Winning Against a Dominant Brand

Winning against a dominant brand

Received (in revised form): 11th February, 2020

DAVID AAKER Vice Chair of Prophet and Professor Emeritus, Berkeley-Haas School of Business

David Aaker is Vice Chair of Prophet and Professor Emeritus, Berkeley-Haas School of Business. He is the author if 18 books including Owning Game-Changing Subcategories, Creating Signature Stories and Aaker on Branding and is a member of the American Marketing Association and the New York Marketing Hall of Fame.

Abstract David Aaker The successful e-commerce-first brands competing against Amazon provide a road map for any firm going against a dominant player in any category. These brands engage in strategic jujitsu by exploiting Amazon’s vulnerabilities — an impersonal/functional image, being the everything store without in- depth credibility in anything, and often having the personality of a-powerful giant lacking humour or warmth. Strategies that work include developing credibility for their subcategory, a simpler choice set, a brand community, a higher purpose, a personal touch, being the feisty underdog, positioning to highlight advantages and expanding the distribution footprint by adding storefront synergies.

Keywords underdog brands, e-commerce strategies, dominant brands

FACING A GIANT challengers create a growth platform in Many, if not most, categories have one, that shadow? How do they neutralise the two or occasionally three dominant play- enormous assets of the market giant, or ers that that seem close to invincible. even turn those assets into a liability using Against this reality, it is challenging even some form of strategic jujitsu? A formida- for innovative firms to gain a foothold and ble task. There are many avenues to suc- create a growth platform. Consider com- cess but most involve one or both of two peting against John Deere in farm equip- precepts. ment, Apple/Samsung in smartphones, First, create a new subcategory that Logitech in computer mice and key- changes what customers are buying and boards, Campbell’s in canned soup, Lego using as described in my book Owning 1 in building toys, Burberry in rainwear, Game-Changing Subcategories. Exhibit McDonald’s in fast-food burgers, Nike in commitment and even passion to the sub- athletic footwear, Lexus/Mercedes/BMW category, which could be defined in many in luxury sedans or Tesla in electric cars. ways, such as by new features or uses, dif- These giants all have enormous advan- ferent ways to connect to customers or tages, including scale economies, brand tailoring to the needs of a market segment. David Aaker Prophet, strength and visibility, distribution clout Make a focused and specific offering an One Bush Street 7th Floor, San Francisco, and power, huge marketing budgets and advantage rather than a disadvantage. Be CA 94104, USA E-mail: [email protected] an established customer base. How do something more than an organisation that

is after sales and profit, but rather an organ- A third is a stream of customer-facing isation that puts customers, innovation ‘must haves’ that include a secure payment and quality first. Consider leading a brand system, personalised purchase suggestions, community with involved customers. an enormous product scope, low prices, Second, move beyond functionality and customer reviews, 1-click and the huge efficiency, the core advantage and often game changer, Prime. Launched in 2005, the driving strategy of the giant. Create a Prime had over 100 million members in personality that could be based on being 2019. Amazon truly became the dominant the feisty underdog, having a sense of brand.4 humour, being warm and personal or hav- How can a firm win against such a for- ing a passion for an activity. Really believe midable competitor? in a higher purpose. Have a social con- Some Amazon competitors, such as scious that is authentic and visible. Walmart, the Home Depot, Sephora One context in which to observe the and IKEA, are storefront-first retailers. winning strategies of challengers to an Their e-commerce strategy draws in part industry giant is the world of e-commerce, upon linking those physical assets with which contains one of the biggest ele- e-commerce. Many capitalise on the phants in today’s environment — Amazon. ‘buy online, pick up in-store’ option. The In 1994, Amazon begin as a book selling Home Depot, for example, says half of its e-commerce venture with the mission e-commerce purchases are now picked to have Earth’s biggest selection and be up in stores. Others encourage accessing obsessed with the customer. In just over e-commerce while in the store, especially 25 years, it became the second company to for items that are out of stock. be worth over a trillion dollars, capturing The interest here, however, is the spe- nearly 50 per cent of the U.S. e-commerce cialised digital-first e-commerce firms, market and over 90 per cent in some cat- sometimes called direct to consumer egories such as batteries and skin care.2 (D2C) companies, where there is a focus In 2019, it had nearly 200 million visitors on a type of product and/or customer to its U.S. website each month and was application led by e-commerce, where expanding rapidly globally.3 Its momen- the customer orders primarily through tum has caused the closure of storefront the website even though storefronts might retailers to increase year over year. exist. There are a host of e-commerce-first Amazon’s success is due to many factors retailers, such as clothing brands like in addition to scale economies, operational Stitch Fix, Bonobos and Everlane; Warby excellence and a strong customer base. One Parker (eyewear); Glossier (cosmetics); was its strategic decision to focus on hyper- Away Travel (luggage); Allbirds (shoes); growth and accompanying infrastructure Blue Apron (meal kits); Madison Reed investment fuelled by selling investors on (hair colour); Casper (mattresses); Boll the logic of foregoing short-term profit & Branch (bed linens); CarMax (cars); and the cash flow from the Amazon Web Ally Bank (banking); Birchbox (beauty); Services (AWS) (cloud) business launched Adore Me (lingerie); Dollar Shave Club in 2006. A second is its commitment to (razors) and Etsy (crafts). In each case, the measurement and experimentation, which goal is to become the only relevant (or allows it to leverage its data to optimise at least the most relevant) e-commerce which offerings are displayed and how they brand in that specialised product or cus- are presented, priced and promoted. tomer space.

