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Sicard Et Al (2018) Environmental Pollution 243 (2018) 163e176 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Environmental Pollution journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/envpol Should we see urban trees as effective solutions to reduce increasing ozone levels in cities?* * Pierre Sicard a, , Evgenios Agathokleous b, c, Valda Araminiene d, Elisa Carrari e, Yasutomo Hoshika e, Alessandra De Marco f, Elena Paoletti e a ARGANS, Sophia Antipolis, France b Hokkaido Research Centre, Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute, Sapporo, Japan c Research Faculty of Agriculture, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan d Lithuanian Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry, Institute of Forestry, Girionys, Lithuania e Consiglio Nazionale Delle Ricerche, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy f Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development, Rome, Italy article info abstract Article history: Outdoor air pollution is considered as the most serious environmental problem for human health, Received 23 April 2018 associated with some million deaths worldwide per year. Cities have to cope with the challenges due to Received in revised form poor air quality impacting human health and citizen well-being. According to an analysis in the 23 July 2018 framework of this study, the annual mean concentrations of tropospheric ozone (O3)havebeen Accepted 15 August 2018 À increasing by on average 0.16 ppb year 1 in cities across the globe over the time period 1995e2014. Green Available online 20 August 2018 urban infrastructure can improve air quality by removing O3.Toefficiently reduce O3 in cities, it is important to define suitable urban forest management, including proper species selection, with focus on Keywords: Air pollution the removal ability of O3 and other air pollutants, biogenic emission rates, allergenic effects and main- Green infrastructure tenance requirements. This study reanalyzes the literature to i) quantify O3 removal by urban vegetation Green roof categorized into trees/shrubs and green roofs; ii) rank 95 urban plant species based on the ability to Mitigation maximize air quality and minimize disservices, and iii) provide novel insights on the management of À2 Urban forest urban green spaces to maximize urban air quality. Trees showed higher O3 removal capacity (3.4 g m À À À year 1 on average) than green roofs (2.9 g m 2 year 1 as average removal rate), with lower installation and maintenance costs (around 10 times). To overcome present gaps and uncertainties, a novel Species- specific Air Quality Index (S-AQI) of suitability to air quality improvement is proposed for tree/shrub species. We recommend city planners to select species with an S-AQI>8, i.e. with high O3 removal ca- pacity, O3-tolerant, resistant to pests and diseases, tolerant to drought and non-allergenic (e.g. Acer sp., Carpinus sp., Larix decidua, Prunus sp.). Green roofs can be used to supplement urban trees in improving air quality in cities. Urban vegetation, as a cost-effective and nature-based approach, aids in meeting clean air standards and should be taken into account by policy-makers. © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction major environmental issue in urban areas, which can affect the life quality and well-being of citizens (Manning, 2013). Exposure to air Nowadays, 54% of the world population lives in cities, a number pollutants such as particulate matter (PM), nitrogen oxides (NOx), which is expected to rise up to 70% by 2050 (United Nations, 2014). sulfur dioxide (SO2), and surface ozone (O3) associates with respi- In a typical urban environment, citizens are exposed to about 200 ratory and cardiovascular diseases and mortality (Sicard et al., 2011; air pollutants or classes of air pollutants (Sicard et al., 2011; Lee et al., 2014; Khaniabadi et al., 2016). Despite the reductions in Goudarzi et al., 2017; Khaniabadi et al., 2017). Air pollution is a the emissions of common air pollutants since the early 1990s, millions of people are still exposed to concentrations above the critical levels associated with increased risks for cardiovascular and * This paper has been recommended for acceptance by Dr. Hageman Kimberly Jill. respiratory diseases (Yang et al., 2005; Foley et al., 2014; World * Corresponding author. Health Organization, 2016a). Outdoor air pollution associates E-mail address: [email protected] (P. Sicard). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2018.08.049 0269-7491/© 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 164 P. Sicard et al. / Environmental Pollution 243 (2018) 163e176 with about 8 million deaths worldwide per year (World Health street canyons (Salmond et al., 2013). Organization, 2016a). Among the most cost-effective approaches, the direct removal Ozone and PM are the most threatening air pollutants in cities in of O3 and one of its precursors (NOx) by urban green spaces is of terms of harmful effects on human health (Pascal et al., 2013; particular interest. The potential of green urban infrastructure to Guerreiro et al., 2014; Miranda et al., 2016; European Environment mitigate O3 pollution is well documented by field measurements Agency, 2017)aswellasNO2 (Weinmayr et al., 2010), with con- and model estimates (Nowak et al., 2000; Harris and Manning, centrations above the World Health Organization (WHO) air quality 2010; Manes et al., 2012; Hu et al., 2016; Klingberg et al., 2017a; guidelines in 98% of cities in low- and middle-income countries (> Yli-Pelkonen et al., 2017a, b). 