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Greenhouse Gases and Their Impact on the Radiation Balance 2 EE9800002 10 2. GREENHOUSE GASES AND THEIR IMPACT ON THE RADIATION BALANCE 2. GREENHOUSE GASES AND THEIR IMPACT ON THE RADIATION BALANCE Kalju Eerme Tartu Observatory, Toomemdgi, EE2400 Tartu Introduction For natural reasons, the global climate changes continually in different time scales as related to the processes dominant. The slowest changes, in millions and tens of millions of years, are caused by continental drift and global tectonics. The processes initiated by periodic changes in the Earth's orbital parameters occur in the time scale of tens and hundreds of thousands of years. The fastest changes are related to the changes in atmospheric composition as well as in atmospheric circulation and oceanic currents. A specific feature of present-day changes is a significant anthropogenic impact on atmospheric trace gases. Such an impact can be regarded as a test on natural climate feedbacks. It is believed that never before has the composition of the atmospheric trace gases changed so rapidly as at present. Basically, global climate is determined by the global energy budget and redistribution of accumulated energy. This redistribution is realized by oceanic currents and atmospheric winds. Both energy supply and redistribution efficiency depend on the wide variety of processes taking place in the atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, cryosphere, and soils. In short time scales, in tens of years, the changes in the atmospheric concentration of certain trace gases lead to the most significant climate forcing. The dynamic processes in the atmosphere and in the ocean are sensitive to small temperature deviations. Systematic increases or decreases in temperature are always accompanied by shifts in weather patterns and currents. As greenhouse gases (GHG) have controlled the climates in the past, so they are controlling the present climate. In a more detailed analysis, the GHG can be divided into radiatively active and chemically active gases. Some of them, for example, ozone are simultaneously both radiatively and chemically active. Radiatively active gases are immediatly interactive with the radiation penetrating the atmosphere, while chemically active gases control the atmospheric content of radiatively active gases. Typically, the atmospheric GHG have sources and sinks outside the atmosphere. If the corresponding fluxes are imbalanced for some reason, then the atmospheric pool can increase or decrease. At present, the atmospheric pools of several major GHG are increasing. This increase contains significant irregularities, which are still poorly understood (Khalil & Rasmussen, 1994; Siegenthaler & Sarmiento, 1993; IPCC, 1994). The problem of GHG and climate change is closely linked to the problem of atmospheric ozone. A certain part of GHG acts in the chemistry of the ground level ozone and in the stratospheric ozone depletion. A troubling feature is that part of the gases causing the global climate change and stratospheric ozone depletion are man-made. For this reason, the current atmospheric chlorine and bromine burden is much higher than it could ever be in natural conditions.In the case of such perturbed chemical composition, the atmospheric cleansing processes are inhibited. Obviously, it 2. GREENHOUSE GASES AND THEIR IMPACT ON THE RADIATION BALANCE 11 restricts the application of the past climate analogy for estimating the present-day and future climate changes. The GHG budgets For modeling present and future climate changes, complete data about the GHG is crucial. It must contain the intensities of sources and sinks, the rates of atmospheric increase, the participation in chemical reactions and the transport tracks inside the atmosphere. The key species among the approximately 40 different GHG are CO2, CH4, NO2 and the tropospheric O3. On a global scale, water vapor is responsible for about 70% of the total greenhouse warming (IPCC, 1990). Usually, water vapor is not included in the listing of GHG gases. It is believed not to have global anthropogenic impact as a short-lived gas in the troposphere. Its mean tropospheric lifetime is about 10 days, similar to the mean lifetime of atmospheric boundary layer aerosol. Both tropospheric water and aerosol are removed by precipitation. In this case, being globally integrated, atmospheric water vapor does not cause any increase of global warming at present, but its local effects can be remarkable. The atmospheric distribution of water vapor is essentially nonuniform. There are certain preferable pathways of water vapor movement sometimes called the "tropospheric rivers" (Newell et al., 1992). Climate change certainly changes the "river beds" and can amplify the regional greenhouse warming. There are significant diurnal and seasonal