The Metrical System of Weights and Measures Author(S): Alex

The Metrical System of Weights and Measures Author(s): Alex. Siemens Source: Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Vol. 66, No. 4 (Dec., 1903), pp. 688-719 Published by: Wiley for the Royal Statistical Society Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2339493 . Accessed: 24/06/2014 21:22

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This content downloaded from 62.122.78.91 on Tue, 24 Jun 2014 21:22:47 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 688 roDec.

The MAETRICAL,SYSTEM of AVEIGIhTS and MEASURES. -ByALEX. SIEMENS.

[Read beforetje Royal StatisticalSociety, 15th December,1903. MAJOR PATtICE GEORGE CRAIGIE, C.B., President,in the Chair.]

IN the " Notes oil the MletricalSystem of Weights and Measures," which were discussed in the beginiiiligof this year at two meetings of the Institutioll of Electrical Enigineers,the origin of the metrical system is fully described, but it will not be superfluousjust to recapitulate the leadiiig features of its history. For a long time scientificmen ill various countrieshad recognisedthe desirabilityof carryingon their investigationisin accordance with international units of weights aild measures, subdivided in a uniformmanner, but no action is recorded until James Watt took up the subject in 1783; and there is verylittle doubt that the presentmetrical system is the outcome of his agitation. He definedin his letters the fundamentalconditions oTi which the metric system is based, and he had personal intercourse with the French men of science who were prominentlyactive in the Inter- iiatioiial Commissionwhich worked out the details of the system. Watt laid particularstress on the necessityof having a decimal subdivisiolnwhich, he said, " from the niatureof it must be intel- " ligible as long as decimal arithmeticis used;" and in another letterhe writes," for the utility" (viz., of decimal subdivisioll) " is " so evident that every thinking person must immediately be coii- " vinced of it." It would be very interestingto hear James Watt's opinioii of the clamour for a duodecimal system by which certain idealists endeavour to delay the adoption of the metricsystem. Without doubt arithmeticwith the basis twelve,instead of tenl, would have many advantages, but it is only necessary to mention the changes which such an alterationwould imply,to prove that it is quite out of the question to attemptit. In a duodecimal system the figure IO would signify a dozen units,hence it is necessary to introduce two new figures,one for ten uliits and one for eleven units. These new numbers,moreover, would require new names in every language, not only for the units themselves but also for their combinationswith the various poten- tials of twelve.

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On the otherhand therewould be the substantialgain of being able to say thatten divided by threeis four. Further,the advocatesof the duodecimalsystem entirely omit to considerthat the present imperial weights and measurescannot be said to be subdividedin any rationalmanner, as the following tableshows:- Britisl Meeas?uresof

Lengtih. Area.

tTuits. Proportioin. Uniits. Proportion.

Statutemile ...... Acre . 8 4 Furlong ...... Roods . 40 40 Perch ...... Rods .. . 23 30i Fathoms...... Square yards . 2 9 Yards ...... ,, feet. 3 144 Feet.12,, ...... incles . 12 Inches ...... 3 IBarleycorns......

Capacitv. Weight.

Units. Proportion. Units. Proportion.

Barrel ...... Ton . 4 20 Firkins ...... Cwt. 2 4 Pins... Quarters. 4i 2 Gallons ... Stones . 4 14 Quarts...... Lb. avoirdupois. 2 16 Pints ...... Ounces. 4 16 Gills ...... Drachms. 2711 Grainss.. 2

No one can seriouslymaintain that theseweights and measures are subdividedon the duodecimalsystem, and the factremains that the adoptionof a duodecimalsystem would necessitate,in addition to the upsettingof the multiplicationtables, as thorougha revision VOL. LXVI. PART IV. 3 B

This content downloaded from 62.122.78.91 on Tue, 24 Jun 2014 21:22:47 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 690 SIEMENS-The MetricalSystem of WVeightsand Measures. [Dec. of the imperialweights and measuresas the introductionof the metricsystem. Anotherset of objectorsto decimalsubdivision maintain that successivehalvings are much more convenient. For instance, Sir George Airy,then AstronomerRoyal, said in his evidence beforethe select committeeof 1862: "If I had a new nationto "create,with a newstyle of weightsand measures,I would give "themthe binaryscale throughout; that I considernearest perfec- "tion, with means to enableus to use decimalmultiples and sub- "multiples." The last part of the answer is somewhatobscure, but Sir GeorgeAiry said, in anotherpart of his evidenceabout the practiceof mankind: " For each particularsubject to which "measure,&c., is applied,some one measure,&c., is adoptedas the "standard. Then the multiplesof this measure,&c., are takenon "the decimalscale, and the subdivisionsare taken on the binary "scale." To decidethis controversyabout the most suitablesubdivision, some factswill be a betterguide than the pious opinionsof any man. In thetable ofBritish measures given above the last figure,viz., 271' grains= i drachm,has a bearingon thisquestion which may notat oncebe apparent. When the first attemptwas made, in 1824, to introduce uniformweights and measuresin the United Kirgdom,by "an " Act forascertaining and establishinguniformity for weights and " measures"(5 GeorgeIV, cap. 74), the troypound of 5,670 grains was still treatedas the standardweight of the realm,and by the sameAct thepound avoirdupois was cut downfrom 7,008 grains, as fixedin 1759,to 7,000 grains,with the apparent object of dividing the poundavoirdupois into i,ooo parts,each equal to 7 grains and called a septem. At least, it is a fact that sets of weightsexist based on thisdecimal subdivision. Whenthe Houses of Parliamentwere burnt down in 1838,the standardweights and measureswere lost,and a commissionwas appointedto considerthe stepsfor their restoration. Their reportwas presentedon the 21st December,1841, and stronglyrecommended the introductionof a decimalsubdivision of weightsand measures. Even Sir George Airy and Sir John Herschel,both bitter opponentsof the metrical system, concurred in thisrecommendatioi of a decimalsubdivision. Comingto our own times,the actionof the LiverpoolCotton Associationmay be citedin favourof decimal subdivision.

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Up to the 1st October,1902, all cottonwas sold by the " point," whichwas equal to one-sixty-fourthof a penny; in somecases they even used half points; but this binary subdivisionproved so troublesomethat since the above date theymake all theirquotations in one-hundredthsofa penny. To facilitatethe transition,little tables were printed and distributedto showthe equivalentsof the old " points" in decimals of a penny. Not onlyin the workshops,but also in the publicationsof the EngineeringStandards Committee,the inch is divided into thousandths,and notaccording to the binaryscale. A furtherproof of the convenienceof decimalsubdivision may be foundin the adoptionby the United States and most of the BritishColonies of the ton of 2,000 lbs., and a great numberof themhave a decimalcoinage. This tendencyto decimalizationwas treatedin a paperread by Mr. FrederickBrooks, of Boston,Mass., at a meetingof the New EnglandWaterworks Association held in Montrealin Septemberof thisyear. He was speaking" on thefolly of reckoningby gallons, "which differwidely in Canada and the United States,while all ccountrieshave identicallitres and cubicmetres," and expressesin the courseof his paperhis opinionon thispoint as follows: "In decimalization,Canada and the United States have left "England behind,having adopted dollars and cents and aban- donedthe Y? s. d. reckoniingwhich they formerly used, and which XEngland continuesto use. Moneydeserves prominent mention "because ofthe very close analogy that exists, extending into many ccdetails, between the changein monetaryreckoning and the change "in weightsand measures. " Our decimalizationhas included other things along with "money; forinstance, our discussionyesterday brought out the "fact thatCanada has adopteda ton of 2,000 lbs.,which in England "is calledthe ' Colonial'ton, so thatthe hundredweightin America "is ioo lbs.,not, as in England,I12 lbs. " We have reckonedlumber by the I,000 feetof boardmeasure, "instead of cubicfeet or cubic yardsor cords,&c.; and slatingor "shinglingby the ' square' of I00 square feet,disregarding square "yards; and so on. "In realityour decimalizationhas been less an establishingof "special units than-a mental habit of reckoningconformably to "our ' Arabic' notation,and that habit has had markedlywider "exercise in Americathan in England. I doubtif any kind of "measure can be named in whichmultiplying or subdividingby "ten has not been initroducedas a practiceamong us. 3 B 2