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The good news? It is possible to com- or the motivating idea? What are the pete and win against Amazon and garner organisation values that affect its ability to a growth platform. An amazing number of deliver quality reliably? specialised digital-first brands have done Everlane, which started as a t-shirt firm just that. They have benefited, as do those in 2010 (with a market cap of US$250m in other categories facing incumbent six years later), offers transparent pricing giants, by advancing technology that cre- (you know exactly what the costs are) and ates competitive options not available only ethical factories.6,7 On the website you a few decades ago. There are, for example, can see the story of each of their dozen or Internet improvements, enhanced mobile so factories — why it was chosen, why it capabilities, increased computer power excels, pictures of the factory in operation, and better software platforms. descriptions of the owners and so on. The The key factor, however, has been system of rating factories evaluates, in par- the willingness and ability of these ticular, how the workers are treated. These e-commerce-first firms to employ the stories provide credibility that could not two strategic thrusts — new subcategory be obtained just by making assertions. formation and going beyond functional An in-house design can convincingly benefits — and leveraging those to pro- provide credibility. Warby Parker, the eye- vide a customer relationship or customer wear firm, started in 2008 (and valued at experience that is markedly different and US$1.75bn ten years later) by hiring a better.5 There follow eight strategies that veteran eyewear designer attracted to the lead to ‘must haves’ defining game-chang- opportunity to design a line from scratch. ing subcategories, strategies that follow The initial line had 27 designs that were from the two precepts of how to win fac- both functional and aesthetic and respon- ing a dominant firm. sive to current style trends. Articles about Warby Parker early on often commented on the quality of styling. The fact that it, SUBCATEGORY CREDIBILITY year after year, received high net promoter Amazon is the ‘everything store’; there- scores (per cent recommend less per cent fore, it is an expert on nothing. A key to not recommend) provided the ultimate success then is to select a specialised prod- compliment.8 The mattress brand, Casper, uct area and become the expert at least started in May 2014 (valued at US$1.1bn in the online world. It might be eyewear, five years later), designed its product from shaving equipment, mattresses, speakers or scratch by a team from IDEO, the inno- whatever. Within that arena, the goal of vation design firm in San Francisco. The your brand can be to become the most result was a single design (that later had authentic and knowledgeable source of three versions) with unique material that product. was ‘outrageously comfortable’ and named Product credibility, which starts with by Time as an invention of the year in delivering or overdelivering on the brand 2105’.9 promise, gets more traction when the Extending the brand and therefore customers know how the firm is able to the subcategory into related items can deliver. How is the product made or the reinforce credibility and elevate the per- service delivered? What is the process? ception that the organisation is one that Who are the employees and how are they understands the underlying functional trained? What is the story of the founder benefit. Less than ten years after launch,

