Mitigation of Climate Change Through Approached Agriculture-Soil Carbon Sequestration (A Review)

Current Journal of Applied Science and Technology

39(33): 47-64, 2020; Article no.CJAST.61829 ISSN: 2457-1024 (Past name: British Journal of Applied Science & Technology, Past ISSN: 2231-0843, NLM ID: 101664541)

Mitigation of Climate Change through Approached Agriculture-Soil Carbon Sequestration (A Review)

Shamal S. Kumar1*, Ananta G. Mahale1 and Ashutosh C. Patil2

1Division of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Kashmir, Jammu and Kashmir, India. 2Department of Plant Pathology, Vasantrao Naik Marathwada Krishi Vidyapeeth, Parbhani, Maharashtra, India.

Authors’ contributions

This work was carried out in collaboration among all authors. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Article Information

DOI: 10.9734/CJAST/2020/v39i3331017 Editor(s): (1) Dr. Alessandro Buccolieri, Università del Salento, Italy. Reviewers: (1) Jaime Espinosa-Tasón, Instituto de Investigación Agropecuaria de Panamá (IDIAP), Panama. (2) Heide Vanessa Souza Santos, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Brazil. Complete Peer review History: http://www.sdiarticle4.com/review-history/61829

Received 02 August 2020 Review Article Accepted 07 October 2020 Published 30 October 2020

ABSTRACT

It is projected that by 2030, the global population will rise to 8.5 billion influencing various changes to the whole globe. Since 1750, the level of carbon dioxide (CO2) has increased sharply and exceeds more than 31 percent as a result of land use change and intense farming activities that require unique and modern actions to manage its climate - related risks. The earth is getting warmer day by day due to land use transition, intensive agriculture; global carbon (C) emissions have drastically increases after industrial revolution. Soil C depletion is enhanced by soil mismanagement, soil degradation and aggravated by land exploitation. Sources of emissions from various anthropogenic activities; land use change, burning of natural biomass, natural conversion to agricultural habitats, and soil cultivation. The soil as a dynamic natural entity has the potential of storing most of the C from atmosphere that will cause substantial decrease in CO2 content that is enhancing global climate change. Through agriculture, soils can reduce CO2 emissions in the atmosphere and store C while having good effect on food security, water quality and climate prior to the introduction of best management and restorative land-use practices. Most of the reduced C in soil carbon (SC) pools can be recovered by embracing conservation tillage (no-till, reduced tillage) with cover cropping and incorporating crop residues as mulch, nutrient management through ______

*Corresponding author: E-mail: [email protected];

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integrated nutrient management practices, manure and organic amendments, biochar and using other productive soil management strategies. These management systems lead to preservation of lands that are being or have been depleted, increase carbon production, enhance soil health and decrease the amount of atmospheric CO2 leading to climate change mitigation.

Keywords: Atmosphere; climate change; soil carbon; carbon dioxide; best management practices; conservation tillage.

1. INTRODUCTION rapid industrialization [6]. C plays a vital role in life on earth; plants absorb C in the form of CO2 It is projected that by 2030, the global population through photosynthesis from the atmosphere and will rise to 8.5 billion. Since the time of industrial utilize it as energy source. C occurs in four wide revolution, mankind has proceeded to establish a pools: lithosphere, ocean, soil and atmosphere. disparity in the natural equilibrium of our world. The earth's soil functions as a sink and fluxes in Because of the increasing human population, the soil-plant-atmosphere cycle are essential in there is a need to generate greater resource to the terrestrial world. Most C occurs in organic meet the people’s daily needs. This indicated a form in the terrestrial environment. Both key need for rising in development of food as well as, parts of the general C pools can be split into land use for increasing this food and developing active and passive C pools. Four large SOM residential and commercial property. In 1999 the pools, such as plant residues, organic CO2 concentration in the atmosphere rose from particulates, humus C and recalcitrant OC, are 280 parts per million (ppmv) in 1750 to 367 ppmv also evident. Soils usually contain a 3-fold and is now rising at 3.3 Pg C a year (1 Pg = amount of C or 4-fold more than in living petagram = a billion tonnes) [1]. Forest substances. Soils have an immense storage conversions through deforestation by means of potential and so a small percentage increase in complete burning to support this expansion; soil C storage can have a significant effect on while the property was repurposed for human climate. Soil management practices influence use e.g. the Amazon rainforest approximately change in soil C efflux. Agricultural soils may be contributes 2 billion tonnes of CO2 per year [2] used as a C sink than a source by various accounting 5 percent of global emission. A management strategies and models of land use. substantial drop in photosynthesis rate has been The principle practices capable of increasing seen as one of the cause which decreases CO2 SOM are; land restoration through afforestation / amount taken from the atmosphere. This drastic reforestation, conservation of natural factor change in the loss of natural ecosystems ecosystems, covering bare soil (cover cropping), will be dramatic, and we may find ourselves and adding organic matter in the form of organic struggling to adapt [3]. “Anthropogenic’ behaviors fertilizers, planting nitrogen fixing plants, biochar interact with the carbon cycle on a regular basis and residue incorporation. For higher yields, because C is one of the most essential integrated nutrient management and components that impact almost any climate. With conservation tillage (no-till, reduced tillage) geological records, the climate is continuously systems increase soil C. Afforestation and changing and its size causing climate change is reforestation systems on long term basis a major concern around the world at this rapidly sequester more C. Soil C conservation, changing rate. There are no new phenomena in management, and storage have wide potential to the world with regard to climate change [4, 5]. combat climate changes and food insecurity. Soil Climate change clearly represents the increase C is considered the environmental management in temperature in the soil and atmosphere, system key for sustainable soil health as well as changes in the precipitation, declining agricultural productivity. groundwater, floods caused by heavy rainfall, earthquakes and increasing sea levels due to the 2. CLIMATE CHANGE AND CARBON glacial melting. While in some situations this is a SEQUESTRATION natural process, it is due to anthropogenic activities. The factors that lead to climate change The climate is continuously changing when seen are the result of various 'anthropogenic with geological records. This rapid rate at which deforestry, land change, intensive farming and this change is coming up and its magnitude are the decomposition of natural soil biology, erosion of great concern worldwide. In terms of climate and natural fires, increased population causing change India ranks as the 5th most vulnerable