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" Try such as pertainto waterworks.At thisConvention we "have had somemention of annualrainfall. Thosepeople who are " sure that I2 inchesused to makea foot,and that the inch was " divided by successivebisections, hear no more of a rainfallof "4 feet35 inchesthan theydo of a barometricreading of 2 feet "5 inches. We mighthave a rainfallof 5'-62 inchesa year. " We have stuckto the inch and used our decimalnotation for "expressingmultiples of the inch up to veryhigh figures,and we "insisted uponwriting fractions decimally. "With cast ironwaterpipes it has been similar. We have heard "praise given,as was deserved,to this Association'scommittee, "which recentlyreported on standardspecifications and submitted "extended tables of dimensionsof pipes. Diametersgo up to "65-20 inchesand thicknessesgo down to o034 of an inch,but "there is no eighth-inchor sixteenth-inchas formerlywritten, and "no footexpression of transversedimension. "Consumptionof water has affordedanother instance of the "same kind. We have adheredto the littleunit of a gallon,even "for immensequantities. The millionof gallons,a numbertoo "large for the humanmind to presentadequately to itself,we "have practicallymade our unit of higherdenomination, ignoring "the variousmultiples of thegallon that belonged to our old tables "of measures. For instance,it has been exceptionalwith us to "express consumptionby the barrel,as in the statementmade this "morningin Mr.Venner's paper, that, on theaverage, two-thirds of "a barrelof waterper day was disposedof forevery pupil in the school houses of Syracuse,,NewYork. In irrigation,quantities "have sometimesbeen expressedby the acre-foot.In both these "cases the attemptwas probablyto use familiarunits of which "mentalconception could be formed." " As forsmall quantities, we havein Table No. 2 of Mr.Kimball's "valuable paperon testof watermeters, put beforeus thismorning, "two decimalsof gallons, the tenthof the gallon and thehundredth "of the gallon; he does not use the binarysubdivisions, the pint "and gill,well known to peoplegenerally." Even in the UnitedKingdom steps are beingtaken to introduce decimalsubdivisions into the weights,at least the Board of Trade have recentlybeen authorisedby an Orderin Councilto adopt a new standardweight of 50 lbs. or "half-cental,"in pursuanceof Section8 ofthe Weightsand MeasuresAct, 1878. In short,the utility and convenienceof the decimalsubdivision of weightsand measureshas been recognisedin the mostpractical mannerin all countries,whether they use the metricsystem or not,and some prominentopponents of the metricsystem have in

This content downloaded from 62.122.78.91 on Tue, 24 Jun 2014 21:22:47 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 1903.] SIEMENs-ThteMetrical Stystemn of Weights and Measures.693 consequencechanged their frontby not any more objectingto decimalsubdivision as such,but by declaringthat theyare opposed to beingforced to use decimalfractions on all occasions. Theyshould bear in mindthe wordsof Sir FrederickBramwell, whosaid in the discussionat theInstitution of Electrical Engineers: "I am notagainst decimals at all; I use decimalfractions wherever "they comein handy." This expressesexactly the state of things. When the metric systemhas been introduced,everybody will be at libertyto use vulgarfractions or decimalfractions whenever and wherever,in his opinion,they are the mostsuitable. Owingto the decimalconnection of the variousquantities it is, however,possible to weigh or to measurewithout using fractions at all. For instance,all drawingsare figuredin millimetres,so that no largerunits have to be indicatedon them,as is usuallydone with feetand inches. In the sameway grammesare used forordinary weights. It may be claimed,therefore, that with our presentsystem of arithmeticthe decimalsubdivision of weightsand measuresis the properdivision, just as JamesWatt said one hundredand twenty yearsago. The other fundamentalcondition of a universalsystem of weightsand measuresis theirinterdependence in an easilyremem- bered manneron one basis ratio throughout. In the metrical systemthis basis is ten. As a matterof fact the desirabilityof this secondcondition is universallyrecognised; and evenin theBritish weights and measures thereare someattempts to connectweights and measures. Thus the Britishimperial gallon of water, at its greatestdensity and weighedin vacauo,weighs exactly io lbs. avoirdupois,and the cubic footweighs very nearly i,ooo ounces; but these relations lead nowhere,because the ratiobetween the various units of weights differsfrom the ratio between the variousunits of measures. ProfessorR. H. Smith sent a communicationto the "Journal " of the Institutionof ElectricalEngineers " in whichhe sumsup the case ofthe metric system in an admirablemanner:- " The units of the metricsystem have no initrinsicsuperiority " overothers. The intrinsicsuperiority of thissystem lies in- 1. That it is strictlysystematised on one base ratiothrough- out." 2. That thisbase ratiois ten." "No othersystem exists which has eitherof these two advantages, "and these two are all that are wantedor can be rationallycon-

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" ceivedof. Any numberof systems fulfilling these two essentials " withother units may be devised,and, if universallyadopted, any "such systemwould be equallyuseful and convenient." " But themetric system is alreadyused by a largeproportion of ;' the industrialand scientificparts of the humanrace, and no "possible advantagecan accruefrom its wantondestruction. For "no othercan possiblybe betterin practicalessentials except in substitutingfor ten the base twelveor thirtyfor measures and "writtennumeration alike, and thislatter is humanlyimpossible." Fromall theseconsiderations it is quite evidentthat the introductionof the metricalsystem has no influenceon the,greater ora less use ofvulgar fractions. Failing this objection,the next point raised againstthe introductionof the metricalsystem is basedupon the permissionto use the systemin the United Kingdomgranted by the Weightsand Measures(Metric System) Act, 1897. Anybodywho likes can use the metricsystem, the Board of Trade is authorisedand preparedto verifymetric weights and measures,so that the manufacturerswho have dealings with metricalcountries can facilitatetheir intercourseby keepinga doubleset of drawingsand patterns. This argumentignores on the one hand the advantagesto the hometrade which would resultfrom the introductionof a rational systemof weightsand measures;and, on the otherhand, under- estimatesthe serioushandicap to Britishindustry which this double systemof weightsand measuresimposes upon it in its competition withother nations. The characterof this competitionhas undergoniea verygreat cliangeduring the last thirtyyears, which has not been brought aboutby a singlefactor, but by the co-operationof a great many circumstances. Foremostamong them is the improvementin communicationsof everysort; not onlycan theprices of all commoditiesbe ascertained anywherewith little delay, and the goodsthemselves transported in a veryshort time, but all inventionsand improvementsof processes of manufacturesare knownall over the civilisedworld almost simultalleously. Anotherfactor is the growth of manufacturesin foreign countries,which has been materiallyassisted by the fosteringcare which the various Governmentsbestow upon technicaleducation and on researchwork. Thereis no need to elaboratethe point that foreignindustries, whichat the beginningof the periodwere in theirinfancy, have developedinto formidable competitors, so that the Britishmanufac-

This content downloaded from 62.122.78.91 on Tue, 24 Jun 2014 21:22:47 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 1903.] SIEMENS-17TeMetrical System of Weightsand Mllea.sur-es.695 turer,who started with almost a monopoly,has to take advantage of all modernimprovements if he wishesto competeon eventerms withhis rivals. Under the circumstancesit has been naturalthat the rate at whichthe outputof foreignworks increased has beengreater than the developmentof the Britishtrade, but the year 1900,according to the chartslately published in the Board of Trade blue-book, appearsto marka culminatingpoint for most countries. It appears,therefore, appropriate to examineinto the state of tradeduring that year, as beingtypical of what all countriescali do at theirbest. For the purposesof this paper the data, partlytaken from the Board of Trade blue-bookand partlyfrom Whitaker's Almanack, 1903, have been arrangedso as to show the trade of the United Kingdomwith the variouscountries, and also the total trade of each country,as givenby the importsand exports. Wheneverthe total importsor exportsof a countrywere not given,the exportsand imiiportsto the United Kingdomhave been takenas beingthe total exports and importsof thatcountry. Some countrieshave been left out altogether,as no figures aboutthem are given. All theseexceptions refer to smallcountries, and theinaccuracies arisingfrom the omissionscan have no influenceon the general conclusionswhich may be drawnfrom the tables. The totals of these tables have been grouped togetherin a summarywhich is intendedto show the position of the United Kingdomin comparisonto othercountries. Foremostamong these are the United States of America,and theyhave beeniseparately dealt with in the summaryon accountof the peculiarcharacter of their trade with this country. Great Britain exported to the States nearly I7,000,0001. worth of manufactures,and receivedin exchangeabout 2 I,ooo,ooo. worth of manufactures;but, in addition,the United States of America sent here I17,000,0001. worth of other goods, which were for the mostpart food stuffs or raw materials. In this way the United States of America.have taken,in the year 1900, only 6-1 per cent. of the total exportsof the United Kingdom,while they supplied 26-4 per cent.of all imports;and all the non-metricalforeign countries together account for I5 per cent. of the exportsof the United Kingdom,while the BritishEmpire took a little over 30 per cent.,but the metricalforeign countries weresupplied with 54-6 per cent.of Britishexports. This alone shows the importanceof the trade with metrical countries,but it is stillmore instructive to considerwhat percentage

This content downloaded from 62.122.78.91 on Tue, 24 Jun 2014 21:22:47 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 696 SIEMENS-ThweMietrical System of Weightsand Measures. [Dec. the value of importsfrom the United Kingdombears to thevalue of all importsinto each countryor group'ofcountries. Again, the United States of Americaoccupy an exceptional position:the importsfrom the UnitedKingdom were in 1900 only I -5 per cent.of the totalimports into the United States of America, but the importsinto the United Kingdomwere verynearly half the total exportsof the UnitedStates of America. Thus it comes about that Great Britainreceived in the year 1900 32r8 per cent. of all imports from non-metricalforeign countries,while GreaterBritain supplied 2I'4 per cent.,and the metricalcountries 45-8 per cent. Omittingthe United States of Americafrom this calculation altersthese figures so as to showthat foreign non-metrical countries take 9-4 per cent.of Britishexports, Greater Britain takes 32-4 per cent.,and the metricalcountries 58-2 per cent.; and, on the other hand,non-metrical foreign countries supply 8-7 per cent.of imports into the United Kingdom,Greater Britain supplies 29-I per cent., and themetrical countries 62-2 per cent.,in bothcases not counting the trade of the United Kingdom with the United States of America. But to continuethe comparisonof importsfrom the United Kingdomto thetotal value of importsinto each groupof countries, the summaryshows that Britishexports are 24-6 per cent.of the total importsinto non-metricalforeign countries, they are 38 per cent.of theimports into GreaterBritain, and only 15 per cent.of theimports into metrical countries. The summaryalso showsthat the importsinto metrical countries form68-5 per cent.of the importsinto all countriesunder review, whilethe United Statesof Americatake only9-5 per cent.,foreign non-metricalcountries 6 85 per cent.,and GreaterBritain I51I5 per cent. Similarfigures apply to the exportsfrom the variouscountries intothe United Kingdom, and theyshow that the metrical countries do 6I 8 per cent.of the exporttrade, and that only22 per cent.of theirexports are suppliedto the UnitedKingdom. From these data it certainlyappears that the best chancefor expansionlies in the tradewith metricalcountries, and thiswould certainlybe stimulatedif thiscountry adopted the metric system. This aspectof the questionhas been discussedat a meetingof theAmerican Chamber of Commercein Paris and the Societ6des IngenieursCivils de France,of which the reportappears in "'Bulletin "No. 23 (Paris: October,1903) of the AmericanChamber of Commerce." Appendedto the reportare a numberof questionsabout the