Warby Parker expanded its scope with and too many options do not represent the company’s Prescription Check mobile simplicity. app, which lets eligible customers acquire Consider the Dollar Shave Club a new prescription for just $40 without (DSC), launched in March 2012 (and having to visit an eye doctor. It showed acquired four years later by Unilever for that Warby Parker is more than just design- over US$1bn) with an offer to bypass the ing and making frames. Casper has added, in-store razor blade purchase pain and in addition to pillows and bedding, the inordinate expense. The DSC offer — Casper Glow lamp. The lamp gently dims for a $1 a month subscription, plus a $5 as you go to sleep and does the reverse product setup of a razor handle, shaving to wake you up without an alarm. Then cream and some blades, you would receive there is the dog mattress and the map pil- a packet of blades regularly. It was sim- low. These extensions signal that Casper plicity personified. By 2019, the one razor gets sleep. had been replaced with three options of Voice and tone also build credibility. razor/blades that were labeled ‘Humble’, Everyone is familiar with mattress sales- ‘4X’ and ‘Executive’ and were priced at men shouting about their sale prices on US$3, US$6 and US$9, respectively, per television. Casper is very different. In month. At Amazon there are 12,000 shav- some ads, the ‘spokespeople’ are adorable ing options — 12,000 options. Really. No dogs, pigs or goats, showing how dreamy joke. The DSC also offers a toothbrush the mattress feels. And there are hour-plus option in white or black while Amazon videos of meditations connecting you offers 8,000 toothbrush options. Are so with sleep. Even the product videos many options a ‘must have’ or a ‘give me a showing the difference between the three break’ feature? mattress versions are factual, balanced and The good news is that Amazon will conversational, with light humour — very have the colour, style, type and size you different from a sales pitch from a televi- want. The bad news is you screen and sion salesperson. choose. To a population that is so tired of Credibility is always at the heart complexity and choice the Amazon big of a brand’s ability to create a new selection is not always attractive. Nearly all game-changing subcategory, but it is par- of the e-commerce successes have a lim- ticularly important in the e-commerce ited selection that has been chosen to be setting. The next seven strategies both the best for you. Their promise is that if support and rely on the brand’s credibility. you spent hours researching choices, you would not end up with anything mean- ingfully better. A SIMPLER CHOICE SET Dozens of studies have demon- A high level of credibility with respect to strated the value of simplicity. One study a game-changing subcategory gives the employed questions before and after a brand permission to reduce the number of purchase of a wide variety of products choices, thereby simplifying the product addressed to each of 7,000 consumers in decision. Amazon has some 353 million three countries. The single biggest driver products. Nearly every category has hun- of ‘stickiness’ was ‘decision simplicity’.10 dreds and even thousands of options, The psychologist Barry Schwartz shows in many more than a visitor could deal with. his book The Paradox of Choice, the more People value simplicity over complexity complex a decision becomes, the more

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likely it is to experience angst, indecision, The firm supports with an easy-to-use regret and lower satisfaction with the pur- software to create websites; information chase process and the products itself.11 Too and suggestions about materials, processes much choice can be overwhelming and and designs complete with role models even paralysing. and a way to connect to fellow sellers. Simplicity can go beyond the reduc- Its website also has a blog containing a tion of the choice set. It can also be influ- ‘featured shop’ series where an in-depth enced by the way choice information is profile of an artisan seller is presented. presented and organised. Side by side One, for example, told the story of Belaya comparisons of competitor offerings that Hvoya, a line of handmade wooden uten- are provided by some brands in the auto- sils made by Kirill Babii, a Ukraine-based mobile and insurance categories can be woodworker who on his way home from helpful. What is not helpful is too much his university found a sycamore branch information that is not relevant, displayed that inspired him to rebirth dead wood.12 in a confused way. His work evolved into doing cutting boards, plates and modular dinning utensils with a spoon being the most popular. A SHARED-INTEREST BRAND These stories and others like it are a way COMMUNITY to personalise the community. Amazon is very functional and has lim- In addition to the Etsy efforts, a seller ited capacity to share a customer passion community website provides a compila- towards a product or activity. A specialised tion of seller advice and aids about run- e-commerce-first brand with a website ning their business. A ‘handbook section’ that involves its visitors is well suited to contains information about all aspects of nurture an online shared-interest brand making an Etsy business successful. The community that can drive a relationship. forum section provides a vehicle to dis- There is a ‘found a home’ or even a ‘found cuss area of interest, such as branding or a family’ moment. That connection will marketing. Still another section allows you contribute to the brand’s credibility as to create or join an active team discussion well. People are unlikely to challenge the and explore cooperation with other sellers credibility of a brand that has a common and compare ideas about anything affect- interest. Consider Etsy. ing your business, such as how to grow, Etsy was founded in 2005 as a place how to promote, how to work with metal, that true craftspeople could go and sell shameless advertising and global market- their products. At Amazon, they felt lost ing. In 2019 there were over 10, 000 teams and out of place as did potential buyers. As worldwide.13 Etsy developed its model, a community of Etsy has created and owned a subcat- buyers coalesced with a shared interest in egory that channels energy from sellers the intriguing, high-quality craft activity; and buyers that truly believe and live the the human connection with craftspeople mission of Etsy. Prophet, a digital transfor- and the ‘hang out’ pleasure they received. mation and brand strategy firm, does an Even more impressive, however, was the annual brand study of nearly 300 brands. community of sellers. On the ability of a brand to inspire, Etsy For sellers, the Etsy community con- placed third after only Pinterest and Food tains creative, committed craftspeople who Network in 2019. A remarkable and envi- want to turn their passion into a business. able feat.