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country to be affected due to enhancing change contribute to a variety of health risks. attributes by the drastic factor [7]. In India, a one- There are various risks and pathways that are metre sea-level rise is estimated to displace classified in three ways (Table 1) [10]. Worldwide nearly 7.1 million people; about 5764 sq. km of research experts are focused on the assessment the land area will be lost 4200 km of roads as of global C fluxes, possible capacities, well. That is because various factors, such as: drawbacks of different methods for sequestration “anthropogenic- deforestation, land-use change, C and mitigation of the effects of climate change. intensive farming practices” and “natural- soil Elucidate the process of sequestration and organic matter decomposition, erosion, natural mineralization of SOC in aggregates is important fires” are leading to climate change. Climate to reducing climate change and decreasing soil change has a very strong link with greenhouse depletion risks. gases of which a major contributor is CO2. This gas being symmetrically aligned has the 2.1 Impacts of Climate Change tendency to absorb long heat wave radiations from the sun. A new approach of C  The Polar caps around the world are sequestration; a term used to denote natural as melting. That comprises glaciers, West well as intentional emissions measured in Gt. Antarctica, the Arctic Sea and Greenland ice CO2 emissions in the natural system before sheets. mankind contributed to natural cycles that make  Ice melting contributes significantly to an up the global "carbon cycle" which held increase in the level of sea. The sea level equilibrium between capturing CO2 and returning (global) keeps growing at 3.2 mm a year, it back into the atmosphere. The established and is increasing rapidly in recent years. processes of CO2 acquisition are called C sinks.  Increasing temperatures are affecting China along with India being the two large-scale wildlife. 90 percent of the Adelie penguin nations having vast human race will continue to specie in the western peninsula has been be sources of global C emissions. Thus efforts to subjected to extinction due to vanishing ice minimize CO2 emissions must be made [8]. The in the Antarctica. projected mean C level in the twenty-first century  Temperature changing patterns has caused would exceed 600Pg with centuries to millennia certain species of butterflies, foxes, and of residence if the only central focus of the "C- mountain plants to migrate to cooler areas. neutral" solution is to be sequestration rather  On average, precipitation has increased than to eliminate emissions [9]. However, even a worldwide (rain and snowfall). However, small 2–3 Pg C Year sequestered from one of some regions face more severe droughts, the pools, would adversely affect long-term risks of wild fires, loss of crops and water planning for centuries. The dynamic nature, shortages increase. social, and environmental conditions of climate

Table 1. Categories of Climate Change Risks to Health due to Causal Pathway (McMichael et al., 2013)

Risk category Causal pathway Primary Direct biological consequences of heat waves, extreme weather events, and temperature-enhanced levels of urban air pollutants Secondary Risks mediated by changes in biophysically and ecologically based processes and systems, particularly food yields, water flows, infectious-disease vectors, and (zoonotic diseases) intermediate-host ecology Tertiary More diffuse effects (e.g. mental health problems in failing farm communities, displaced groups, disadvantaged indigenous and minority ethnic groups) Consequences of tension and conflict owing to climate change related declines in basic resources (water, food, timber, living space)

3. CLIMATE CHANGE AND AGRICULTURE

At an increasing trend, the earth’s climate continues to warm up due to increasing temperature rate and the effect of this is considerably a major challenge to mankind especially for farmers and farming communities around the world. Climate and its variable influence in many ways on all economic sectors, such as rainfall variations contribute to flooding intensity and frequency. Any rise in

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temperature may significate a spike mean level of seas, impacting vast populations, e.g. peninsular and coastal regions. It can increase precipitation by 15 to 40 percent and cause a 3-6 degrees Celsius annual average temperature increase. The rapid changing climate directly impacts by agriculture throughout the world mainly in terms of food security i.e. food availability, food accessibility, food utilization, and food system stability; which will influence health, living resources and food production and distribution of the human race [11].