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metricsystem of measures,to whichthe Societe des Ingenieurs Civils suppliedanswers. In question22 the Chamberof Commerceasks: " Supposingthat Americanmachine tools were to be manu- facturedexclusively according to the metricsystem of measures, "would there be any increasein their numberimported into "France ? " The reply to this point is: "If we considerthe questionof "machine tools for use in manufacturing,we simplybeg to point "out that the importationsfrom the United States of America "which,in 1900,represented 27 per cent.of the total importation, "have fallento i6 per cent.,while Germany,which has adopted "the metricsystem, has seenher importationsincrease from 33 per "cent. in 1900,to 46 per cent.in 1901." " Question23.-Is it not admittedthat the choiceof machine toolsis solelygoverned by thepractical considerations of efficiency, "price and time of delivery,and independentlyof the systemof measureswhich may have beenused in theirconstruction ? " " Answer23.-Although the choiceof machinesbe dictatedby practicalconsiderations . . . we have just shownthat countries "employingthe metricsystem appear to preferto importfrom "those countrieswhose systemof measuresis in harmonywith "their own. It is impossibleto expressthe value ofthis preference, "lhowever,in figures,but its influiencecannot be doubted It is hardlynecessary to add anythingfurther in supportof the viewthat by the abolitionof the old weightsand measuresand the -adoptionof the metricsystem, the trade of this countrywith the metricalcountries would increase, and that,thereby, the costof the xtransitionwould be amplyrepaid. Aboutthis cost of transition,and aboutthe inconvenienceof the change,a great deal is said in everydiscussion on theintroduction of the metricsystem, and the opponentsusually allege thateven in Francethe introductionhas notyet been completed. The AmericanChamber of Commerce(Paris) asks on thispoiInt, amongothers, the following questions: " Question16.-How can it be explainedthat the persistent efforts " ofthe authorities,and the stringentlaws on thesubject of weights "and measureshave not succeeded,after more than a century,in "preventingthe every-dayuse ofthe old measures? " Question17.-Can it be denied that thereactually exist two systemsof weightsand measuresin France-the metricsystem, "and the old systemof weights and measures? "Answers16 and 17.-At the commencementof the application " of the metricalsystem in Francethere was frequentlyhesitation,

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" owing,to a great extent,to the radical changesin the political "r6egime. But the metricsystem was not reallylegal to theexclu- " sionof everyother until 1st January,1840-that is to say,a little "more thansixty years ago. To-dayonly one systemof measures existsin France,and it is absolutelyincorrect to say that the old "measures are still employedin this country;even theirvalues "are becomingmore unknown. The popular names of the old "measures which,as stated before,designate at the presenttime "metricmeasures, have given rise to the beliefthat the two systems " are co-existent;the only notable exceptionis to be foundin " those industriesor tradlesin whichforeign natioins which have " notadopted the metric system, have such a preponderatinginfluence as to, thusfar, impose the use of theirown measures." The followingletters bear on the samepoint:- "24thJanuary, 1903. "MlY DEAR GRAY,- " SirFred. mentioned on Thursdaythat you had writtena letter "to the ' Times' some time ago about the people in France,near "your works,using ' barrel,''toise,' and otherancient names for "their weightsand measures. " Can you give me any informationas to whatthese weights "and measureswere in metricalterms ? " I shouldnot troubleyou, but I do not knowwhere to findthe "letter, and no doubt you have the whole informationcollected "together. " Thankingyou in anticipation,&c."

Mr. RobertK. Grayacknowledged the receiptof this letter, andi thenreplied fully, on the 28thJanuary

"DEAR SIEMENS, " Sincewriting you on the 26th instantI have lookedup some "of thepapers connected with the metricand decimalsystem, and " I find that in my letterto ' The Times' of 13th April, 1896, "I quotedas apparentlybeing used in Franceat thattime: "The carat, as you know = 4 grains = *259 gramme. "The corde(of firewood)= 4 cubicmetres. "The toise(of gravel) = 4 cubicmetres. " The pinte (de lait) = 2 litres. "The barrique(of wine) = 225 litres. " The feuillette(of wine) = I34 litres. "The demi-setier(of wine) = i litre. "The chopine (of wine) = -1litre.

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"WWood used in constructionis measuredin pieds,pouces, and lignes: I2 lignes = i inch (or pouce). I 2 pouces = i foot.

"Beer is measuredin cannettesof i litreand in pots of 2 litres. "Grain, potatoes,and charcoalare representedby the boisseau of I3 litres. "Among poorpeople, sugar, tea, &c., are dealtwith in livres:- " livre = 2 kilogramme. "A demi-livre= i kilogramme.

" I believethat the presentvalue of these units is not what it "originallywas; theyhave been alteredto accommodatea littleto "the legal measures. " Again, in cattle dealing values are reckonedin pistolesof IO francsand ecus of 3 francs. " In additionto theforegoing, in the southof France the charge "or load of corn is taken at i6o litresand the chargeof oats at 240 litres. The picotinor peck is 24 litres. The milleroleof "wine and oil is 64 litres. The muid is 6 14- hectolitres.The "balle of flourweighs I224- kilogrammes.The quintal forcork, "and also for bacon and pork,is taken at 40 kilogrammes400 "grammes,while the quintal metriqueis ioo kilogrammes.In " some districts the livre of fish equals 450 grammes,and in the "ports coals are sold at goo kilogrammesto theton. In the latter "case the sales are madeby Frenchmento Frenchsteamers. When "English steamerscome into Frenchports the Frenchmenadapt "themselvesto the circumstances,and sell coal in tonsof 40 cubic "feet. "II have never quite been able to make up my mindwhat a "quintal meansin metriccounting. I know that it is employed "to mean 5o kilogrammes(I IO-3lbs., approximatelyan English "hundredweight):but I see it stated,as mentionedabove, that the "quintal metriqueis ioo kilogrammes. " Yours,&c."

The replyto thiswas dated29th January, 1903:

"DEAR GRAY, " Will you add to your great kindnessby lettingme know "what lengththe footwas whichyou mentionin your letterof "yesterday? "Was it the old Paris foot,or the one-thirdof a metre? "1In greathaste, &c."

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On the 31stJanuary Mr. Graywrote:- "DEAR SIEMENS,- " In replyto yoursof the 29th,I am reallynot certain,but I "believe that,as a generalrule, the old measuresnow in use have "been broughtinto linewith the metricsystem. The Paris foot, "I fancy,was i2 8i6 Englishinches. The metricfoot would be I3-236 inches; and I doubtwhether there would have been new "foot rulesmade with the metre as the standard,as the increaseis 4" only 3-], per cent. " Yours,&c."

It will be seenthat on the whole this correspondencebears out the correctnessof the answersof the French Instituteof Civil Enigineers. At the samemeeting the questionlof the extensionof the British systemwas touchedupon by MonsieurC. E. Guillaume,who pointed out thatin Russia,by an ukase of 11th October,1835, the sageile, of 7 Englishfeet, had been establishedas the base of the Russiai systemof measures; but later on the archinehad been adopted, equal to one-thirdof the sagene,the value ofwhich was definedby a numericalrelation to the metricstandards. Later on the chairmansaid: " That concerningthe adoptionof "the footand the inch by Russia,this experimenthad forobject "the extensionof the systemof feetand inches throughoutall "civilised countries. But to-daythey were abandoning this system, " and by a ministerialdecree of last year the steelmakershad had "to modifytheir rolls in orderto onlyemploy metric measures for "the dimensionsof the profiles." Beforethe metricsystem was adopted in Germany,a commis- sion was appointedto elaboratea nationalsystem of weightsand measures. The Commissionerscame, however,to the conclusionthat it wouldbe muchbetter to adopta systemwhich had somechance of becomingan internationalone, than to starta nationalsystem for Germanyalone. At that time (1862) the only systemswhich had a chanceof becominginternational ones were the Englishsystem and themetric system. Althoughthe feelingin Germany,forty years ago, was very muchin fa-vourof everythingEnglish and verymuch against France, the Commissionrecommended the metricsystem for adoption. Aftersome delays the metricweights and measureswere made the sole legal measureson the 1st January,1872, so that the

