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The Collective Identities of Women Teachers in Black Schools

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The Collective Identities of Women Teachers in Black Schools THE COLLECTIVE IDENTITIES OF WOMEN TEACHERS IN BLACK SCHOOLS IN THE POST-BELLUM SOUTH by CHRISTINA LENORE DAVIS (Under the Direction of Robert A. Pratt) ABSTRACT The historical focus on women’s work as school teachers rather than on their identities as activists, missionaries, social critics, and as women has minimized the realities of life for women who taught in schools for the freed people during and after the Civil War. Ellen Garrison Jackson, Sallie Louise Daffin, Rebecca Primus, and Carrie Marie Blood, black and white women teachers who taught black southerners during the Civil War and Reconstruction, fought for citizenship rights, championed morality, bridged the information gap between Americans in the North and South, and challenged contemporary ideas toward race and gender. The collective biography approach works well for teachers because it fosters a deeper analysis of marginalized groups, nineteenth-century women in this case. Each woman’s narrative highlights the complexities of the women’s lives by exploring their experiences in the South beyond the duties associated with their positions as teachers. Exploring teachers’ work, not simply as educators, but as individuals who faced new and challenging experiences, fosters a more detailed understanding of the dynamics of teaching in the South. INDEX WORDS: Nineteenth-Century Women Teachers; Nineteenth-Century; Black Women; Black Feminist Thought; African American; Education in the South; Reconstruction; Missionary Teachers THE COLLECTIVE IDENTITIES OF WOMEN TEACHERS IN BLACK SCHOOLS IN THE POST-BELLUM SOUTH by CHRISTINA LENORE DAVIS B.S. Psychology, Florida Agricultural & Mechanical University, 2002 M.A.S.S, Florida Agricultural & Mechanical University, 2003 A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of The University of Georgia in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY ATHENS, GEORGIA 2016 © 2016 Christina Lenore Davis All Rights Reserved THE COLLECTIVE IDENTITIES OF WOMEN TEACHERS IN BLACK SCHOOLS IN THE POST-BELLUM SOUTH by CHRISTINA LENORE DAVIS Major Professor: Robert A. Pratt Committee: Ronald E. Butchart Timothy Cleaveland John Inscoe Electronic Version Approved: Suzanne Barbour Dean of the Graduate School The University of Georgia May 2016 DEDICATION To my most cherished friend, Dalelia Queen Davis, for always believing. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS A host of individuals at the University of Georgia contributed to this dissertation. I thank my committee members, Drs. Ronald Butchart, Robert Pratt, John Inscoe, and Timothy Cleaveland for their constructive criticism and encouragment. I also thank Drs. Kathleen Clark, Diane Batts Morrow, and Derrick Alridge who added keen insights to my work. I owe a huge debt to staff members in the Department of History and at the Graduate School. Laurie Kane, Cherri Bliss, and Adam Owensby deserve awards for their patience and understanding. Dr. Barbara McCaskill sharpened my skills as a researcher, writer, and teacher. Her advisement, encouragement, and friendship contributed greatly to my success. I am grateful to Mr. Joe Willie Wyms, the evening custodian in LeConte Hall, who took me under his wing and became my first friend in Athens. I cannot image attending UGA without Daleah Goodwin’s presence and the prayers of her family and church members. In addition to Daleah, I thank UGA classmates Daphney Pascal, Kathi Nehls, Catherine Holmes, and Christopher Lawton who all contributed to my matriculation. Lauren Chambers, Shannon Miller, and Thomas Chase Hagood, also UGA alumni, are now more like family than friends. The seeds of my career path were planted at Florida Agricultural & Mechanical University by Dr. David Jackson. Under his guidance, I embraced the decision to pursue this degree and career. Dr. Titus Brown introduced me to Reconstruction-era teachers, and Dr. Canter Brown taught me that writing is editing. Fellow FAMU Rattlers, Shirletta Kitchen, Tameka Hobbs, Shenna Harris, Reginald Ellis, Darius Young, and Daleah Goodwin, have set examples of the kind of professional I aspire to become. I thank my current colleagues and students at v Savannah State University for reminding me to stay focused on completing my dissertation. I extend a special thanks to Drs. Ronald Bailey, Cornelius St. Mark, Sametria Mcfall, Johnnie Myers, Michele Davis, LaRhonda Odom, Allyne Owens, and Matthew Adams who offered words of encouragement, hearty laughs, and safe spaces to be myself. I celebrate my parents, Rhonda S. and Edward E. Davis, for seeing me through this Ph.D. program. My mother consistently pushed me to write in ways that revealed her belief in my abilities. Likewise, my dad’s constant expressions of pride