fluctuations in the total column water vapour content. At least over the continental Eurasian area, a linear trend of increase in the column water vapor content has been observed during the last decade (Arefev et al., 1995). Obviously, there is a necessity for more detailed studies of the column water vapor content in different geographical regions. If such an increase is common, then additional warming due to water vapor cannot be neglected. At the present time, it is possible to use the Global Positional System for the column water vapor content observations. A detailed treatment of water vapor content change is essential in the regions of changing air mass movement. The problem of how to calculate the global budgets of major GHG has been discussed from different viewpoints. The most logical way seems to be calculating the budgets separately for each country, as proposed for the Country Study Program. If local budgets are calculated with a sufficiently high accuracy, then the global budgets will undoubtedly be better specified. On the other hand, these more exact local balances have no significant benefit for the prediction of local climate. GHG, with the exception of water vapor and quickly oxidizing species, such as CO and some hydrocarbons, have long atmospheric lifetimes. For this reason, they will be well mixed in the atmosphere, and the global pattern of their sources and sinks is of less importance than the total intensities. Among the sources, the best known are industrial emissions, which are estimated with an accuracy of about ± 10% (King et al., 1995; Marland et al.,1989) for the carbon-containing CO2 and CH4 gases. The estimates of natural emissions and consumptions have a much lower accuracy. On a global scale, both the land use changes and gas exchange rates still have significant uncertainty. For these reasons, the global net exchange rates have an uncertainty of the order ± 60% (IPCC, 1992). It is noteworthy that the elemental constituents of GHG are mostly the macroelements of biological tissues. The natural exchange between biosphere and atmosphere is thus regulated by the intensity of biological processes. There is an urgent need to understand better the extent of coupling between the plant growth, global temperature and enhanced GHG concentration. The gas exchange, in particular, is realized by the microbial decay processes which are regulated by similar feedbacks. In the case of sulphur-containing gases, the climatic feedback is realized by the aerosol production in the 12 2. GREENHOUSE GASES AND THEIR IMPACT ON THE RADIATION BALANCE atmosphere. It is believed that the main climate feedback of marine algae is realized by their emission of dimetyl sulphide after transformation into the sulphate aerosol. The problem of dimetylsulphide emissions is quite complicated. A good survey can be found in Lawrence (1993). The release of dimetylsulphide into the surrounding water occurs only in the case of certain species of marine phytoplankton. The release depends not as much on the phytoplankton concentration as on the zooplankton grazing. In regions where the zooplankton population is high relative to the phytoplankton population, the highest dimetylsulphide releases can occur. The dimetylsulphide is released into the water primarily via lysis of phytoplankton cell walls. Thus, the production rates depend on the death rates of phytoplankton of the certain dimetylsulphide producing classes. The next steps leading from the dissolved dimetylsulphide in the water to the particular sulphate in the air are dependent on the gas exchange between the water and the air, and on the oxidation and particle formation rates. The main climatic influence of land plants is realized by the fixation of atmospheric carbon dioxide (Lovelock & Kump, 1994). For example, the carbon dioxide uptake is regulated by the El Nino Southern Oscillation. During the El Nino Warming events, the uptake by the terrestrial vegetation is reduced, resulting from the collapse of the Southeast Asian monsoon (Sarmiento, 1993). The long-lived GHG can be well mixed in the atmosphere, and their forcing is only latitude dependent due to different illumination conditions. The climate forcing of aerosols has a strong regional character. The anthropogenic emissions of sulphur dioxide from industry and power plants produce a local increase in sulphate aerosol abundances. The direct effect of local aerosol negative forcing is accompanied by the production of cloud condensation nuclei, supplementing the indirect forcing caused by the higher reflectance of clouds (Taylor & Penner, 1994). In some cases, specialized studies of the regional climate forcing by the increased aerosol production may be necessary. Most of Europe belongs to the region of high aerosol production. In developed countries,
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