This content downloaded from 62.122.78.91 on Tue, 24 Jun 2014 21:22:47 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 1903.] SIEMENS-Theletrical System of TWeightsand Measuires.701 inconvenienceand the cost of the change are well withinthe recollectionof people who are still living. In the shopstables had to be exhibitedgiving the equivalents of the pricesaccording to the old system,and the pricesaccording to the new system. Thesetables were issued officiallyand sold at a nominalcost, and theireffect was thatno difficultiesor disputesarose out of the change. In fact,the public found the decimalsubdivision and the simple relationshipof the various units so convenient,that the' tables were hardly used after the firstfew days, and nobody expressedany desireto revertto the old state of things. A fewold namesof weightsand measuresare still in use,just as theyare in France,but theydenote metrical measures, and their iise may be comparedto the use of slang or local expressionsin language,the significanceof whichis well known,although they strictlyare notpart of theregular language. On the score of convenience,no valid objectioncan be raised against the metricalsystem, and the cost of the changeis very- easilyexaggerated. On this point a memberof the Incorporated Society of Inspectorsof Weights and Measures said, duringa discussionon the metricsystem before that societyon 1st May,. this year: "It" (the change) "would really be very little cost to the " shopkeeper,but he does not realisethlat that is the case. The " shopkeeperimagines that thewhole of his weighinginstruments " wouldhave to be changed,and it is the weighinginstruments that " are the greatestfactor with him. The change so far as the- " weightsand measuresare concernedis a verysmall one indeed- " It does not costmuch to changeeither his weights or his measures, " and I referto themeasures of length as wellas to thoseof capacity. " Withregard to Mr. Kyle'spoints-that referring to thechanging " of lever machines-we know, as inspectors,that it is a very " commonthing for a weighingmachine maker to have to change " the wholeof his steelyards,especially in machinesmade before the " Act of 1889 came into force,and to have to rub out the old " markingof the steelyardand mark it anew. In the case of " steelyardmachines it would be a veryeasy thingto changethe " marking,which would also apply to platformmachines and " counterpoiseweights. The costwould be verysmall indeed." That is an expert opinion as far as the retail trade is concerned;moreover, at the end of the discussionthe following resolutionwas carried:- "That the cost of the introductionof the metricsystem, and "the lines upoIi which transitionshould be effectedwith the

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"least cost to the community,be referredto the Executive "Council forconsideration and report." It willbe veryinteresting to have thispoint cleared up, and the opinionof the ExecutiveCouncil of the IncorporatedSociety of Inspectorsof Weightsand Measureswill no doubt be acceptedas a mostreliable guide in the matter. This Societywill, however, not touch upon the questionwhat expensewill be caused in engineeringworks by the change; and to judge by theestimates of the expensepropounded by the objectors, thewhole industry would be ruined,as it would have to scrap its screwcutting machinery, its templates,and jigs ofall sorts. If thatwere really the case,it mightmake the advocatesof the systemhesitate; but in mostworks a scrappingprocess of templates and jigs is going on all the time,as improvementsare introduced. so thatthe transition in thisrespect caii be madewithout any extra cost. As regardsscrew-cutting machinery, it shouldbe knownby this time thatEnglish threads can be cut with metricleading screws just as accuratelyas metricthreads on Englishleading screws; all thatis necessaryis to buy suitableexchange wheels. It is certainlynot possible,except by the most refinedmethods ofmeasurements, to findout whethera screwthread has been cut witha metricalor withan Englishleading screw. For instance,there are fourscrews here, two cut on a metric lathe,and two cut on an Englishlathe; one screwof each pair has one-eighthof an inch pitch,and the other a four mm. pitch. One nut fitsthe one-eighthpitch, and the other the four mm. pitch,but it will be difficultto findout whichtwo screwthreads havebeen cut on the samelathe by testingthem with the nuts only. With respectto the introductionof the metricalsystem by compulsion,one of the inspectorsof weightsand measuressaid: 1' Fromthe inspector's point of view there is a point thatadvocates "should not favour,and that is the argumentthat the proposed "general Act shouldbe permissive.To have two sets of weights "on theshop counter at the sametime is notwise. We knowwhat. "it wouldbe to have a i4-poundset and a kilogrammeset alongside "the scale. The changescould be rung. (Applause.) The kilo- "grammeis near the size of a 2-poundweight, the metre near the "size of a yard,and thelitre near the size ofa quart. Withthese "facts beforeus the Act should,in our opinion,be compulsory. "(Hear, hear.)" The same opinionwas expressedby the Select Committeeof 1895, which,after examining numerous witnesses for and against the introductionof the metricsystem, recommended:

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(a.) That themetric system of weightsand measuresbe at once legalisedfor all purposes. (b.) That after a lapse of two years the metric systembe renderedcompulsory by Act of Parliament. (c.) That the metricsystem of weightsand measuresbe taught in all publicelementary schools as a necessaryand integralpart of arithmetic,and that decimalsbe introducedat an earlierperiod of the schoolcurriculum than is the case at present. Again, at the conferenceof Colonial Premierslast year, a resolutionwas passedin the followingwords: " That it is advisable "to adoptthe metricsystem of weightsand measuresfor use within "the Empire,and the PrimeMinisters urge the Governmentsrepre- "sented at thisConference to give considerationto the questionof "its earlyadoption." In pursuanceof this policy the Federal House ofRepresentatives for Australia passed the followingresolutions on the 9th June, 1903, whichwere subsequentlyapproved by the Senate: " 1. That in the opinionof this House it is desirablethat the "metricsystem of weightsand measuresshould be adoptedwith "the least possibledelay for use withinthe Empire. " 2. That the most convenientmethod of obtainingthe objects "stated in Resolution1, is the passage of a law by the Imperial "Parliament renderingthe use of the metricsystem compulsory "for the United Kingdom,and forall partsof the Empirewhose "legislatureshave expressedor mayhereafter express their willing- "ness to adoptthat system. "3. That these resolutionsbe communicatedby addressto his "Excellencythe Governor-Generalfor transmission to the Secretary "of State forthe Colonies. " 4. That theforegoing resolutions be forwardedto the Senate "by message,with a requestfor its concurrencetherein." The same sentimentwas expressedat the FifthCongress of the Chambersof Commerceof the Empire,held in Montreal,by a resolutionpassed on the 17th August last, to the effectthat the Congress,having considered the resolutionof the ColonialPremiers in 1902, "hereby expressesits heartyconcurrence therewith, and "urges uponthe Governmentof the UnitedKingdom the necessity "for legislativemeasures being taken in the interestsof British "Trade and Commerce,to make the use of metricweights and "measures compulsory." Fromother colonies similar resolutions have been sent,and in New Zealanda Weightsand MeasuresAct was passedby the House of Representativesat Wellington,on the 28th July last, which rendersit lawfulfor the Governorat any time,by proclamation,to

This content downloaded from 62.122.78.91 on Tue, 24 Jun 2014 21:22:47 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 704 SIEMENS-TheMetrical System of Weightsand Measures. [Dec.. declarethat fromand afterthe date named in the proclamation, being not soonerthan the 1st January,1906, the metricsystem shallbe the onlysystem of weightsand measuresrecognised for use in New Zealand,and thereafterit shall not be lawfulto use any weightsand measuresother than these. Whilethe movementin favourof the metricsystem has been increasingin GreaterBritain, the opinion in the United Kingdom has foundexpression in the resolutionsof chambersof commerce, towncouncils, and membersof Parliament,as theannual report of' the DecimalAssociation sets out in detail,and thenecessity for the' changeis constantlyurged by consularreports from all partsof the' world. It is quite certainthat the actionof GreatBritain in thismatter would immediatelybe followedby Greater Britain,the United States, and Russia, so that internationalunity of weights and measureswould become an accomplishedfact, for which aim JamesWatt startedhis agitationone hundredand twentyyears ago.

This content downloaded from 62.122.78.91 on Tue, 24 Jun 2014 21:22:47 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 1903.] SIEMENS-Thte MetricalSystem of Wfeightsand Measures.705 APPENDIX.

TABLE 1.-Trade in 1900. IMPORTS. Fronmthe United Kingdom. Per Cent TotalInmports. Per Cent. of of the Total Intoeach Per Cenit. Total of O Exports Vitluein B. of each Country,&c. Gratd from Couiitry, Valuein B. United Conr, Vlei . Total. Kingdom. &C.

United States- ? ? Ships...... 220,055 Manufactuires...... 16,498,728 _ Other goods.. 3,062,048 -

Total to United States], 6*i 19,78o,83 =I IL5 of i69,988,238 = 9'50 of America...... I O non-metrical 6 = 6'85 countruher iess...... 8-9 30,102,506 =-24 122,179,657

Total foreign non- 15-0 49 =170OF = 1635 metricalcountries 292,167,89I ,883,337 7 GreaterBritain ...... 30A4 102,039,099 = 38-0 ,, 269,991,013 = 15-15

Total non.metrical 45-2 = 3147 countri ... 1111--e3 151,922,436 =27-0of 562,158,908 Totalmetricalcountries 54-8 184,301,464 = 150 ,, 1,223,957,796= 68-53

Grand total ...... I00l0 336,223,900 = t88of 1,786,1I6,7o4 = IOO000

EXPORTS. Total To theUnited Kingdoni. PerCenit. Exports. PerCent, ofPeCut Per of thle Total Fromeach Ceui Total of Imports Valuein E. of each Country,&c. Grand ? intothe Country, Valuein Total. United Ttl Kinigdom. &c.