about my and my siblings’ achievements reminded me of his unconditional love and support. My sisters, Tiffany Davis and Teresa Cummings, my twin brother Christopher Davis, my brother- and sister-in-law, Roscell and Favour, kept me centered at the worst of times. Their cards, calls, texts, financial support, and the countless times they listened to me groan about the project, proved invaluable. Love and admiration from my nieces and nephews—Trinity Renee, Genesis Leigh, Tobias Isaiah, and Eli Christopher—remind me of the things I find most important. To my immediate family, I add dozens of aunts, uncles, cousins, and extended kin. Long-time friends Tiffany Phillips Gamble, Latoya Goodlow, Tanya White, Kisha Hunter, and others have supported me along the way. They all taught me that I did not need to prove myself to them; they have been proud of me from the start. Their faith in my abilities and continuous prayers made this possible. I thank God most for Dalelia Queen Davis. More like a sister than a cousin, a soul mate than a friend, Dalelia completes me in ways that I cannot articulate. I dedicate this dissertation to her because I never would have taken on this challenge had it not been for my wish to be as smart as she is. Finally, I am utterly grateful for Pam Reed and Vincent Samuel for holding me together when things seemed to fall apart. God bless the many unnamed individuals that helped me see this through. This victory belongs to us all. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Page DEDICATION ............................................................................................................................... iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .............................................................................................................v CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION: TEACHERS IN SCHOOLS FOR THE FREED PEOPLE ...........1 2 “WE WANT TO GET WISDOM”: SOUTHERN BLACK EDUCATION IN THE ANTEBELLUM AND CIVIL WAR–ERA SOUTH ..................................................29 3 “WE CONTEND AGAINST OUTRAGE AND OPPRESSION WHEREVER WE FIND IT”: COMBATTING RACISM AND SEXISM IN THE SOUTH ..................53 4 MISSIONARY TEACHERS: THE LEADERSHIP ROLES OF CARRIE MARIE BLOOD AND SALLIE LOUISE DAFFIN .................................................................78 5 THE PERSONAL LIVES OF WOMEN TEACHERS: SARA GRIFFITH STANLEY AND REBECCA PRIMUS .......................................................................................111 6 THE COLLECTIVE IDENTITIES OF WOMEN TEACHERS IN SCHOOLS FOR THE FREED PEOPLE .............................................................................................146 BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................................157 vii CHAPTER 1 TEACHERS IN SCHOOLS FOR THE FREED PEOPLE Ellen Garrison Jackson, an African American widow from Concord, Massachusetts, first taught black students in the North before teaching for more than a decade in the earliest post- emancipation southern black schools. Besides teaching day and night school, Jackson’s responsibilities as a teacher in the South included organizing fundraisers, visiting students’ homes, delivering public addresses, and teaching Sunday School. In 1864, Jackson also courageously sued a white railroad employee for assaulting her, despite her ambivalence about making herself a “public spectacle.” Her actions within black communities demonstrated her commitment to the freed people, her belief in the transformative power of education, and her determination to actively promote black civil rights. On the other hand, Jackson’s struggles with black male school trustees illuminate the intraracial conflicts in black communities that often stemmed from beliefs in traditional gender roles for women and cultural differences. Experiences described by Martha L. Hoy, another northern-born black woman teacher, add complexity to the tensions between black men and women teachers as the latter asserted their authority and self- dependence.1 Twenty-six-year-old Sarah “Sallie” Louise Daffin was a free-black woman from Pennsylvania. As a Philadelphian, Daffin gained educational opportunities uncommon to most 1 Ellen G. Jackson to Simeon S. Jocelyn, 13 June 1863 (quote); Martha L. Hoy to Edward P. Smith, 15 June 1870, American Missionary Association Archives (hereafter cited as AMAA). The AMA collection is located in the Amistad Research Center at Tulane in New Orleans, Louisiana, and on microfilm. David S. Bogen, “Precursors of Rosa Parks: Maryland Transportation Cases Between the Civil War and the Beginning of World War,” Maryland Law Review, 63 (2004), 721 – 751; Dorothy Sterling, ed., We Are Your Sisters: Black Women in the Nineteenth Century (New York: W.W. Norton, 1984), 274 – 275. 1 nineteenth-century black women. She graduated from the Institute for Colored
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