3.1 Influence of Climate Change on precipitation, storm and related climatic Agriculture influences, ocean current and the chemical composition of the atmosphere. This indicates 1. Floods- The increase in sea levels that earth's climate has changed throughout ever increases flood frequency and intensity in since the beginning of geology and human farms in coastal regions. These expensive activities and these activities have been a damages of floods devastate livestock and significant contributor to climate change since crops, speed up soil erosion, water pollution time of Industrial Revolution. During timeframe of and other conducing factors. 1880 to 2012, the IPCC recorded a global 2. Droughts- Inadequate water supply may be mean temperature increase of about 0.9 degrees equally damaging. In many parts of the Celsius. The rise is nearer to 1.1 degrees Celsius world, severe droughts have affected animal when measured by mean temperature since life, plant-crops and farmers. Through 1750 to 1800’s. This estimate has also been increased temperatures exacerbation of endorsed in IPCC report 2018 which states, droughts would arise. since pre-industrial times, human and 3. Changes in crop and livestock viability- its behavior are responsible for average rise in Selection of crop varieties and animal global warming temperature to 1.2 degrees breeds by farmers that suit favorable Celsius and that the greater part of warming conditions. As conditions are changing could be due to human activities in the 20th rapidly, many farming communities are century [12]. Many climatologists agree that being forced to adapt to new investments in major social, economic and ecological loss will capital, new markets and new practices. result if world average temperature increases by 4. New pests, pathogens, and weed just 2 degrees Celsius. The extinction would problems- new threats are going to arise as grow, with changes in farm patterns and the farmers are trying new crops, animals, and increase in maritime levels of many animal and practices mechanisms. plant species. The above scenarios depend 5. Degraded soils- The soil has been mainly on the concentration of some trace gases, subjected to various alterations that have referred to as greenhouse gases which, by caused a decline in soil health; Changes as burning fossil fuels for industry, transports, and fertility, reduced water-holding capacity, and home uses, have been injected into the lower increased vulnerability to erosion and water atmosphere. The so-called greenhouse effect pollution that substantially leads to reduced rises causing earth's surface heating up and the production levels. lower atmosphere is influenced by water vapors, 6. Simplified landscapes- Farms are treated CO2, methane, nitrous oxides as well as other as a crop rather than a managed ecosystem pollution from greenhouse gases. The IPCC through industrial agriculture, having stated in 2014 that the atmospheric minimum biodiversity. This lack of diversity concentrations of C, methane and nitrous oxide in farms leads to increased risks. are above those in the 800,000 year ice core. Of 7. Intensive inputs- Through heavy reliance all these gases, CO2 is of the greatest and use of synthetic pesticides, weedicides importance both because of its greenhouse and fertilizers the initial cost increases that effect role and because of its role in the human is a burden to the farming community. economy. At the start of the industrial era of mid-

4. GLOBAL WARMING 18th century, atmospheric CO2 levels were higher at about 280 ppm. Until mid-2018, fossil Over the course of this century, global warming fuels had risen to 406 ppm, and the existing fuel has caused the occurrence of increased global consumption is projected to grow to 550 ppm by air temperatures near the Earth's surface. Since the middle of the 21st Century. The principle, the middle of the 20th century, climate scientists CO2 concentrations will be doubling in 300 years. have collected detailed observations concerning The magnitude, intensity, and impacts of rising diverse weather patterns, temperatures, surface temperatures on human lives and need

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for actions to minimize and cope with future around the world. The earth is warming from warming are still being studied by Northern to the Southern Pole. Since 1906, researchers worldwide. The amount of average global surface temperature in sensitive atmospheric CO2 has increased from polar region substantially increased over 0.9 280 ppm to 395 ppm and CH4 from 715 ppb to degrees Celsius. The impacts of rising 1882 ppb and N2O from 227 ppb to 323 ppb from temperatures do not look for a far-reaching future 1750 to 2012. The Global Warming Potential global warming is now having repercussions. The (GWP) of gases, i.e. CO2, CH4 and N2O, heat melts glaciers and sea ice, changes the amounts to 1, 25 and 310 respectively (Fig. 1) pattern of precipitation, and moves animals. Most [13]. people see global warming as synonymous with climate change; however scientists tend to use Global warming scenarios are projected to “climate change” to describe the indicate an increase by 1.4 to 5.8 degrees complicated changes that are adversely affecting Celsius by 2100 of the global average surface our planet's climate. Average temperatures not temperature. The forecast warming rate in the only increase but also extreme weather, changes last 10,000 years is unprecedented in population and habitat of wildlife, the rising seas and a number of other impacts are 4.1 Effects of Global Warming included as part of climate change. These changes are regulated by addition of greenhouse Global warming indications are much gase s in the atmosphere as a result of man- more complex than rising temperatures kind.

Fig. 1. Global Scenario of Climate Change (Source: Anupama adapted, 2014)

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5. GREENHOUSE EFFECT absorbed by the atmospheric greenhouse gases thus causes temperature increment (Fig. 2) [15]. Warming of earth’s surface and troposphere is In exchange, the warm atmosphere radiates attributed by high temperature elevations that are infrared radiation out towards the surface of a result of various greenhouse gases which are Earth. The Earth average surface temperature water vapour, CO2, methane and other gases in would be near to −18 degrees Celsius in the the air is known as Greenhouse effect. The absence of heat due to greenhouse effect. Since greatest effect among these gases is due to greenhouse effect being natural phenomena water vapour. Greenhouse gas levels constantly possibilities of this effect could are increasing mainly CO2 and methane at a 0.4 exacerbate the greenhouses gases to the percent Year (Table 2) since 1750 [14]. The atmosphere due to human activities. French mathematician Joseph Fourier is Atmospheric CO2 concentrations have risen by sometimes regarded as the 1st individual who nearly 30 percent, while methane levels have coined the term “greenhouse effect” in 1824. doubled by the end of the 20th century since the Svante Arrhenius a Swedish physicist and industrial revolution. By the end of the 21st physical chemist are marked as the person who century, man-kind could cause a global made it clear as how heat is captures in the temperatures increase by 3-4 degrees Celsius. atmosphere. The mechanism through which this As a result of substantial increment at the process takes place is when the surface of the following rate this would negatively affect the Earth is heated by sunlight, radiation in the form earth’s climate causing extreme conditions such of energy is sent back to space as infrared as drought and reduced food production affecting waves. Unlike visible light, this radiation is human lives.