United States- ? ? Manufactures...... 21,317,411 _ - Other goods.. 117,471,850 -

U Of fratesof America 26.4 I38,789,26I =49-9 278,896,6I6 15-7 Otthernon-Ametrical 33,588,467 =27-4 ,, 6 9 OtuercountrXies non-metricalt ...... 6.4 122,205,626

Total foreign non-l 32-8 172,377,728 =430 of 401,102,242 = 22 6 metricalcountries j Greater Britain ...... 21-4 112,970,324 =40 8 ,, 277,528,226 = 15 6

Total 54-1 =42-0 678,630,464 = 38-5 countriesrnoi-metrical ...... 285,348,052 of Total metrical countries 45-9 242,151,394 = 22 0 ,, 1,082,871,143 = 61-5

Grand total ...... 1 iOo0 527,499,446 =-298 of 1,761,501,607 = 100I0

VOL. LXVI. PART IV. 3 C

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TABLE II.-Trade of GreaterBritain in 1900.

IM PORTS. ESXPORTS.

Firom TotailImports To TotalExports UnitedKingdom. intoeacll UnitedKingdom fromeach IInL's. Counitry. In L's. Country. ? ? ? ? Aden and 242,203 242,203 148,292 denciesDepen8...... 148,292 Australasia- New SouthWales 9,357,426 27,561,071 10,057,230 28,164,516 Victoria.6,314,729...6)314,729 17,952,804 7,338,491 18,569,780 SouthAustralia .... 2,172,145 8,034,552 2,151,490 8,029,157 Queensland...... 2,726,034 7,184,112 3,017,290 9,581,562 WesternAustralia 2,340,395 5,962,178 935,104 6,852,054 NewZealand ...... 5,899,292 10,646,096 11,615,881 13,246,161 Tasmania...... 634,836 2,073,657 301,215 2,610,617 Fiji Islands32,571 32,571 343,863 17,720 613,808 B3ermudas...... 139,046 139,046 1,389 1,389 BritishEast Africa.... 145,229 951,065 3,874 498,965 BritishGuiana 705,326 1,393,529 600,114 2,068,406 BritishHonduras 78,808 1,198,772 211,939 977,160 Canada...... 9,058,789 37,924,502 21,764,021 38,378,944 Cape Colony. 10,246,330 21,416,160 7,071,133 10,719,799 Ceylon...... 1,918,209 8,155,598 5,473,111 6,330,818 ChannelIslands ...... 1,207,460 1,207,460 1,476,978 1,476,978 Cyprus, Falkland Islands, and 190,309 634,481 305,886 727,986 Gambia. Gibraltar...... 895,298 895,298 48,756 48,756 Gold Coast.689,13 689,136 1,294.963 621,045 885,446 Hongkong.2,956,262 10,000,000 1,066,048 10,000,000 India (total).30,966,938 52,801,000 27,388,106 76,223,000 Lagosand Malta 1,856,336 1,857,298 342,348 933,913 Mauritiusand Natal 4,149,257 7,449,383 568,138 3,239,190 Newfoundland...... 600,349 1,499,429 476,304 1,725,515 Niger,Sierra Leone, 1,621,039 St. Helena ..... } 1,199,949 1,947,086 1,126,736 StraitsSettlements 3,206,264 31,408,986 7,025,999 26,261,734 WestIndies (Britislh) 2,031,297 6,701,380 1,670,206 6,425,443 Zanzibar...... 78,876 1,116,041 145,480 1,167,794

_ 38?/OfO} 269099I,OI31Io2,97O,324} 277,5z8,222

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TABLE III.-Trade of Non-MfetricalCountries in 1900.

IMPOUTS. EXPORTS.

From TotalImports To TotalExports UnitedKingdom. intoeach UnitedKingdom. fromeach In L's. Country. InL's. Country.

Abyssinia.20,412 20,412 1,776 X ,776 Africa (West) 16,958 16,958 20,364 20,364 China .5,574,147 30,152,917 2,359,821 22,713,821

Cpete.30,103 500,000 8,900 260,000

Uiberia.61,297 61,297 57,403 57,403 Morocco .720,494 1,627,358 618,421 1,767,075 'PacificIslands 163,024 163,024 228,664 228,664

Persia .410,190 410,190 180,2Z9 180,279 Philippines,&c . 1,200,787 1,200,787 1,680,291 1,680,291

Russia .15,941,496 60,827,700 22,383,952 73,158,650

"Siam.205,271 { (1901) } 26,708 2,805,386 ,8 4,366,96743697 Tripoli.158,000 499,500 170,500 418,000

Tunis.257,474 { (12899)2 } 202,661 { 1,977,336

Turkey(Europe) . 2,362,220 (1899) 1,296,547 1 (1899) (Asia) ...... 2,980,633 21,663,000 14,352,180 15,375,000

30,10-,5o6o 2,179,657 {33,588,467}1z226205,6z6 Z4'6% of ZZ,,9, 57 =2r4%7 OffI~,SG

3c2

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TABLE IV.-Trade of MfetricalCountries in 1900.

IMPORTS. IEXPORTS.

To Fromi Total. Ttl UnitedKingdomn. UnitedKingdom. Total. ? ? ? ? ArgentineRepublic... 7,438,238 22,697,000 13,080,466 30,920,100 Austria-Hungary...... 3,157,716 70,681,583 1,375,245 80,916,792 Belgium ...... 14,816,307 88,632,000 23,502,603 76,916,000 Brazil ...... 6,165,60J 21,567,566 5,946,547 26,752,224~ Bulgaria ...... 171,911 1,853,684 40,670 2,159,305 Chile ...... 3,535,736 25,692,400 4,828,371 33,534,800 Colombia ...... 364,685 2,216,605 282,906 3,831,557 Congo Free State ...... 162,308 988,964 17,619 1,895,096 Costa Rica . . 241,790 241,790 342,934 342,934 CUba and Porto Rico 2,031,866 13,000,000 39,932 10,000,000 DenmarkandColonies 4,814,652 23,021,555 13,188,273 15,567,223 ECuIador ...... 349,560 1,800,404 155,677 3,102,538 France ...... 25,877,453 188,581,920 53,618,656 166,646,600 ,, Colonies ...... 1,682,837 18,750,000 1,398,640 17,000,000 Germany...... 38,542,790 302,149,600 31,181,667 237,630,050 , Colonies .... 166,175 2,042,805 95,131 789,721 Greece ...... 1,104,196 5,255,414 2,227,312 4,109,555 Guatemala ...... 242,196 1,000,000 112,406 1,680,000 San Doamtiango 337,281 889,437 56,058 1,304,801 Holland. 14,931,090 163,986,672 31,381,023 141,270,953 ,, Colonies...... 3,006,162 14,993,452 352,773 18,146,174 uonduras ...... 53,518 500,025 2,967 348,044 ItalY ...... 9,444,498 74,014,538 3,417,790 59,907,325 Japan ...... 9,933,925 29,324,646 1,540,526 20,868,895 Mexico ...... 2,096,640 12,263,365 1,186,479 15,070,581 Nicaragua...... 206,697 530,800 76,735 278,000 Norway...... 3,910,982 17,106,447 5,756,018 9,523,479 Peru ...... 1,069,301 4,634,300 1,307,004 8,995,998 Portugal ...... 2,529,305 12,000,000 3,241,367 6,600,000' ,, Colonies...... 2,682,087 2,682,087 297,753 297,75& Roumania ...... 616,287 13,331,716 1,396,639 5,964,784 San Salvador . .... 246,475 500,000 137,364 761,891 Servia ...... 4,873 1,857,144 2,629,775 Spain...... 6,333,857 34,495,864 15,882,346 28,954,71& ,, Colonies...... 1,042,594f 1,042,594 849,644 849,644 Sweden ...... 6,495,223 29,456,779 10,635,060 21,549,227 Uruguay ...... 1,737,493 5,102,000 489,581 6,258,000 Venezuela . . 567,692 960,000 123,634 2,730,000 Egypt ...... 6,159,468 14,112,370 12,585,578 16,766,609

I84,301 4235 7 96 {4Z15I394}. I ,O8Z,87I,143

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DISCUSSION On MR. ALEX. SIEMENS'S PAPER.

THE RIGHT HON. LORD BELHAVEN said that this subject was entirelyabsorbing his interestat the presentmoment, for he had undertakeii,on behalfof the Decimal Association,to introducea Bill into the House of,Lords in the ensuingsession for the compulsoryadoption of the metricalsystem of weightsand measures. The promotershad not attemptedto go into the coinagequestion, as theyhad thoughtit of no use to overloadthe Bill with what wouldmeet with certainopposition. He oughtto say that they did not feel veryconfident of gettingthe Bill throughat once-a privatemember could not expect to do that. It was a matterof suchnational importance that the Governmentof the countrymust take it up. They wished,however, to get the subjectthoroughly well ventilated. There was one thing Mr. Siemens had not mentioned,namely, that a Bill had been introducedinto the United States Congressfor the compulsoryadoption of metrical weightsand measures. That Bill had beenreferred to a Committee on weights,measures, and coinage. The fact thatBills werebeing introducedfor this purpose on eitherside of the Atlanticwould be a matterof mutual encouragement and support. It would,perhaps, evenencourage our own Governmentin the feelingthat we should not be left behindhandin that race forcommerce which was filling the mindsof everyoneat thepresent time.