100,000 inhabitants) and in 56% of cities in high-income countries To reduce O3 levels in cities, it is important to define efficient (World Health Organization, 2016a). Ozone is considered as the city planning. For that, municipalities need to clearly understand most damaging air pollutant in terms of adverse effects on natural the magnitude of green urban infrastructure effects on air pollution vegetation and cultivated crops in Europe (Sicard et al., 2016c; as well as its disservices (environmental, social and financial) Ochoa-Hueso et al., 2017) and short- and long-term exposures to O3 (Escobedo et al., 2011; Fantozzi et al., 2015; Selmi et al., 2016; have been associated with increased numbers of hospital admis- Bottalico et al., 2017). Disservices of urban forests can be i) envi- sions and premature mortality for respiratory and cardiovascular ronmental, such as the introduction of invasive species, an increase diseases, reduced worker productivity and increased medication in water use in semi-arid areas and the release of volatile organic use (Jerrett et al., 2009; Anderson et al., 2012; Orru et al., 2013; compounds (VOC) and secondary aerosol emissions leading to Krmpotic et al., 2015; Nuvolone et al., 2017). The global impact of ground-level O3 formation (Nowak et al., 2002; Paoletti, 2009); ii) long-term outdoor O3 exposure contributed to 1.2 million prema- social (e.g. allergenic pollen, fear of crime) and iii) financial, as ture respiratory deaths in 2010, i.e. one in five of all respiratory additional costs incurred by urban forest management such as deaths (Malley et al., 2017). pruning, replacement, green waste, control of pests and diseases, The mean global background O3 concentration is expected to irrigation and damage to urban infrastructure caused by vegetation increase from the current level of 35e50 ppb (Lefohn et al., 2014)to (Nowak and Dwyer, 2007; Escobedo et al., 2011). Trees can also be 85 ppb by 2100 at mid-latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere (IPCC, net CO2 emitters when accounting for maintenance activities, 2014). The current O3 levels in cities in many regions of the world pruning, watering, etc. (Nowak et al., 2002). However, the benefits regularly exceed the target value set by WHO for the protection of provided by urban forests usually overcome their disservices human health, i.e. 50 ppb as daily 8-h average concentration (World (Escobedo et al., 2011). Health Organisation, 2008), and the critical level for the protection Through an extensive literature review and the evaluation of the of vegetation in Europe is 9000 ppb h for the exposure to O3 hourly O3 risk, for human and vegetation health, at urban stations across concentrations exceeding 40 ppb over the daylight hours of the the world, the main goals of this paper are to: i) quantify O3 growing season in Europe (Kroeger et al., 2014; Saitanis et al., 2015; removal capacity by urban vegetation categorized into trees/shrubs Anav et al., 2016; García-Gomez et al., 2016; Churkina et al., 2017), and green roofs, ii) rank common urban plant species based on the while different critical levels are suggested for different vegetation ability to improve air quality and minimize disservices, and iii) types by UNECE (2017). In cities, the rising background O3 levels provide novel insights on the management of urban green spaces to appear to be a major air quality issue and become a public health maximize urban air quality. The effect of green urban infrastructure concern despite control efforts (Bogaert et al., 2009; Sicard et al., on energy conservation, storm-water management, water quality, 2013; World Health Organisation, 2013; Lefohn et al., 2018). noise pollution, carbon sequestration, habitat for wildlife and the Urban green spaces can reduce air pollution and greenhouse gas urban heat island is beyond the scope of this review paper. emissions (Escobedo and Nowak, 2009; Pataki et al., 2011; Baro et al., 2014; Tong et al., 2016), sequester carbon (Tsay et al., 2015; 2. Materials and methods Anav et al., 2016; Proietti et al., 2016), regulate air temperature (Bowler et al., 2010; Manes et al., 2012), mitigate storm-water 2.1. Determining global trends in ground-level ozone runoff (Pataki et al., 2011), reduce noise (Cohen et al., 2014; Klingberg et al., 2017a), as well as provide recreational, social, The international Tropospheric Ozone Assessment Report psychological, and aesthetic benefits (Nowak et al., 2006; Dadvand (TOAR), initiated by the International Global Atmospheric Chem- et al., 2015; World Health Organization, 2016b).
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