Table 2. Modification of atmospheric trace gas levels since 1750 (IPCC modified 2001), the industrial revolution

Gas Present Percent increase Present rate of concentration since 1750 increase (%/year) Carbon dioxide (CO2) 379 ppm 31 0.4 Methane (CH4) 1745 ppb 151 0.4 Nitrous oxide (N2O) 314 ppb 17 0.25 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) 268 ppt α decreasing Note: parts per million (ppm), parts per billion (ppb), parts per trillion (ppt).

Fig. 2. Greenhouse effect on Earth (Source: Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc.2012)

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5.1 Causes of Global Warming absorbed in all directions equally. Atmospheric greenhouse gases contribute to warming of 5.1.1 The greenhouse effect surface and below surface atmosphere. It is a must to know the difference between the The average earth surface temperature is “natural” greenhouse effect and the “enhanced” determined by a combination of various solar and greenhouse effect which is linked to humans. land radiation types. Solar radiation is generally The natural greenhouse effect is related to called shortwave radiation, since it is relatively Earth's natural components, particularly water large and has relatively short wavelengths and is vapour, CO2 and CH4 as a surface warming a visible component. Terrestrial radiation, characteristic. The average Earth’s temperature however, is often referred to as "long-wave" in its absence would be about 33 degrees radiation because of its relative low frequency Celsius. In particular, burning of fossil fuels and its relative range, and can be found. results in increased levels of the major According to solar constant, 1366 watts of solar greenhouse gases which could make radiation annually per square metre in which only the atmosphere warmer by several degrees. In half of the surface of the planet receives solar 2014, India's GHG profile represented 68.7 radiation at all times which implies that the percent of overall energy emissions which earth's surface only absorbs a small portion of was dominated by energy sector emissions, the radiation. Earth’s surface temperature is according to the World Resources Institute linked to the magnitude through “Stefan- Climate Analysis Indicators Tool. In the power Boltzmann law” of outgoing radiation emissions. sector 49 percent of energy and heat generation This law describes the power radiated from emissions were produced, followed by 24 a black body in terms of its temperature. It states percent from manufacturing and construction. that the total energy radiated per unit surface Agriculture being the second largest source area of a black body across all wavelengths per contributing 19.6 percent of overall unit time j* is directly proportional to the fourth emissions accounting with 45 percent of power of the black body's thermodynamic agricultural emissions coming from enteric temperature T: j*= σ T4.This absorption means fermentation. Industrial processes, forestry, land that some fractions do not escape to space utilization and waste accounted for 6 percent of directly. As the same amount of radiation emitted total emissions respectively, 3.8 and 1.9 percent by greenhouse gases, these radiations are [16, 17] in 2014 (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. GHG Emissions by Sector, 2014 (Source: WRI CAIT 4.0. 2017, FOASTAT, 2018)

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Fig. 4. Global mean radiative forcing since 1750 (IPCC, 2014)

5.1.2 Radiative forcing 5.1.3 Influence of human activity on climate

Radiative force, as described by IPCC, Over the centuries the earth's surface has determines how much radiation energy is changed significantly through human actions affected by any climate factor on the surface of e.g., intensive agriculture, construction, and earth and the lower atmosphere temperature. pasture [19, 20]. Almost all of the land with Climate factors are grouped among those that population growth is being used [21]. Human are a result of human activity and those occurring activity has changed the Earth's radiative due to natural forces (sunlight), which are balance at different timescales and spatial calculated for the period 1750 to the current day scales, affecting the global surface temperature. for each factor called forcing values. A higher level of greenhouse gas concentrations Climatic factors contributing to warming the in the atmosphere is the biggest and most known surface of the planet is known as 'Positive anthropogenic effect. Humans readily influence forcing', whereas 'negative forcing' involves the climate by changing aerosol and ozone factors cooling the surface of the planet. Average concentrations and by changing the earth's solar radiation of about 342 watts strikes the surface terrestrial area. earth's surface every square meter per year, which in turn can be associated with an increase 6. GREENHOUSE GASES or fall in earth's surface temperature. Surface temperatures can also increase or drop as the Greenhouse gases warm the surface of the Earth distribution of terrestrial radiation shifts in the by increasing the radiation from the net atmosphere. In some situations, forced radiation downwards to the surface. The relation between has a natural origin, for example during atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and destructive volcanoes, in which ventilated gas the associated positive long-wave surface and ash blocks some of the surface solar radiation forcing varies by gas. The great extent radiation. In other cases, the radiative forcing of complexity for each greenhouse gases comes from anthropogenic sources (Fig. 4) [18]. chemical property and the relative amount of Combining positive and negative values of long-wave radiation each can absorb is intrinsic. radiative forcing with all interactions, between factors of climate accounting net total increase in  Water vapour- Water vapour (H2O) being a surface radiation as result of human activities) greenhouse gas has the most potent in the since beginning of Industrial Revolution. atmosphere (earth) but is different from the