Mr. F. HENDRIKS remarkedthat not onlythe meeting,but the whole of the Society,would be muchindebted for this very lucid and interestingexposition of the difficultiesthe metricsystem still had to face. The part of the paperwhich most commended itself to himwas the statisticalstatement at the end,which showed that two-thirdsof our grand total of importsand exportswere with countriesusing the metricalsystem. Therecould not be a stronger reason callingfor our falling in, afterso long a periodsince their invention,with decimal and metricalstandards that had provedof such immenseadvantage to all nationswho made use of them. Mr. Siemens'saccount of the difficultieswhich were still urged in oppositionto theiradoption, and the impedimentsthus thrownin theirway in England at the presenttime, reminded him very much of formerdays. He was old enoughto have been present at the severaldeputations which waited on Lord Palmerston,and Mr. Gladstone,and otherMinisters, on the subject of the metric systemand decimalcoinage, and especiallythose of the International MetricalAssociation, founded in 1855,of the councilof whichhe was a member,and so also was Mr. A. Siemens'sfather. It was thrownin theirteeth at all these deputationsthat the best proof thatthe metricalsystem did not commenditself to the publicwas that the words "litre,"and "sou," and "livre" were still in use

This content downloaded from 62.122.78.91 on Tue, 24 Jun 2014 21:22:47 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 710 Discussion [Dec. amongstthe people of Franceafter nearly a centuryof the metric system. But this objectionwas, and is, of an absurd character; forhow couldit be expectedor desiredthat the Frenchpeople in everydaylife shouldgive up these familiarwords, and insteadof themuse their metricalequivalents ?-as, for example,a cubic decametre,when asking for a litreof wine; or use the term half-kilogramme,instead of a livre; or 5 centimes,instead of a ,sou. In the same way the use of our old termshere mightvery well be continuedconcurrently with the new metricalnames. He was also surprisedto learn from Mr. Siemens'spaper that Sir FrederickBramwell was not at last convincedof the fallacy of his notionof a duodecimalsystem being suitable for adoption in arithmeticalnotation and in internationalmetrology in general. Indeed, he remembered,many years ago, remindingSir Frederick that the Bishop of London, CuthbertTunstall, writing a very interestingwork on arithmeticin 1522,remarked that the use of the duodecimalsystem was at that date universalin theirmoneys of accountthroughout all the nationsof Europe, and thathe mustalso be awarethat all exceptEngland had givenit up. Surelythat was a veryimportant argument against the idea that the duodecimal systementirely commended itself to the public. He did not quite agreewith Mr. Siemensthat JamesWatt had so muchto do with the introductionof the metricalsystem into France. The French were always eminentmetrologists, and the suggestionof the em- ploymentof a fractionof the earth'smeridian as the basis of measurementof the metre,&c., had beenmooted several times by Picard, Lalande, and othergreat Frenchastronomers during the centurybefore Watt's time. Mr. GEORGEMOORES (Manchester) explained that he was a great believerin the metricsystem, but he would like to see a metricsystem based on a differentunit to the metre. He thought thatthe DecimalAssociation was workingon the wronglines when they soughtto get the systemin use in France adopted in this country. In his opinionthey missed the great essential. The base measurementwas not necessarilya metre. If it had not beenfor such an outla*dishlength as the metrebeing adoptedwhen the metricalsystem was introduced,the metric system must have become universallong ago. He believedthe bestunit for a metricsystem was the Englishinch. He would give themthe opinionsof some witnesseswho had beenexamined, in 1902,by theCommittee referred to by Lord Belhaven,who would perhapsbe interestedin hearing someexpressions of opinionof verywell knownpeople in theUnited States. For example,Mr. J. H. Linnard,a naval constructorto the UnitedStates Government, who said he was familiarwith the use of both systems,testified that he' did not considerthe metricsystem suitablefor the United States. Thisgentleman further observed that whenhe was in Francehe was familiarwith the ordinaryoperations of thefamily there. Nobodyever bought a kilogramof meat; they boughta half-kilogram,and theycalled it a livre-a pound. Again, Mr. G. A. Bond, representingthe Pratt and WitneyCompany, a

This content downloaded from 62.122.78.91 on Tue, 24 Jun 2014 21:22:47 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 1903.] onMr. Alex.Siemens's Paper. 711 great firmof Americanengineers, said that althoughhis firm built standardmeasuring machines and gauges, they had found for a good manyyears, and still found,that the Englishsystem of linearmeasure was more convenientthan the metricfor their use. The representativeof another firm of manufacturers, said that such legislationas was proposedcould nevereffect the substitutionof a newfor an old system,and he believedthe system of furnishingstandard sizes to insurethe interchangeability ofparts, and to allow of conveniencein ordering,had so far permeatedall branchesof mechanicalproduction, that passiniglaws such as proposedwould only make any new conditionsimposed by Congress farworse than the present. In the end the Bill was dropped,and anotherattempt to get the Bill adopted'this year met with the same fate.

Mr. C. McL. McHARDY said that the last speakerhad shown thatthere were three persons in theUnited States who were against themetric system, but thatwas onlythree out of a populationof 76,000,ooo, and if,with an unprejudicedmind, he would examine the question,he would find that the largepreponderance of evidence laid beforethat committeewas stronglyin favourof the metric system. He was afraid Lord Belhaven'sBill would have little chance of passing unless it were broughtin as a Government proposal. Mightit not be possibleto get a Ministerto introduce it? The Governmentnow, they were given to understand,was " the mianin thestreet," and whenhe showedthat he wantedthe metrical or decimalsystem, then, but nottill then, Ministers would introduce a-Bill, and get it passed,regardless of whetherit would benefitthe Empire,but because it would help theirpartgy. As to any feeble oppositionthat mighthave been shownin Washington,he would observethat, whateverimprovement might be proposedin this world,and howevergood it mightbe, it would be certainthat therewould be some people who would try to findsome reason why it should not be adopted. As againstthe few quotations frompeople who had opposedthe metricsystem, he could quote thousandsof people who stronglyadvocated its adoption. He wouldhave them consider the number of times the question had been broughtbefore Committees of Parliament and RoyalCommissions in the UnitedKingdom. All thereports had beenfavourable; but one reportrecommended to beginby introducing a decimal coinage, while anothersaid, begin by introducingdecimal weights and measures, and so the questionhad been shelved. Ministersdid notwant to iritroduceinnovations if theycould avoid it, because,even if they thoughtthem good ones,they would be sureto treadon somebody's to'es. It was in accordancewith humannature to forgetall the benefits,but to rememberall grievances. The adoptionof decimal coinageand decimalweights would save twoyears of the children's livesnow wastedin a futileendeavour to learnour ridiculous tables of weights,measures, and coins,and howto make calculationswith them,and manyother great benefits and convenienceswould result; but on thefirst introduction some littleinconvenience might for a

This content downloaded from 62.122.78.91 on Tue, 24 Jun 2014 21:22:47 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 712 Disctssion [Dec. fewdays be felt;the permanent benefits would be forgotten,the slight temporaryinconvenience would be rememberedin an exaggerated formagainst the " party" that made the systemcompulsory. On accountof the injuryit mightdo theirparty, the Government would never act unless the people insisted on it; the course thereforeto be pursuedwas to agitate,agitate, and agitate.

Mr. J. INNES ROGERS observedthat Mr. Siemens,from his great positionin the engineeringtrade, had naturallytaken the viewof the engineers. But fromthe point of view of the merchantshe would say that the introductionof the metricsystem was one of the greatestreforms and changesrequired in mercantiletransactions in this country. In his own businessthey had everyday to turn hundredweightsquarters and pounds into pounds shillingsand pence,and a more dismal occupationfor the humanbrain it was almostimpossible to imagine. Mr. Siemenshad alluded,though not veryfully, to the correspondencein the aliquot parts in the metricsystem between monev and weightsand measures. If one heard the price per ton in the metricsystem, he would knowthe price-he wouldnot say per grammeor whateverit mightbe-but per ounce, using their own figureof speech,and that in any large businesswould save an incalculableamount of time, of which the value could not be measuredin money,because the brain of the human clerk was being worn out by senselessand elaborate calculationswhich had no relationto proportionof aily sort or kind. Mr. Siemensseemed to imaginethat a very large numberof people had a great fancyfor vulgar fractions. Personally,he preferredthe otherfractions, as to whichone of our statesmenhad had to ask what certaindots meant,and had to be instructedon the subject when he became Chancellorof the Exchequer,although he had receivedwhat was supposedto be the besteducation that this country could afford. He had beenrather sorryto hearthat in theproposed Bill coinagewas not to be dealt with,because unless coinage and weightsand measureswere dealt with as a whole,there was very little use for practicalbusiness purposesin the adoptionof the metricsystem; they must have the wholeor none. Mr. Mooresexpressed himself in favourof some umit for the metric system of his own invention,differing fromthe universalsystem on the continentand in metricusing countries. If they were to have a freshsystem which differed fromeverybody else's, they would not have advancedtheir position one iota. There were,no doubt, certaindefects in the metric system: for instance,when they came, as they did in a very shorttime in Frenchmoney, to millionsor hundredsof millionsof francs,that was an inconveniencewhich oughtto be dealt with when they adopted the metricsystem. The same in measures and weights: the hundred.kilogram was too large a measureof weight for ordinarycommerce, and in Germanyand in other countriesthey had adoptedfifty kilograms-the centner. On the otherhand, when they came to small retailtrade, it was quitetrue ,thatthe kilogramwas too large a measureof weight,but in

