rules in Table 4. Using the selec-

(NH3-N, TP (total phosphorus), and COD) from each water qual-

tion process of “no recovery (key protection) areas” as an example,

ity monitoring section (Wang et al., 2006). The pollution index can

we performed the processing as follows. Basing from the results

be calculated as follows:

of water quality/vegetation cover and ecological sensitivity assess-

n C

1 ji ment, we considered both “clean area” and “sensitive area” as “no

Pj = Pij Pij = (2)

n i=1 Cio recovery (key protection) areas” and thus assigned these areas a

value of “1.” Similarly, we selected “no recovery (general protec-

where P is the comprehensive pollution index of j section, P

j ij tion) area,” “key recovery area,” and “general recovery area” and

is the i pollutant’s pollution index of j section, C is the i pollut-

ji then assigned these with values of “2”, “3,” and “4,” respectively.

ant’s annual averages of j section, C is the evaluation criteria of i

io We imported the classiﬁcation results as attributes into the eval-

pollutant and n is the number of the pollutants in the evaluation.

uation unit by using the ArcGIS 9.3 system and then the software

Table 3 shows the criteria for water quality assessment.

function of “assign parameter according to attributes” to give units

with the same attributes their corresponding parameters. The units

2.2.4. Vegetation cover assessment were then expressed by different shades of color in the ﬁgure, and

Different types and coverage of vegetative surfaces can mod- they formed the zoning of the evaluation results. The zones were

ify land surface characteristics, water balance, hydrologic cycle, represented in different colors to differentiate the levels of wetland

and surface water temperature (LeBlanc et al., 1997). Satellite time ecological sensitivity. An assessment model of ecological sensitiv-

series can estimate the resilience of vegetation cover (Simoniello ity for the Taihu Lake watershed was developed. The results on

et al., 2008). The research data in this study were derived from the wetland protection and recovery zones were obtained from the

Table 5

Assignment rules in wetland ecological resilience zoning.

a b

Sensitivity Water quality /vegetation cover

Clean/high Lightly, moderately polluted/moderate Heavily, seriously polluted/low

Strong resilience Weak resilience Weak resilience

Key-sensitive area

No recovery (key protection) Key recovery Key recovery

Strong resilience Moderate resilience Weak resilience

Sub-sensitive area

No recovery (key protection) General recovery Key recovery

Moderate resilience Moderate resilience Weak resilience

General-sensitive area

No recovery (general protection) General recovery General recovery

Water quality data were calculated from the “Environmental Quality Report of Jiangsu Province”.

Vegetation cover data were derived from the Wetlands Investigation Report of Jiangsu Province (2009).

Y. Li et al. / Ecological Indicators 42 (2014) 135–146 139

Table 6

Types, characteristics, and properties of zoning.

Zoning type Characteristics Protection or recovery

Key protection area A unique and excellent ecological status with high value The area needs to be protected and preserved, and the effects of

for conservation anthropogenic activities on the surrounding environment must be

moderated. Important areas with ecological function, such as water

sources and wetland parks, should be managed strictly. The ecosystem

should be protected in relation to the laws of natural ecosystems

General protection area A good natural ecological status with value for Ecological tourism can be appropriately designed and developed in

conservation this area

Key recovery area Mostly damaged wetlands, with most ecological functions This type of wetland ecosystem needs to be recovered by renaturation

lost, e.g., water bodies of the Taihu Lake and Gehu Lake and enhancement of natural ecological processes

General recovery area Partly damaged wetlands with some ecological functions This type of wetland ecosystem needs to be recovered by renaturation

partly lost and enhancement of natural ecological processes. Further destruction

should also be avoided

results on water quality/vegetation cover and ecological sensitivity Hutang Town, Luoshe Town, Mudu Town, and Yangshe Town, most

assessment, and then functional zoning maps toward water quality of which are located in the area along the Taihu Lake, the Yangtze

improvement and vegetation cover enhancement were formed. River region, and along the Gehu Lake and Changdang Lake.

In the Taihu Lake watershed, the townships with the high-

2 2

3. Results est GDP per unit area (30,000 RMB/km to 40,000 RMB/km ) are

Chengjiang Street and Yushan Town, those with a relatively high

2 2

3.1. Sensitivity assessment results GDP per unit area (20,000 RMB/km to 30,000 RMB/km ) are Jin-

feng Town and Loufeng Town, and those with a moderate GDP per

2 2

Fig. 3 shows the assessment result on the distance from impor- unit area (10,000 RMB/km to 20,000 RMB/km ) are Jingang Town,

tant ecological functional areas. The wetlands in sensitive areas Yangshe Town, Huaru Town, Chengxiang Town, Weiting Town,

consist of Taihu Lake and surrounding inﬂow rivers, such as Songling Town, and Shengze Town. The GDP per unit area of the

Huangdugang River, Fangdonggang River, Hongxianggang River, other towns are below 10,000 RMB/km .