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remaining gases found in the atmosphere. It reacts rapidly with hydroxyl radicles in the is not considered a direct agent of the troposphere that forms CO2 and H2O as radiative forces, but is contained in the water vapor. CH4 is destroyed when it climate system. It is not simply possible to arrives at the stratosphere. Another natural change the amount of water vapour present sink is soil, in which bacteria oxidize in the atmosphere directly by human activity methane. but instead is regulated by air temperature.  Ozone and other compounds- Surface The warmer the surface, the greater the rate ozone (O3) is the next most important of evaporation of the soil. Due to greenhouse gas. O3 is a serious increased evaporation, more water vapour environmental problem; the stratosphere O3, can be absorbed by long-wave radiation and which plays a very specific dynamic in emitted downstream in the lower planetary balance of radiation, should be atmosphere. distinguished from the natural one. Surface  Carbon dioxide- CO2 is the most important O3’s primary natural source is the deviation greenhouse gas. Sources of atmospheric from high atmosphere of stratosphere O3. In CO2 comprise; eruption of volcanoes, comparison, photochemical reactions burning, decomposition of organic matter involving atmospheric carbon monoxide and through respiration by living entities. (CO) pollutant are the primary The sources of CO2 on an average basis anthropogenic source for surface O3. The through physical, chemical, biological natural concentration of O3 on surface is processes are balanced where CO2 flux is estimated at 10 ppb having a net radiant removed from the atmosphere. There are force at about 0.35 watts per square meter several natural “sinks” of CO2 like vegetation due to anthropogenic emissions. including crops, plants and trees that absorb  Nitrous oxides and fluorinated gases- this gas through photosynthesis. The Other trace gases of the industry which average rate of CO2 accumulated in the have greenhouse characteristics include atmosphere between 1959 and 2006 was nitrous oxide (N2O) and fluorinated gases 1.4 ppm a year and from 2006 to 2018 was (halocarbons), sulphide hexafluorides and approximately 2.0 ppm per year. All in all, perfluorocarbons (PFCs). Nitrous oxide is this accumulation rate was consistent. The responsible for radiative forcing of 0.16 watt annual total CO2 emission (2018) is per square metre, and fluorinated gases for approximately 36.58 billion t excluding 0.34 watt per square metre are jointly emissions from land use change (Fig. 5) responsible. Because of natural organic soil [22]. and water reactions, nitrous oxides have  Methane- Methane (CH4) is the second small background concentrations, while biggest greenhouse gas. The radiative fluorinated natural gases almost completely forcing generated by the molecule is higher, owe their existence to industrial sources. and the CH4 is more effective than CO2. The infrared window is less saturated in the 7. CARBON AND SOIL CARBON POOLS spectrum of the wavelengths of radiation absorbed by CH4, to add more molecules in C plays an important role in life on earth; plants consume C from the environment (atmosphere) the region. CH4 is, however, much lower in the form of CO2 through photosynthesis and than CO2 and its concentrations are generally measured per ppb rather than used as a source of energy. When a plant dies; ppm in the atmosphere by volume. It has the foliage, stems fall to the earth as organic significantly lower atmospheric residence matter and are then decomposed into the soil by time than CO2; time for CH4 is microorganisms that recycle this carbon back to approximately ten years compared to CO2 the atmosphere. Organic matter (OM) remains having hundreds of years as residence time. persistent to no decomposition, becomes Tropical and northern wetlands, methanol biologically or chemically attached to the soil oxidizing bacteria feeding on organic making up the carbon reservoir of the earth materials, volcanic and methanic hydrates known as the soil carbon pool. C is present in trapped in ocean-rich regions and polar four large pools: Lithosphere (earth’s crust), permafrost are natural sources of methane. ocean, atmosphere and terrestrial ecosystems (Fig. 6). Atmosphere is the natural sink for CH4 as it

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Fig. 5. Annual total CO2 emissions by world region (Carbon dioxide information analysis center (CDIAC), Global Carbon Project (GCP). 2017

The soil has a crucial role in the terrestrial sequestered, although this may depend on soil environment as sink and fluxes within the soil- types and the environment. Majority of C in soils plant-atmosphere cycle. C is present in trees, enters in form of dead plant remains which is plants, animals, soils and microorganisms. Out decomposed by soil microorganisms mainly of these the plant and soil system having largest bacteria and fungi. Through this decomposition fractions of carbon. Most of the carbon in means carbon is released by metabolism terrestrial ecosystem exists in organic forms. The (respiration) by microorganisms. Soil has a overall C level present in world soil is estimated potential of holding approximately 2,500 giga ton at 1500 Pg C. Prevalent soil C is organic carbon (Gt) of carbon [23]; global soil C pool stores more (OC) from dead plant materials and than three times that of the atmospheric carbon microorganisms. The abundance of OC pool [24]. SOM is regarded as the organic decreases with soil depth and a dominant 1 fraction of soil composed by plants and animals meter deep carbon fraction in soils is in distinct decomposition phases, microbial cells

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and tissues [25]. Due to its function in the various inorganic carbon (SIC) respectively. In dry areas, physicochemical properties of soil such as soil the SIC pool is particularly important. The structure, capacity for water retention, soil concentration of SOC ranges in arid areas from biodiversity, soil fertility, nutrient availability and low in temperate to high in organic or peat soils aeration, water erosion resistance, SOM is (Table 3) [27]. In addition to influencing total considered an important primary soil health organic carbon stocks (TOC), management indicator [26] allowing ecosystem growth and affects the composition of C in these pools. sustainability. The Four main SOM pools are Understanding how C pools change in plant residues, particulate OC, humus and management responses will provide useful recalcitrant OC which differ in chemical information about the likely functioning of the soil composition, stage of decomposition and role in and health. At a different rate and time period soil functioning and health. The two each C pool decomposes or transforms over fractions of Soil C pools are SOC and soil involving various soil processes.

Fig. 6. Global C pool

Table 3. World soils C pool (Eswaran et al. adapted, 2000)

Soil order Area Soil organic carbon Soil inorganic carbon (Mha) Density (tons/ha) Pool (billion Density Pool (billion tons) tons) (tons/ha) Alfisols 1262 125 158 34 43 Andisols 91 220 20 0 0 Aridisols 1570 38 59 290 456 Entisols 2114 42 90 124 263 Gelisols 1126 281 316 6 7 Histosols 153 1170 179 0 0 Inceptisols 1286 148 190 26 34 Mollisols 901 134 121 96 116 Oxisols 981 128 126 0 0 Rocky land 1308 17 22 0 0 Shifting sand 532 4 2 9 5 Spodosols 335 191 64 0 0 Ultisols 1105 124 137 0 0 Vertisols 316 133 42 50 21 Total 13083 1526 945

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Fig. 7. Soil carbon pools

The two major fractions of the general carbon practices and land use change has caused a pools can be divided into active and the passive decrease in global soil C by approximately 800- soil carbon pools. The active pool (also called 850 billion metric tons of CO2 (GtCO2). Soils labile carbon) is composed primarily of living being the heart "sensitive region- organ" of Earth, organisms, crop residues and manures having the small outermost portion on which humans turnover rates from seasons to years. This pool depend mostly in day to day need [29, 30]. Soils plays a vital role in structural stability and as a contain 3 times volume of carbon currently in supply of nutrition for soil microorganisms, as it atmosphere or 4 times more as found in living mainly consists of « fresh » materials. Active soil matter. Soils have a tremendous storage level C changes quickly with tillage and capacity thus enhancing soil carbon storage by cultivation practices. The passive pool has few percentage can make a considerable impact. turnover period of hundreds to thousands of Increase in soil carbon and simultaneously flux of years. Being very stable and physically protected CO2 in the atmosphere can be reduced and fixed from the activity of soil microbes because it is to the soil in various ways that involves compelled with organic-clay complexes. This sustainable agricultural strategies like: pool contributes to cation exchange capacity conservation agriculture, decreasing soil (CEC), and water-holding capacity. It is very slow disruption, low-till or no-till or reduced till to change and primarily lost through wind and approaches; carrying out planting programs, water erosion of topsoil (Fig. 7). increasing land surface cover, cover cropping following crop rotations, including planting crops Humus is part of passive pool, which promotes or double crops instead of leaving fallow fields, root development and plant growth [28]. The incorporating crop residues, mulching and adding SOC pool is a dynamic C cycle aspect closely organic manures to fields. These activities, in connected with the atmospheric C pool. addition to bringing local economic and environmental benefits, will absorb CO2 from the 7.1 Soil Carbon Sequestration atmosphere and store it in soils, rendering it a method of C removal. Terrestrial sequestration also known as "biological sequestration" is usually achieved by 7.2 Agricultural Management Strategies soil management activities that increase C to Sequester Carbon in Soils absorption like; regeneration, afforestration and grasslands or minimize CO2 emissions by Some of the best management practices that can reducing intensive tillage operations, land use enable CO2 sequestration are as below: change. "Carbon farming” commonly known as soil C sequestration (regenerative farming) 7.2.1 Tillage involves a number of ways to manage land use types, particularly agriculture, so that soils can The primary objective of tillage is physical absorb and retain more C. Intensive agricultural destruction top soil layer for seed bed

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preparation, introduction of fertilizers and in the soil to be established. The benefits of likewise weeds management. Various soil types, introducing conservative tillage for SOC temperature, rainfall, management and sequestration are greatly enhanced with growing technology in different regions lead different cover crops during the rotation cycle. Increase tillage operations. For sequestration of C in growth of leguminous cover crops increase agricultural soils, interaction between tillage, biodiversity, residue feed efficiency and SOC SOM dynamics and composition of soil is pooling [33, 34, and 35]. Ecosystems having necessary. Tillage practices like conventional large biodiversity are known to consume and tillage (CT) causes reduction in soil carbon sequestrate more C than those with reduced or accounting 35-60 percent and as low as 15 decreasing biodiversity. Drinkwater et al. [36] has percent globally. Due to intensive tillage reported that legume based cropping systems operations SOC oxidation occurs that causes decrease soil C losses and nitrogen. Sainju et al. emission of CO2 into the atmosphere. Among the [37] observed that adoption of no till with hairy best tillage practices the 2 known tillage vetch will increase SOC. Also Franzluebbers et practices that causes positive impacts on soil al. [38] found that forage management increases carbon sequestration are; no-till, and reduced till the SOC stream. Berzseny and GYearffy [39] and conventional tillage systems. No tillage documented the beneficial impact of increasing increases soil quality and aggregation amounts, cover crops on enhancing SOC pool in Hungary. while conventional tillage acts against the Adoption of cover cropping systems with structure of soil, which enhances the intensive row cropping rotations with varying decomposition of the SOM. Conservation tillage tillage treatments can mitigate climate change practices hold more crop and crop residue on the and sequester more SOC. soil surface and thus providing a higher SOC concentration at surface layer as compared to 7.2.3 Crop rotations conventional tillage. Both tillage operations with cropping systems cause fluctuations in behavior Crop rotation implies series of crops cultivated on and activities of microbial that eventually affect the same region of land in frequently repeated dynamics and stability of SOC. Also by successions. Successive crops can last two or decreasing soil tillage and increasing crop more years. The sequestration of C is influenced strength, soil mineralization may be minimized. to a great deal by crop rotations, climate, soil and Decrease in soil temperature by using surface multiple crop management activities. Various mulches and no-till strategy is necessary to legume crops, like lentils, peas, sesbania, alfalfa, maintain soil organic matter stocks mainly in the chickpea and other known may serve as C and N tropical soils. Higher biota and especially sources. Implementation of crop rotations, in microorganism density usually occur in no- particular by leguminous cover crops containing tilled soils. Most of the studies indicate that no- C compounds are considered more resilient to till can quickly increase soil C, especially on the microbial metabolism, will render soil C stable. earth's surface, in conjunction with improvements The annual cropping rotations sequestered 27– in aggregation. In order to stabilize atmospheric 430 kg C-ha−1 Year as compared over bare C, the introduction of conservation tillage is fallow crop rotations [40]. SOC sequestration is expected to sequester 25 Gt C globally for the more likely in sub-humid than in drier conditions coming 50 years. with crop rotations without bare fallow. Various types of cropping systems can indeed be helpful 7.2.2 Cover crop in carbon sequestration, namely the, ratoon cropping, cover cropping, and companion Cover cropping is mainly done for soil cropping system. Intercropping that involves advantages rather than crop production. Cover intercropping of rows, mixed cropping, and cropping improves soil quality by increasing SOC intercropping of relays may raise revenue, and biomass, improving soil aggregations and fertility can improve soil quality. Nayak et al. [41] stated and retaining soil against water erosion. C that the rotating rice-weat system in the Indo- sequestered through cover cropping is subjected Gangetic Plains is the most effective cultivation to different types of soil, management, elevations system. A few of the intercropping examples and the climate [31]. Past studies evaluate the include cotton and peanut, wheat and mustard, amount of 0.22 tonnes per acre per year for wheat and chickpea, peanut and sunflower. Thus cover crops emitting carbon in soil [32]. In-situ long term organic agriculture can indeed application of green manures increases biomass increase organic carbon in soil compared with added to the soil, which allows increased C sink conventional agriculture [42]. Taking into account

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economic factors, choosing optimal rotation of substitution and additional nutrients has a cropping systems accordingly with soil- beneficial impact on soil C sequestration and is environmental factors may be helpful in C often used as a C sink. In soils that have paddy sequestration that not only increases plant cultivation, high clay content has ability to productivity, fertility of soils but often lowers CO2 sequester more C [55]. Maltas et al. [56] reported emissions into the atmosphere. that organic amendments viz. green manure, cereal straw , fresh cattle manure in 2 doses 35 7.2.4 Nutrient management and 70 t ha−1 and cattle slurry has the potential to supply 25-80 percent more C input to the soil. The sequestration of C in soil requires integrated Uhlen [57] and Uhlen & Tveitnes [35] stated that nutrient management (INM). The lack of N, P, S manure applications could increase the and other building blocks of humus would sequestration of SOC at a pace of 70–227 Kg severely limit the process for humification [43]. ha−1 Year over 37–74 years. In contrasted to just The effectiveness of sequestration is lowered NPK application, FYM along with NPK when C and N are not managed properly [44]. applications improves C sequestration in rice- The SOC sequestration level is also wheat cropping method, whereas in green strengthened with an increase in biomass C manuring, relative to applying FYM along with application [45]. Chemical fertilizers, particularly green manure, sequestered more C in Maize- N2O, are a source of GHG emissions. In addition Wheat crop rotation. In addition to increasing net to this, the manufacturing of fertilizer and its primary production, composting also enhances transport are both correlated with GHG pollution. the soil C quality. This all means that, along with Through application doses of 50 percent other inorganic fertilizers, the usage of livestock NPK + 50 percent N through FYM in rice and 100 waste, compost is advantageous for both plant percent NPK in wheat consequently sequestered health and climate. −1 0.39, 0.50, 0.51 and 0.62 Mg C ha Year. Adopting rice-rice system (RRS) under reduced 7.2.6 Biochar tillage (RT) or no- till (NT) with INM is recommended for enhancing the productivity, C Biochar development is based on a process and N sequestration in paddy soils [46]. Liebig et initiated thousands of years ago in the Amazon al. [47] and Dumanski et al. [48] found that, Basin, where the indigenous people produced relative to unfertilized samples, high N dose islands of thick, fertile soils called terra preta treatments improved SOC sequestration ("dark earth"). Anthropologists assume that the concentrations. Ridley et al. [49] revealed that intended placement of coal in soil through through the input of P and lime SOC pool cooking fires and middles led to a high increased in the 0–10 cm layer over 68-year productivity and C content in soils, sometimes (0.17 Mg C ha−1 Year). Effective usage of soil- with pieces of broken soil pottery. Biochar is based fertilizers can be helpful in optimizing enhancing soils by transforming crop waste into carbon sequestration alongside full crop output a fertile soil enhancer that preserves carbon and and in reducing emissions of various GHGs. fertilizes fields. It is widely regarded as an effective means of C sequestering. It can 7.2.5 Organic manures and amendments successfully be used in concrete constructions as a C sequestering admixture to also help waste Another significant SOC sequestration technique recycling [58]. Production of biochar in is the use of manures and other organic association with soil preservation has been amendments. Long-term studies in Europe proposed as one potential way of decreasing revealed that with application of organic manures CO2 amount in the atmosphere [59]. Biochar the intensity of SOC sequestration is larger than climate change-mitigation ability derives mainly chemical fertilizers [50]. The rise of 10 percent from its extremely recalcitrant nature that delays over 100 years in Denmark [51], 22 percent over the process of return to the atmosphere of 90 years in Germany [52], 100 percent over 144 photosynthetically-fixed C [60]. Several studies years in Rothamsted, UK [53] and 44 percent have shown that Biochar use decreases over 31 years in Sweden [54] in the SOC polysaccharide / C co-location by decreasing reservoir through long-term manuring at 0–30 cm C metabolism due to C fixation in organic soils. depth. Manure application is essential for Combining Biochar with manure can decrease conserving soil health and it is a basis of C even CO2 and N2O as comparing to manure sandy its usage in various crop fields has an impact on loam soil but not from the clay loam soil. C content. Use of organic amendments as However, higher amounts of application of

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−1 biochar (> 10 Mg ha ) and long-term monitoring GHGs in the atmosphere. The major gas CO2 are needed to assess the impact of biochar on can be reduced to a great extent through C GHG emissions from the soil surface. sequestration mechanisms in the terrestrial sinks Transformation of all sustainably produced crops mainly the soil. Even when natural terrestrial to increase bioenergy, rather than biochar, output sinks currently consume approximately 60 will even mitigate up to 10 percent of global percent of the 8.6 Pg C Year−1 emitted, natural anthropogenic CO2-Ce emissions. Biochar and sink capability and intensity are not sufficiently bioenergy’s relative climate-mitigation capacity large to assimilate all the expected depends on productivity changed soil and fuel anthropogenic CO2 released into the atmosphere intensity C being compensated with forms of during twenty-first century until the C-neutral biomass [61]. Under all other cases, the energy sources take full effect. The sink potential biochar’s climate-mitigation capacity is greater. of managed habitats (e.g. forests, farmland, and wetlands) can be increased by transitioning to 7.2.7 Microbial biomass management judicious land use and implementing appropriate The activities taken by soil microbes can be forestry, farm crops, and pasture management beneficial in sequestration of biological C practices like various agricultural and sustainable because microbes enhance physical, chemical practices; tillage operations, cover cropping, crop and biological properties of the soil. Soil biota is rotations, biochar, integrated nutrient made up of a significant number and a variety of management and microbial biomass micro- and macro-organisms, and is the living management are the means in which CO2 component of soil. Their main role is emissions can be controlled. The deliberate decomposition of organic matter and management of biological processes will modifications of organically bound N and accelerate the CO2 sequestrating process, minerals available to plants. Micro and increase soil health, increase food production for macroorganisms includes bacteria, algae, fungi, the-population, and also increase the land protozoa, and certain nematodes. Residues of sustainability as a resource, through the adoption microbial biomass (i.e., necromass) have been of regulatory actions and policy incentive. Even viewed as an important source of SOM. Microbial so, for management systems to be successful, cell envelope fragments therefore contribute a lot an integrated structure approach is highly to the formation of SOM [62]. It has been shown required. There is a great scope in which that species-rich plant communities are more mankind can control climate change where C productive and show increased storage of SOC sequestration has great potential. in the over the long term. Soil microorganisms are essential to transforming organic plant matter COMPETING INTERESTS into SOC. Plant species richness (PSR) boosts the growth and turnover of microbials and Authors have declared that no competing increases microbial biomass and necromass. interests exist. PSR enhances respiration by microbes, but the effect is less strong than for microbial growth. As REFERENCES compared, PSR does not affect respiration specific to microbial carbon use efficiency (CUE) 1. IPCC. Climate Change: The scientific basis. or biomass [63]; also PSR enhances SOC Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, UK; content through its major contribution on the 2001. carbon content of microbial biomass. In the 2. Nobre C. Deforested parts of Amazon design model, soil mineralization of organic N is 'emitting more CO2 than they absorb; 2020. carried out at a microscale by soil microbes [64]. Available:https://www.bbc.com/news/scienc Song et al. [65] found C sequestration is e-environment-51464694. exhibited by the bacterial order Rhizobiales, the 3. Houghton J. Global Warming: The complete fungal order Russulales, and δ15N. Hence the briefing. cambridge, United Kingdom: use of various species of microorganisms, which Cambridge University Press; 1994. are good for soil and climate, can increase 4. Kumar R, Gautam HR. Climate change and sequestration of soil C, boost crop growth and its impact on agricultural productivity in yield. India. Journal of Climatology and Weather Forecasting. 8. CONCLUSION 2014;2. The industrial revolution has caused the climate Available:https://doi.org/10.4172/2332‐2594. to change at a faster rate due to the fluxes of 1000109.

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