This content downloaded from 62.122.78.91 on Tue, 24 Jun 2014 21:22:47 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 1903.] onMr. Alex. Sienwms's Paper. 713 practicethere was no objectionwhatever in usingthe half-kilo., as it was used in France,or, as theywould probablycall it, the pound. He was ratheramused to hearMr. Siemensallude to the factthat they could have the metricsystem of weightsand measures standardisedin this countryby the Board of Trade. It was a fact that they could now have it done. He would relate the experienceof his own firm,to whichthe Board of Trade standardisingand stampingwas due. They had occasion to pack. certaingoods-tea-for South America,and to meet the wishesof theircustomers they had to pack themin kilogramand half-kilogrampackages. The inspectorof the London County Council told them that they were using illegal weights,and threateneda prosecutionfor it. His firm,in reply,pointed out that the metricsystem had been legalisedby Act of Parliament. The inspectorrejoined that the weightswere not stamped. He was askedto stampthem. But he repliedthat he had no powerto do so, because only avoirduporsand such like weightscould be stamped. His firmthen askedthe Board of Trade to stamp these metricweights. The Board of Trade, however,had no powerto stamp metricweights except for scientific purposes ! It requireda specialclause in an Act of Parliament-whichhis firm got introduced throughthe auspicesof the LondonChamber of Commerce-toget thatdefect in the laws remedied. Mr. Siemenswas rightin saying thatthey could have the weightsstamped now; but it was quitea newthing, although for years the customstariff had always been stated both in our own weightsand measuresand in the metric system. He hopedthat when they adopted the metricsystem they wouldgo what Mr. Chamberlaincalled " the wholehog," and have the completesystem or none. Mr. SYDNEYYOUNG suggested that noticesshould be placedin all publicplaces of the fact that our Governmenthad authorised the use of the metricsystem. The chemistswere alreadyusing it regularly,but they seemed to be about the only people who did. The notices he suggested,if placarded up at all town halls,would accustompeople to it, and in a shorttime the nation generallywould come to see the benefitof the system,especially as in the Board Schools theywere now teachingit beforevulgar fractions. He perfectlyagreed with the last speaker,that they shouldadopt the standardwhich had been alreadyapproved of by the great majorityof the civilisedworld, and not attemptto set up a newone. Mr. ROBERTGRAY, speaking as one connectedwith scientific matters,said he couldnot say anything against either the metric or the decimalsystem in thisdirection because he foundthem very useful. But fromthe generalpoint of viewhe ratherfelt inclined to follow the late Mr. HerbertSpencer and the late Sir FrederickBramwell in theirobjections to the compulsoryemployment of thesesystems. The principalobjection he had to metricdecimalisation was the inconvenienceof theunits arrived at. No doubt thoseunits could

This content downloaded from 62.122.78.91 on Tue, 24 Jun 2014 21:22:47 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 714 Discussion [Dec.. be moreor less adapted to the weightsand measuresgenerally in use, but theywould not be absolutelyconvenient, and therewas, considerabledifficulty in so adaptingthem. As the systemstood,. theyhad as a maximumweight a kilogrammeof only2'207 pounds, and that was far too small for ordinaryuse. The metrictonne,. he believed,was a subsequentaddition to the system,as it has& neithera Latin or Greekprefix, nor any nominalrelationship to the gramme. Takingthe smallermeasurements, they had thegramme,. but the grammewas not small enoughfor certainthings. Of coursethere was the milligramme,which was absurdlysmall, about one sixty-sixthof a grain. If the grammehad been one hundred timesits presentweight it would have proveda moreserviceable iinit. All throughthe measuresand weightsthey were going in stepsof ten,or powersof ten,and he did not like to apply that methodto everythingin life. He thought,in fact,that the metric systemand decimalisation offered far too limited a fieldfor the things. of ordinarylife. It was probablyright to supplantapothecaries. weightsand measuresby the metricweights and measures; but he wouldbe soriyto see the abolitionof our otheruseful units and the substitutionfor them of themetre and its decimalderivatives. In the countrieswhere the metre had been used for many years, the people had been strugglingagainst it all the time,and in manycases theymaintained their old weights. In fact,experience showed that the units of the metric systemwere not at all serviceable. He admittedthat he foundgreat advantagesin his own particularline of business: his criticismwas directedto the- applicationof metric decimalisation to a widerfield than that.

Mr. E. W. BRABROOK, C.B., objectedto the descriptionof the late Sir FrederickBramwell as an idealist. He was not preparedto supportthe propositionthat two newfigures should be inventedto takethe place of those we now call IO and i i, andthat a duodecimalI systemshould be imposedon all the world,because he did not supposethat would be at all practicable,but he did desireto protest against a theoreticalinferiority being attributedto the decimal system-whichwas derived fromthe savage habit of counting- on one's fingers,and underwhich it was impossibleto divide anythinginto threeequal -parts-overa duodecimalsystem, which scienceand naturepoint out as beingthe onlysound one.

Mr.J. W. WILLANSsaid they seemed to bereduced to the embarrass- ing positionof a strugglebetween what was purelyscientific and whatwas acknowledgedover a largepart of the worldto be very practical,but he did notknow how far they should, at that,time of night,undertake to settlethe questionas to the distinctadvantages of the one or the other. He certainlyhad metwith very practical and skilfulengineers who had raised the same objectionsto the metricalsystem as had beeninstanced by Mr. Grayand Mr. Moores. But theywere in face of the factsthat a verylarge proportio-n of the civilizedand mosteducated part of the worldhad adoptedthe decimalsystem, and had foundit to be to theiradvantage; that

This content downloaded from 62.122.78.91 on Tue, 24 Jun 2014 21:22:47 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 1903.] onMr. Alex.Siemens's Pctlpe. 715 sometwo-thirds of ourexport trade was withthose who had adopted it, and almostuniversally our Chambers of Commerce had repeatedly pronouncedin favourof it. Moreover,testimony that in various marketsof the worldwe had sufferedvery considerablythrough the unwillingnessof the English sellerto adapt himselfin this respect to the convenienceof the foreigncustomer, had been accumulated. If we wantedto be the best sellersin a day of enlightenedarnd zealous competition,we mustbe ready to adapt ourselvesto what was requiredof us. Inasmuchas the decimal systemhad proveditself the most simplefor the variousoperations of commerce;and inasmuchas in scientifictrades, like the engineer- ing trade,on the testimonyof Mr. Siemensand of many other engineers,the decimalsystem could be adoptedwith advantage, and inasimuchas we had seen ourgreat competitor on the Continent- Germany-withina veryfew years adopt tlhatsyAtem with great success,he thoughtthey had better beware of throwing any obstacle in the way of the progresstowards its adoptionin ourown country. He shouldlook forwardwith great interestto the fortunesof the measure which Lord Belhaven was about to introduceinto the House ofLords. Theyhad beenreminded of the stateof indefinite- ness in certain regions of State at the presenttime; but if Lord Belbavencould finda definiteminister, and if he could find also a few definitemen-in-the-street to back him up, he had no doubtthat a littlefurther progress would be made. Mr. L. A. GILL said he would not perhapsbe out of order if The introduceda metricinstrument similar to the one which Mr. Wolfe Barry describedbefore the Institutionof Electrical Engineersas "far too long for use." He used the instrument everyday of his life and did not findit so, the simpledevice for preventingany trouble being to double it, and then the dis- sentinggentlemen would have the satisfactionof dividingall the lengthsby two when they had measured. He was throwninto contactwith the decimalsystem by being sent to Belgium,as a matterof duty,to checkand reportabout iron workwhich was beingmade there. He had not foundthe least troublein learning its use. He picked up the slide rule thereamongst other little mechanicalexpedients, and had used it ever since. He had some measurescut by Stanleyto one twenty-fourth,one-twelfth, one- sixteenth,and so on, to fitEnglish rules, and nowalways used them on his drawiugboard, and he could do as muchwork again with it as he couldunder the Englishsystem. He would give an instance of the practicaldifficulties under which we at presentlaboured. The otherday he wanteda castingfor the top of somesheer legs. It weighedi ton I7 cwt.3 qrs. and some odd pounds,and he had to runit out in poundsto findout what it was in tons. Whenhe had done the drawing he sent it away to the maker,who, not knowingwhat was meantby tons hundredweights quarters and pounds,converted it into pounds,in orderto findwhat it would cost him. Then, in orderto please him (the speaker),when he knew the weightin poundshe turnedit back into tons hundred

This content downloaded from 62.122.78.91 on Tue, 24 Jun 2014 21:22:47 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 716 Discussion [Dec. weightsquarters and pounds,and sent it back. He himself,not knowingwhat it meant,turned it again intopounds, and gave it to his employeras beingi4d. per poundand a littlemore. Thenthey understoodeach other. He would give anothercase. The dimen- sions,as calculatedon the Englishrules, were always in decimalsof an inch. He put on his drawingsa versionwhich was nearlyright, and when he was cross-examinedas to wherehe got his dimension of,say 53 inches,from, he had to turn roundand say it was not 5T3inches, really 5-7 inches. If the lengthwas to be 5-7inches, he dare not put down5 -7; he put 55 and some odd sixteenths.That was notvery near. But if he wentto the officewith thirty-seconds, he would be told, "You have the thirty-secondsagain, put it in sixteenths."If he repliedthat sixteenths would not be nearenough, theretort would be, " Thendo notdo it at all," and that happened everyday of his life.