Guandugang River, and the inﬂow sections of Wujingang River and Among the areas in the wetland of the Taihu Lake watershed are

Zhihugang River. Taihu Lake, Gehu Lake, Changdang Lake, Tianmu Lake Daxi Reser-

Figs. 4–6 show the assessment result on the population den- voir, Liyang tianmu Lake, Hengshan Reservoir, Dongjiu Lake, Xijiu

sity in the Taihu Lake watershed, the GDP per unit area, and the Lake, The Yongchang port-Huangtang River-Hu Zhuang Baidang

ecological sensitivity. Wetland area, Shang Lake, Cao Lake, Yangcheng Lake, Ezhendang

The most densely populated township is Yushan Town (3000 Lake, Cheng Lake, Dianshan Lake, Changbaidang Lake, Yuandang

people/km ), and the relatively densely populated townships are Lake, Sanbai Lake, Baixian Lake, Beimadang Lake, and Jinyudang

Dingshu Town, Yicheng Street, Licheng Town, Jincheng Town, Lake. These sensitive areas of protection and restoration, including

Fig. 3. Spatial relationship between wetlands and important ecological functional areas in the Taihu Lake watershed.

140 Y. Li et al. / Ecological Indicators 42 (2014) 135–146

Fig. 4. Population density in the Taihu Lake watershed.

surrounding rivers and lakes, are important ecological function pro- polluted; Taihu Lake (Wuxi lakeside section), Dongjiu Lake, Xijiu

tectorates. Lake, and the west Yangchenghu Lake are moderately polluted;

and Taihu Lake in Wuzhong District and the south Yangchenghu

3.2. Water quality assessment results Lake are less polluted. Fig. 7 shows that the clean areas are

mainly along the west riverside of Taihu Lake. The pollution

We selected representative indicators (NH3-N, TP, and COD) in the Taihu Lake watershed is serious, and the water quality

from each water quality monitoring section to conduct the is at level III of China’s water quality standard. The northwest

evaluation. Among the lakes and rivers in the Taihu Lake water- part of Taihu Lake and the entire Gehu Lake are the most pol-

shed, Chengzhonghe River in Licheng Town and Beigan River luted areas. Fig. 7 and Table 7 show the results of water quality

in Huangli District are seriously polluted; Gehu Lake, the west monitoring and evaluation of wetlands in the Taihu Lake water-

Taihu Lake in Yixing Area, and Yangchenghu Lake are heavily shed.

Fig. 5. Economic density in the Taihu Lake watershed.

Y. Li et al. / Ecological Indicators 42 (2014) 135–146 141

Fig. 6. Ecological sensitivity of wetlands in the Taihu Lake watershed. Note: Ecological sensitivity indicators, see Tables 1 and 2.

3.3. Vegetation cover assessment is relatively low, with a cover between 41% and 60%. The vege-

tation cover of several important lakes, such as Taihu Lake, Gehu

Fig. 8 shows the results of vegetation cover assessment of the Lake, Changdanghu Lake, and Yangchenghu Lake, is relatively low

wetlands in the Taihu Lake watershed. Most parts of the wetlands because of their quite large water surface. Fig. 8 shows that the least

have high vegetation cover; that in Wuxi and Suzhou are relatively vegetation cover is located in the urban built-up area in the main

high, with a cover mostly above 61%, whereas that in Changzhou cities and towns, in addition to the water bodies of lakes.

Fig. 7. Monitoring section and evaluation results of water quality of wetlands in the Taihu Lake watershed. Note: Water quality criterions, see Table 3.

142 Y. Li et al. / Ecological Indicators 42 (2014) 135–146

Fig. 8. Vegetation coverage of wetlands in the Taihu Lake watershed. Note: Vegetation cover criterion, see Table 4.

Table 7

of the lakes within the area and according to the need of protection

Results of the water quality monitoring and evaluation of wetlands in the Taihu

and recovery during the planning period (Table 8).

Lake.

Water quality condition Wetlands Name

4. Discussions

Seriously polluted Chengzhonghe River, Licheng Town

Licheng Town, Huangli

4.1. Development and application of spatial resilience

Heavily polluted Gehu Lake

Biandan River

In this paper we discussed the development of a resilient

The West Taihu Lake, Yixin Area

socio-ecological system (SESs) by drawing on the example of the

Tanghe River

Nanxihe River urban wetland interface in the Taihu Lake watershed in China.

Beijing-Hangzhou Grand Canal, Wuxi section, The concept of resilience is a valuable framework for the analysis

and Suzhou

of socio-ecological systems (SESs) in the context of vulnerability,

Bodugang River

robustness, and sustainability (Cumming, 2011). Because of this

Jiulihe River

resilience is an area of explorative research under rapid develop-

Yangchenghu Lake

Jinjihu Lake ment (Carpenter et al., 2001; Derissen et al., 2011), the concept can

not only be used to explore SES, but also to enable new planning

Moderately polluted Taihu Lake, Lakeshore of Wuxi

Dongjiu Lake and management approaches, since it delivers solution oriented

Xijiu Lake knowledge.

Lianhuadang Lake

Since spatial variation is fundamental to sustainable develop-

Tongjihe River and aqua farms on both sides

ment, we extended the resilience approach and used GIS to detect

Beijing-Hangzhou Grand Canal, Changzhou

and analyze spatial pattern of changes. This study is among the ﬁrst

Cailinggang River, Wujin

the west Yangchenghu Lake attempts to quantify the concept of spatial variation and apply it

Ezhendang Lake

into a case study in Taihu Lake Watershed in China. The advantage

of the methodology is that it can be easily understood and imple-

Lightly polluted Taihu Lake, Wuzhong

Caodang Lake mented in research on science–policy interface. We determined the

Taipuhe River

protection or recovery areas through zoning and mapping by using

The South Yangchenghu Lake

spatial data and processing. In particular, we identiﬁed the exact

Wangyuhe River

administrative region for each zoning area, which can be controlled

and implemented effectively.

The response to spatial resilience should be a major consider-

ation in ecosystem management planning and restoration because

3.4. Functional zoning maps and plan of the considerable effect of such a response on the sustainability

of desired ecosystem states against disturbance, mismanagement,

Figs. 9 and 10 show the functional zoning maps of each scheme. and degradation (Elmqvist et al., 2003). The severe environmental

Considering the location between the lake clusters and Taihu Lake, problems that accompany China’s growth will require fundamen-

as well as the administrative division, we categorized the key pro- tal changes, such as ecosystem-based management in China’s

tection and recovery areas into three groups. Four key protection trans-administrative spatial system. The implication for resilience

and recovery groups are built according to the area and importance policy is profound and requires a shift in mental models toward

Y. Li et al. / Ecological Indicators 42 (2014) 135–146 143

Fig. 9. Protection and recovery zoning of wetlands in the Taihu Lake watershed (focus: water quality).

human-in-the-environment perspectives, acceptance of the limi- zoning, with special consideration of trans-administrative regions,

tation of policies on the basis of steady-state thinking, and a good wetland types, and other factors. The development model of com-

design of incentives to stimulate the emergence of adaptive gover- plex SESs should also be used as a basis. Substantial efforts have

nance for the socio-ecological resilience of landscapes. been devoted to wetland protection, restoration, and development

to improve water quality and rebuild the ecological functions of

4.2. Real-life application of planning and management Taihu Lake.

Table 6 shows the zoning types of Taihu wetlands, namely, key

The ecosystem-based planning and management of wetlands in protection area, general protection area, key recovery area, and

the Taihu Lake watershed should be based on resilience functional general recovery area. Establishing natural reserves can effectively

Fig. 10. Protection and recovery zoning of wetlands in the Taihu Lake watershed (focus: vegetation coverage).

144 Y. Li et al. / Ecological Indicators 42 (2014) 135–146

Table 8

Protection and recovery functional zoning of wetlands in the Taihu Lake watershed.

Functional zoning Name of the wetlands Administrative region

Taoxi wetland section, Baita wetland section, Jianchang Zhongtianhuang section, etc. Jintan

Bieqiao wetland section, Panjiaba River, Daitou section, etc.

Liyang

Shezhu section, Tianmuhu Daxi reservoir section, etc.

Liyang Tianmuhe Lake section, etc.

Xinfeng River-Rulin River section, Shanghuang section, etc.

Yixing

Dushandang Lake-Huangjiawei Dike-Magongdang Lake section, etc.

Touyangcun Great River, Chuanbufenhong River, Lihe River, and other wetlands

Henglin section, etc.

Zhenglu section, etc. Changzhou

Key protection

Wunan River, Guanhe River, etc.

Yingtianhe River, Xingchenghe River, etc. Jiangyin

Zhongwei Village-Hengyu section Huishan

Xinganghe River, Xinshahe River, Dongjihe River, etc. Zhangjiagang

Yushan Xiaoshanwang Yuhe River, Luodun Beitanghe River, Daxinglidang Lake, etc. Changshu

Xinzhuang section, etc. Taicang

Changguangxi Wetland Park Wuxi

Dushuhu section (Dushuhu Lake, Biputang River, Xiegang wetland, and Yinshanhe Kunshan

wetland), Mengtianhe River, Zhangxianghe River, etc.

Xiamuwei Dike and Changdang Lake section, Suzhou Zhenze wetlands at the provincial Wujiang

level, etc.

Zhuhuang area, Daitou area Liyang

General protection

Rong River, Zhongcunwei, Liucang River, Yan River, etc. Huishan

water body of Taihu Lake Wuxi, Suzhou, Changzhou

water bodies of Gehu Lake, Beigan River, Dongmeng River, Nanwu River, etc.

Wujin

Wujin prot, Zhihu port, etc.

water body of Changdang Lake and wetlands of Tongji River in the Jincheng area Jintan

wetlands around the Wangjiazhuang part of Xibei Canal Huishan

wetlands of the Panjiaba River area

Yixing

wetlands of the Xigui and Donggui area, Huangdu Port

Jinji Lake area (wetlands of Jinji Lake and the moat, etc.), eastern part of Wusong River, Kunshan

Jinji Lake, southern moat area

Key recovery Danjinlicao River Jintan, Liyang

wetlands around southern Panjiaba River Liyang

Desheng River, Zaogang River, New zaogang River Changzhou

Beijing-Hangzhou Grand Canal (Huishan, Xishan, Huqiu, Kunshan, and Wujiang part) Along the canal

Jiuli River, Xibatou River, Bodu Port, Ezhendang Xishan, Nanchang

water bodies of Yangcheng Lake area, Kuncheng Lake area in Yushan (Kuncheng Lake) Changshu

Wangyu River, new port in the eastern port Xishan

Yangcheng Lake Xiangcheng

Wusong River (Zhangpu part), Qiandengpu Kunshan

Dapu River (Fen Lake), Dajing Port, Sujia Canal Wujiang

Kuilei Lake area (wetlands of Kuilei Lake, Gutang River, Longtan Lake, Manli Lake, etc.) Taicang

Changzhou part of Beijing-Hangzhou Grand Canal, Guan River, Lijia Grand River

Changzhou

wetlands of the lake inlet of the Wujin port area

wetlands of the Xicuntang area Yixing

wetlands of the Liangxi River area Wuxi

General recovery

wetlands of Bodu River and the Yuanhetang area Wuxi, Changshu

wetlands of the Caodang area Wujiang

part of the water body of Yangcheng Lake, Shang Lake, etc. Changshu

Cheng Lake area (north shore of Cheng Lake, wetlands of southern Cheng Lake) Kunshan

rescue most of the eco-valuable wetlands of Taihu Lake. We suggest lakefront wetlands around Wuxi City is underway. The program is

that the government build eco-parks in several typical wetlands tackling non-sustainable land use practices and the resulting loss

to balance rapid development and wetland protection. Wetland and degradation of wetlands by encouraging local governments to

restoration requires eco-engineering measures to improve ponds consider a holistic ecosystem approach in their regional land-use

and coastal wetlands. Constructed wetlands can be built close to planning and development activities. This approach can directly

sewage treatment plants and industrial parks. Our research ﬁnd- beneﬁt the local population and the environment.

ings (see Figs. 9 and 10, Table 8) were adopted by the Program for In the next step, ecological land-use complementation can be

Protection and Recovery Plan of Taihu Watershed Wetlands of the a useful urban planning approach to promote biodiversity conser-

Jiangsu Provincial Government (2011–2020). In 2012, the Jiangsu vation in urban areas (Colding, 2007). Adaptive management that

Taihu Lake Special Funding supported the implementation of 54 incorporates monitoring and feedback has long been proposed as a

wetland protection and restoration projects. The total investment powerful tool to build resilience in SESs to ensure successful con-

was 253 million Yuan (RMB) and covered 47.13 km of wetlands: servation outcomes (Ernstson et al., 2010).

e.g., according to one scenario constructed by the government to The proposed ecosystem-based approach aims to redistribute

improve Taihu water quality, 14.79 billion Yuan (RMB) will be regional growth in a way that minimizes negative environmental

invested in ecological renovation. The local government also plans and social effects. A clear positioning of local government agen-

to provide funds for wetland construction. In Jiangsu Province, a cies will enhance the effects of ecological governance (Carpenter

wetland park in Suzhou City has been built, and a project to build et al., 2009; Folke et al., 2005). Developing appropriate and

Y. Li et al. / Ecological Indicators 42 (2014) 135–146 145

speciﬁc ecological governance structures in the local, actual situa- and particularly wish to thanks the Reviewers for insightful advice

tion is an inevitable path. Aside from resilience, other criteria must and comments on the manuscript.

be considered in designing policies for ecological governance. Bas-

ing from wetland protection and recovery, ecological governance

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