In 2015, ten years after Etsy launched, A social or environmental higher pur- Amazon Handmade was introduced with pose often provides a more powerful the seller option of using Fulfillment by source of pride and inspiration. A grow- Amazon, which was in some ways, the ing and significant portion of the mar- ultimate compliment. Etsy, however, still ketplace is sensitive to the responsibility showed a year over year growth rate 2015– and ability of firms to address social and 2019 that exceeded 25 per cent and saw environmental problems and make a dif- its market cap grow from US$1.8bn to ference. Increasingly, firms that are visible US$8.1bn, which shows that it was not sig- and effective at creating a social or envi- nificantly affected by the Amazon attempt ronmental mission and supporting pro- to copy.14,15 Amazon Handmade’s liabilities grammes are rewarded by customers and include, in addition to a commoditisation even the stock market image and the lack of a community, the fact The online Ally Bank has a mission to that a seller faced the lack of data control, help people achieve their financial dream higher fees and the inability to add pro- by expanding access to economic mobility. motional material in or on shipping boxes. Financial education programmes are part of the effort — tens of thousands of kids and families have learned money habits A HIGHER PURPOSE with Ally children’s books and adults have Amazon dominates with low prices, wide accessed the free Wallet Wise course on selection, reliability and easy-to-use inter- financial basics. Employees visit classrooms face all functional benefits. Its priority is and help students build websites. Other on growing sales through being customer community efforts are directed at helping centric. However, people today, especially people develop the skills and resources to Millennials, desire a relationship with an move up. organisation with a higher purpose they One way to provide substance behind respect and admire. They want to connect a social or environmental higher purpose with a firm that is visibly doing something is to have a visible way to give products for people, the community and the planet relevant to a population with a need. that is over and beyond just making money. Warby Parker wants to address the real- An offering and its functional benefit ity that 2.5 billion people need glasses but can also provide a basis for a higher pur- lack access, one-fourth are so impaired pose. Etsy has a higher purpose — to foster that they cannot effectively learn or work. creative craft making powered by people Its programme to ‘Buy a Pair, Give a Pair’ and the lifestyle, values and community has resulted in over five million pairs of that goes along with it. Casper is the sleep glasses being distributed during their first company (not a mattress company) with a seven years. Prophet, the brand consult- mission to awaken the potential of a well- ing company, devotes one day each year rested world. There needs to be substance to provide advice to small not-for-profits. behind the higher purpose to buttress cred- Casper gives sheets and mattresses to those ibility. Casper, for example, communicates in need. research about sleep and, as described ear- lier, develops products such as the Casper Glow and sleep aides such as a meditation A PERSONAL TOUCH video. It is hard to imagine Amazon being Amazon is big, efficient and the very pic- concerned with sleep quality. ture of being mechanical and impersonal

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with robots operating not only the ware- BE THE FEISTY UNDERDOG houses but also customer interaction. The Being the feisty underdog with respect website does not reveal any way to com- to two targets, the storefront chains and municate with a real person; so, providing Amazon, can be powerful. DSC, for exam- a link to a person who is informed and ple, is an underdog to Gillette, which has empowered about a product arena creates made buying difficult for a long time and a feeling that someone cares and you do seems unwilling or unable to change. not have to be alone and frustrated. It puts Although the storefront chains selling big Amazon at a disadvantage. brands like Gillette may be the prime tar- When you enter a retailer, it is nice to get, DSC is also an underdog to Amazon, have a real person interact with you. Warby which for some has a personality of an Parker has such a person on call, only 6 all-powerful giant that lacks a personal seconds away. Just knowing there is a call touch and never has fun. number, even if you never use it, is com- People love the underdog story and forting. Casper’s ‘chat with a real human’ often cheer for the brand that goes up button provides a link that reassures. against big, established players that are The ultimate is to include a human serious and even pompous. The underdog being into the offering. Stich Fix, an brand, the cute little dog nipping at the e-commerce clothing site, provides a per- bored huge bulldog, gets permission to sonal stylist who can select clothing that attract attention by being funky and even would work for you. You then can have outrageous and, most importantly, to be several of the choices shipped to your door humorous. from which you can buy whatever you Humour is a particularly powerful tool like and send the rest back. All shipping is and being able to access it can be a game free, and no subscription is required. The changer. An appealing personality trait, Stich Fix customer can also find general humour helps most relationships because stylist advice and commentary on the site. it is just more fun to be with an entity Adore Me, the brand with an e-commerce that makes you laugh. Particularly use- site that sells lingerie that competes with ful for a brand attempting to break into Victoria’s Secret, offers ‘VIP’ subscriptions e-commerce with an innovative disruptive that provide a new set of lingerie every offering, it not only generates likeability, four weeks, reflecting Adore Me’s ability which is transferred to the brand, but it to be fashion-trend forward. That requires also attracts attention and distracts from a person with knowledge of not only the counterarguing. Getting a message to go customer but the fashion-forward choices, viral because its humour spurs sharing has not the style or even within the capability made the difference for many new brands. of Amazon. DSC, for example, uses humour and A personal touch can go beyond an quirky subject matter throughout its interaction with a person. Some brands interaction with customers. At launch, it have sent out personal notes to celebrate distributed an irreverent video that intro- reaching a loyalty level or being a good duced the founder and the DSC concept customer. Other brands, such as Etsy, have to reduce the frustration and expense of membership where members get access buying razor blades in an irrelevant and to products, promotions or information wildly humorous but still authentic way. not available to others. It is a way to make The video with a signature line ‘It’s not someone feel connected and valued. good it’s f.. .kng good’ went viral, crashed

the site, prompting 12,000 orders in a Another example is DSC, which two-day period and, by 2019, had received started and remains anchored on having over 26 million views. Then there is the a breathtakingly low razor blade price magazine insert in DSC monthly ship- as compared with Gillette and other ments, ‘The Bathroom Minutes’, that national brands being sold through local provides a set of single-page notes that retailers. DSC shouted low price and are offbeat interesting or humorous. The found ways to communicate that low website contains a lifestyle and culture price credibly and memorably. The ref- magazine that covers sex, relationships, erence price was not Amazon in part health, money and more from a ‘male’ because the Amazon price is dynamic, point of view that is always intriguing changing daily and sometimes hourly, and often humorous. Then after introduc- so any price comparison with Amazon ing ‘One Wipe Charlie’, a wiping tissue would be messy at best. with a link to colon cancer, DSC issued a video ‘Let’s talk about #2’. The humor for DSC not only helps create a personality ADD STOREFRONT SYNERGIES and relationship but without question aids The new entry can expand the offering or communication. the way it accesses the market. The result can be a more attractive purchase or use experience. POSITION TO HIGHLIGHT ADVANTAGES Some Amazon competitor successes Sometimes a competitive advantage gets created ‘must haves’ by expanding the buried when the brand is positioned distribution footprint. Amazon is really against the dominant brand and its cat- committed to e-commerce. It does have egory. One option is to recreate space a token effort with small book stores, a between the dominant brand and the convenience chain and the Whole Foods challenger brand so that its advantage gets Purchase, but with respect to its total line highlighted and is the focus when cus- scope and its value proposition, Amazon tomers make purchase decisions. has limited ability to go into the streets A classic example is DiGiorno Pizza, with specialised offerings. which was introduced in 1995 as a frozen Amazon certainly could not open mat- pizza with a fresh-frozen crust, as opposed tress stores; however, Casper Sleep can and to a frozen precooked crust, which resulted does open stores to showcase its mattresses in superior taste and texture. Rather than — after five years some 20 stores were in positioning their offering as a subcategory place and many more were planned. In of frozen pizza, it positioned DiGiorno as addition, customers could try out Casper a subcategory of delivery pizza because mattresses at Nordstrom, UNTUCKit it had comparable quality but was simply (the store with shirts that are not tucked more convenient and much less expen- in) had four dozen stores only five years sive. With a long-running tagline “It’s after launch. The lingerie start-up, Adore not delivery. It’s DiGiorno” the brand Me, started an aggressive store develop- charged from USD $125 million to over ment programme in 2019. Birchbox, a USD $200 million within a few years and beauty e-commerce brand, opened shops to over USD $1 billion by 2013.16 Half of in Walgreens. In each case, these stores add the new sales coming from people new to credibility and the option to try out the frozen pizza.17 product.

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The result is a brand experience that is Third, get attention with communi- broader than that of an e-commerce-only cation that breaks through because it is brand. The storefront exposure builds and humorous or otherwise exceptionally enhances a brand. It allows the customer to interesting. Everlane got a start with an touch, feel and try plus get instant gratifica- infographic of its t-shirt cost broken down tion by taking it home. There are also eco- into six stages, intriguing enough to gar- nomic reasons why the move makes sense: ner 17,000 notes on Tumblr and that got them off the ground.18 Recall the video ● It is a way to leverage the brand strength, for DSC that went viral because of its the core customer base and the buzz humor. from the e-commerce site. A store site Four, create a relationship link with has a huge head start over one without customers that goes beyond functional an established e-commerce presence. benefits. It can involve whimsical humor ● The storefront exposure builds and as in DSC, a higher purpose as in Warby enhances a brand. It can tell a brand Parker, a transparent brand vision such story more vividly and consistently than as Everlane’s or a brand community like on a website. Esty’s, but it must connect. ● Store space is plentiful and relatively inexpensive because of overbuilt retail, References the Amazon-driven closures, and the (1) Aaker, D. (2020) ‘Owning Game-Changing damage to retail from the COVID-19 Subcategories: Uncommon Growth in the Digital Age’, Morgan James, New York, NY. virus. (2) Stone, B. (2013) ‘The Everything Store: Jeff Bezos and the Age of Amazon’, Back Bay Books/Little Brown, New York, NY. CHALLENGES FOR ANY BRAND FACING (3) Dayton, E. (2020) ‘Amazon Statistics You Should Know’, BigCommerce.com, April, available at: A DOMINANT PLAYER https://www.bigcommerce.com/blog/amazon There are challenges that a brand, such as -statistics/ (accessed 1st June, 2020). a prospective e-commerce-first brand, fac- (4) See Ibid., ref. 3 above. (5) For an elaboration see Ibid., ref. 1 above. ing a dominant player or a pair of domi- (6) Spera, M. (2019) ‘The 10 marketing secrets to nant players needs to address. Everlane’s success’, growthmarketingpro.com, 2nd First, find or develop a subcategory. February. (7) Schlossberg, M. (2016) ‘This hot $250 million Sometimes, however, the opportunity is start-up is being called J. Crew for millennials’, obvious, such as when a confusing assort- Businessinsider.com, 7th March. ment of razor blades was sold behind (8) Warby Parket in Hindsight, Fortune.com, 1st June, 2019. a locked display at a high price. More (9) Clark, K. (2019) ‘Mattress startup Casper valued often, however, there needs to be depth at $1.1B with new funding’, techcrunch.com, 28th of knowledge of the market and emerging March. technology plus a flash of insight. (10) Spenner, P., Freeman, K. (2012) ‘To keep your customers, keep it simple’, Harvard Business Second, develop credibility supported Review. by substance not only by delivering con- (11) Schwartz, B. (2016) ‘The Paradox of Choice’, sistently against the promise but also by HarperCollins, New York, NY. (12) Hawley, K. (2019) ‘Handmade wooden utensils explaining why your brand can deliver from Belaya Hvoya’, Blog.Etsy.com, 1st April. quality reliably and what it is about your (13) Goyal, K. P. (2019) ‘It’s now easier than ever organisation that earns trust. Deal with the to connect with other sellers and grow your creative business’, Etsy.com/Seller Handbook, reasons ‘not to buy’, such as shipping costs available at: https://www.etsy.com/in-en/seller and ‘try it’ concerns. -handbook/article/improvements-to-etsy

-teams-and-forums/461075919256 (accessed encyclopedia.com/marketing/encyclopedias- 22nd January, 2019). almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/kraft-foods-inc (14) Wahba, P. (2019) ‘Crafting a comeback at Etsy’, (accessed 9th June, 2020). Fortune, pp. 33–35. (17) Conway, J. (2019) ‘Frozen pizza market: sales (15) Macrotrends. (2019) ‘Etsy revenue 2013-2019’, of the leading brands in the U.S. 2011-2017’, available at: macrotrends.net/stocks/charts/ Statista.com, 22nd July https://www.statista.com/ ETSY/etsy/revenue. statistics/189650/top-frozen-pizza-brands-in- (16) Risland, S. (2020) ‘It’s not delivery, it’s Digiorno’, the-united-states/ (accessed 1st Feb, 2020). Encyclopedia.com, 27th March. https://www. (18) Ibid., ref. 6 above.