ProfessorSILVANUS P. THOMPSONwished to say a word on the educationalaspect of the question. A suggestionwas made that childrenshould be taughtthe metric system, and it was evenstated thatthey must be instruictedin decimalsbefore they learnt vulgai fractions. As a matterof fact,our workmen, who were no longer children,found it in many cases extremelydifficult to understand eventhe simplestidea of a decimal. Those"points," which puzzled the Chancellorof the Exchequer,puzzled hundredsof workmein everyday. Mr. Siemenstold them that the Germansfournd no difficultyafter the firstfew days in droppinginto the metric system. The Germans,however, had alreadylearnt decimals in theircoinage. If one had a decimalcoinage, the peoplewould be compelledto thiilkin decimalsfrom the firstday they thought aboutmoney values at all, but if theydid not beginto reckoncost in tenths,it wouldbe veryhard for them to recklonanything else in tenths. Remarkingon the evidencegiven by the greatmakers of machineryin the United States,he statedhis beliefthat although they still measuredthings in inches,they had given up using eighths,sixteenths, thirty-seconds and sixty-fourthsof an inch,and wroteeverything in decimals,so that theyhad alreadypaved the way forthe introductionof the metricsystem. Furtherthan that, it was not a questionof iiames. Nobody,in fact,ever used the termscriticised. They talked about 500 grammes,they did not talk about 50 deca-grammes;more often even theycalled it a half kilo. than500 grammes. Therewas nothingto preventthem from having the old denoniinationsthat existed to-day. They would stilltalk aboutan inch even if they changedto millimetres;they would call 25 millimetresan inch,just as theycalled half a kilo- grammea " livre" in France,or a " pfind" in Germany. But they would not get the commonpeople to understandthe thinguntil theyhad a decimalcoinage, and therecame the greatestdifficulty. The coinagewas decimaldown to a certainpoint. The florinwas one-tenthof a pound. But if they alteredthe quantityin value ofthe coppercoinage, they had to encounterthe difficultythat the commonpeople would not understandthe relationof the new coins

This content downloaded from 62.122.78.91 on Tue, 24 Jun 2014 21:22:47 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 1903.] on Mr. Alex.Siemens's Paper. 717 to the old,because theythought in pence and notin shillinosand pounds. If theykept the old penny,and had a newpound of the value of I,000 farthingsinstead of 960, they were alteringthe positionof the silverstandard as well. The shillingwas no longer a shilling;the florinwas no longera florin;and the English?, whichhad a standardvalue all overthe world, would be tampered with. That would be a disaster. Theymust choose between the two alternativesof changingthe value of the poundto make it a decimalmultiple of the farthing,or of changingthe value of the farthingto make it a decimalsub-multiple of the pound. One change interferedwith internationaltrade relations,the other interferedwith the habitual unit of the proletariat. One or other changemust be made. Untilthey had settledthat difficulty in the coinage,and made up their mind which end to beginat, he was afraidthey would not agree on any decimalsystem whatever; and theywould not get peopleas a whole to agree to the introduction of decimalisedweights and measuresuntil they had learned to thinkvalues in tenths.

The PRESIDENT said theyhad nowto thank Mr. Siemensvery muchfor having put beforethe Societya subjectwhich, though not new, was always of interestto everybody of persons,be they merchants,scientists, or statisticians,who had to deal withfigures. For himselfhe echoedthe expressionwhich had beenused thatday, as to the dismaloccupation of the brainwhich was necessitatedby thepresent conldition of affairsupon all thosewho had to deal with internationalcomparisons. The suggestionof obtainingan intel- ligible internationallanguage of figuresappealed very strongly to them. The object,however, would not be carriedeven yet withouta great deal morediscussion, and if they were goingto influenceParliament and to influencethe Government,there must be muchmore education of thoseclasses who controlledthe largest numberof votes. From the administrativepoint of view it was found that no legislationwas more difficultthan that which interferedin somedegree-even for the real benefitof the persons affected-withold customsand old practices. In refereniceto the task whichthe author of the paperhad set him,he mightstate that he had utterlyfailed to distinguishbetween the French and Englishscrews. He beggedto proposea heartyvote of thanksto Mlr.Siemens for again calling attentionto the necessitywhich all usersof figuresand handlersof statisticsfelt for joining in the endeavourto securegreater simplicity in the conductof business affairs.

TMr.SIEMENS, in reply,said Mr. Mlooresand ProfessorThompson consideredthat an inch would be a betterunit for a systemsuch as the metricalsystem. He would not arguethat point at all. They werenow facing the same questionas the GermanCommittee did in 1862. It was instructednot that an internationalsystem, but thata nationalone was wanted. They,however, found that it was no use to put the countryto thetrouble, expense and inconvenience

This content downloaded from 62.122.78.91 on Tue, 24 Jun 2014 21:22:47 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 718 Disctssion [Dec. of changingthe systemof weightsand measuresunless it was changedto an internationalone. That same argumentapplied to England. It was of no use devisingan ideal system,whether it wereduodecimal or based on an inch. If therewas to be a change at all, it was necessaryto changeto a practicaland international system. One heard fromthe States,from the Coloniesand from Russia,that the people were askingfor a metricalsystem; it was perfectlycertain that they were all looking towardsthe United Kingdom,and if theUnited Kingdom said, " We willhave a metrical system,"the wholeworld would have it withouta doubt. The questionof the units nTotbeing convenientwas a matter whichwas verymuch misunderstood, and especiallyby peoplewho werenot used to it. If anybodywent to Franceand lived therea fewweeks onily, and had to use the metricalmeasures, he naturally founidthem inconvenient. He wouldacknowledge that if anybody said anythingto him in centimetresor millimetreshe converted theminto inches or feetin his mind,because it was moreconvenient to himto do so; but he was perfectlyconvinced that if the metrical systemwas initroducedhere, and he had to thinkin it for a month or twoon end withoutbeing reminded of the inches, he shouldhave the same idea with regardto millimetresas he had now about inches,and it wouldbe the samewith everything else. As, in that respect,there had been somethingsaid about America,he would read a fewsentences from the letterof an Americanengineer and machinistof Philadelphia. He said: "A few years ago we had -occasionto buildan enginefrom drawings on the metricscale, sent us fromFrance. We thereforebought a large numberof metric scales and gave them to our men,who did not seem to findany difficultvin comprehendingthe principleof the divisions. This is possiblylargely due to thefact that most machinists,nowadays, are familiarwith the readingof the decimaldivisions in thousandsof an inch when using the micrometer." The letter continued: "There is absolutelvno objectionto the use of themetric scale as faras the abilityof the workmanis concernedto adjust himselfto the newrequirements. We areinclined to believe that, on the whole, the workingmen read the drawingswith greatercertainty when usingthe metric system. We do notbelieve that the advantageof a decimalsystem whether in inches or metreswill be disputed." In thatconnection one of the speakershad mentionedthe fact that in olden timesthe duodecimalsystem was used everywhere.He -couldtestify as to the coinage in Germany. When he was in Hanover they had made a change fromthe thaler-value 3s., having36 marien-groschenof 8 pfennige,or 288 pfennigeto the thaler. They had that until 1836, he believed; but since then these had been changedto gute-groschen,of whichthere were 24 to the thaler-a giite-groschenbeing 12 pfennige-an absolutely duodecimalsystem. Then therewas a half-heartedattempt made to introducethe decimalcoinage into Hanover. They dividedthe thaler,therefore, into 3 neu-groschenof io pfennigeeach. While he was a boy all these threegroschens were used indiscriminately, and womenchaffering in the marketplace foundno difficultyin

This content downloaded from 62.122.78.91 on Tue, 24 Jun 2014 21:22:47 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 1903.] on Mr. Alex.Siemtens's Paper. 719 thinkingin themall. The changefrom 288 to 300 pfennigewas extremelyinteresting from the pointof viewof the coinagequestion of Great Britain,because that depreciatedthe pfennigeby 4 per cent.,which was exactlywhat would happen to the Englishcurrency if the ? were made equal to I,OOO farthings. The effectwas extremelyuseful to the workingman, because therewas a little loaf soldwhich was calleda 2 pfennigeBrod. The 2 pfennigeBrocd, beforethe pfennigewas depreciated4 per cent.,was a certain size, and afterwardsthe peopleinsisted on gettingthe same size forthe two new pfennige;and what was more,they got it, and it had ruinednobody. But the real objectionto having a I,OOO farthingsto the pound was that the penny would have its foui- farthingsas it had now,and for all small transactionseverybody wouldinsist on payingone pennyall the same,and theywould get their TwopennyTube at fourper cent. discount. But it would certainlybe a hardshipon the Englishnewspapers to take fourper cent. off their income,though perhapsthey mightincrease the -priceof theiradvertisements. Professor Thompson's point as to the ,difficultyof workingmen graspingthe decimalsystem was met by the experienceof Germany. The Germanshad a duodecimal ,coinagesystem, but the changefrom the duodecimalsystem to the ,decimalsystem was so convenientto the public,that within a few monthsthe talk about the groschenshad disappeared. As in Germanythe decimalsubdivision was foundso veryconvenient, so he was certaiinthat once the Englishpublic had testedthe advantage of decimalsubdivision, they would not give it up again

This content downloaded from 62.122.78.91 on Tue, 24 Jun 2014 21:22:47 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions