ORIENTALISM in BENJAMIN BRITTEN's CURLEW RIVER By
c.l
ORIENTALISM IN BENJAMIN BRITTEN'S
CURLEW RIVER
by
JEAN HODGINS B. Mus., The University of British Columbia, 1963
A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS
in
THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES Department of Music
We accept this thesis as conforming to the required standard
THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA May, 1981
Jean Hodgins, 1981 In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requir ments for an advanced degree at the University of British
Columbia, I agree that the Library shall make it freely available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the head of my department or by hi or her representatives. It is understood that copying or publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission.
Department of Music
The University of British Columbia 2075 Wesbrook Place Vancouver, Canada V6T 1W5
Date .0, oH. .11V ABSTRACT
ORIENTALISM IN BENJAMIN BRITTEN'S CURLEW RIVER
by
JEAN HODGINS
Benjamin Britten's Curlew River, Op. 71 was written in
1964, eight years after a prolonged trip to the Near East.
This trip had a profound effect on three of Britten's major works, namely his ballet score The Prince of the Pagodas,- Op.
55 written in 1956, Songs from the Chinese, Op. 58 written in
19 57 and finally Curlew River. These three works show in various ways a merging of Britten's personal style with specifi oriental musical characteristics giving rise to a particularly interesting cultural synthesis. In the last of these works,
Curlew River, the' compositional style of the composer becomes so integrated with oriental, and specifically Noh-drama charac• teristics that to analyse and enumerate separate cultural aspects in the music becomes a difficult task.
In order to discuss Curlew River as a cross-cultural phenomenon, a critical examination of certain aspects of style and performance in two cultural spheres is necessary. A brief discussion of the Medieval mystery play and the Japanese Noh
Drama and their important components is a logical preliminary to any detailed analysis of Curlew River. Also, a general look at what "orientalism" has meant historically, in the field of western music, is important in forming some points of reference for the proposed study. Further, in an attempt to characterize "orientalism" in Curlew River, a brief look at
Britten's previous excursions into this area will be undertaken On a more detailed level, a discussion of certain aspects of Britten's compositional techniques in Curlew River is necessary emphasizing specific cultural borrowings from the
Japanese Noh Drama in areas of vocal, instrumental, ensemble, dramatic and structural writing. It is expected that, in con• sidering Britten's treatment of adapted non-western composi• tional techniques within the framework of his own personal style, a clearer conception will evolve of the extent to which Britten integrates aspects of two such diverse musical cultures.
Although Benjamin Britten, in a "Note by the Composer" enclosed in the London Recording (1965) of Curlew River, writes that there is "nothing specifically Japanese left in the
Parable that William Plomer and I have written" a strong case can be made for the cultural synthesis that Curlew River rep• resents. While lists of parallels may be drawn between the two types of morality plays - the Noh Drama.and the Medieval religious play - and while further parallels may be drawn be• tween Sumidagawa and its realization Curlew River, the real task lies in showing how Britten was able to avoid a naive pastiche of the Japanese model and instead was able to create an integrated, viable and innovative Church Parable. While the parallel concept is generally realized by researchers, there have been few attempts to show the depth of cross- cultural concept inherent in Curlew River.
Therefore, it would appear to be important to examine crit• ically and to reveal Benjamin Britten's extraordinary ability to absorb another culture's musical ideal, to incorporate this ideal iv
into conventions of his own musical culture and. to arrive at a work that is still representative of his own highly individual compositional style. Curlew River, the last of Britten's works directly influenced by orientalism and considered by many scholars to be tremendously influential on his later scores, presents a unique opportunity for such a study. V
TABLE' OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ii
LIST OF TABLES vi
LIST OF FIGURES vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT viii
INTRODUCTION 1
Chapter
I. ORIENTALISM
Introduction 5
Chinoiserie 6
Orientalism in Seventeenth and Eighteenth
Century Music 12
Japonaiserie in the Nineteenth Century ... 17
Orientalism in Nineteenth Century Music . . 18
Summary 24
II. DRAMATIC AND FORMAL ELEMENTS: ASSOCIATION WITH JAPANESE NOH-DRAMA .... 27 III. INSTRUMENTAL ELEMENTS: COINCIDENCE AND ASSOCIATION WITH JAPANESE MUSIC 54 IV. VOCAL ELEMENTS: COINCIDENCE AND
ASSOCIATION WITH JAPANESE MUSIC 81
V. CONCLUSIONS 100
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Books and Articles 103
Music Editions 106 vi
LIST OF TABLES LIST OF TABLES
TABLE I NOH STRUCTURE AND MUSICAL STYLE .40
TABLE II COMPARISON BETWEEN NOH-DRAMA AND CURLEW RIVER - DRAMATIC AND MUSICAL STRUCTURE 43
/
\ vii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
1. Man dressed for working compared to Ferryman .... 36
1 2. Madwoman costumes 36
3. Man in travelling clothes compared to Traveller . . 36
4. Nohkan 57
5. Ko tzuzumi 57
6. 0 tzuzumi 57
7. Taiko 5 7 viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to thank several people for their help and advice in the preparation of this thesis. Dr. Dimitri Conomos, my committee chairman, was particularly helpful with his extensive knowledge of the music of Benjamin Britten. Dr.
Robert Morris and Mr. Elliot Weisgarber both lent their expertise in matters of vocal works and Japanese music. Dr.
Ming-Yueh Liang is largely responsible for my continued interest in the field of Asian music. Dr. Terence Bailey and Kathryn
Bailey were mentors for many of the ideas in the thesis, and
Dr. Evan Kreider kindly spent considerable time on details of presentation.
r 1
INTRODUCTION
In 1955, Benjamin Britten took an extended trip to the
Far East, where he heard performances of the Balinese gamelan and the traditional music of Japan. These two experiences, vividly recalled in a companion's travel diary,1 left a profound impression on Britten's musical expression over the next decade.
With remarkable sensitivity to a foreign musical genre, Britten absorbed oriental characteristics into his compositional fibre, creating a fascinating synthesis of qualities from two musical cultures. Three specific works, the Prince of the Pagodas,
Songs from the Chinese and Curlew River, all written between
1956 and 1964 show this cultural synthesis to a greater or lesser degree. The latest of the three works, Curlew River, composed in 1964, presents the greatest variety and complexity of orientalisms and, as a consequence, provides a rich source for examination. This church parable, based on a Japanese
Noh-drama, is of interest to scholars for many different reasons.
As the first of Britten's church parables, it represents a new musical genre combining elements of opera, cantata and oratorio as well as aspects of the ancient morality play.
Furthermore, many scholars feel that Curlew River symbolizes the transition to Britten's last stylistic period of composi• tion, a period marked by increased abstraction in rhythm, tonality and harmony. However, of singular importance to this
Ludwig, Prince of Hesse and the Rhine. "Ausflug Ost", 1956, A Tribute to Benjamin Britten on his Fiftieth Birthday by A. Gishford, Faber, London, 1963. 2 thesis are the adaptations of oriental musical characteristics into western musical forms. Such stylistic aspects as per• formance medium and practice, melody, rhythm, harmony and form are examined only to the extent that they shed light on the question of a cross-cultural synthesis. The above stylistic considerations in Curlew River are identified both by their oriental prototype and by Britten's adaptation. This bilateral approach offers a concrete appreciation of the extent to which
Britten borrows and interprets another culture's musical attri• butes, skillfully blending them into a European artistic conception.
In exposing these characteristics some interesting consid• erations arise which should be noted at this time. While many of the orientalisms are self-evident, 'once the background of
Curlew River is understood, many other Eastern features which are less obvious require fairly intense scrutiny. However, there lie dangers in too close an examination of the score of
Curlew River if the researcher begins seeing more cultural borrowings than are truly present. It is prudent to remember that while Britten was a great musician with a sensitive ear, he was expert neither in Japanese music nor in the Noh-drama.
His stay in Tokyo was very brief and it appears that he saw 2 only two performances of this kind of theatre. He was also present at one special performance of gagaku, the Japanese
Benjamin Britten, "A Note By the Composer" in the record notes for Curlew River, London Recording, OSA-1156, 1956. 3
Imperial Court Music. Undoubtedly, the essential aspects of the performances that Britten attended in Japan were explained to him by experts, but nowhere in any writings about Britten are there any indications that he studied Japanese music.
Rather, it appears that Britten was influenced to a remarkable degree by this limited exposure to the Noh-drama and gagaku, which provided the impetus for his formed utilization of
Japanese musical idioms. Therefore, it is important to conduct any examination of Curlew River with a realistic attitude to the degree of complexity of orientalisms in the score. Although
Britten's knowledge of Japanese musical practise is that of the educated and perceptive layman, his usage is masterly. The process of transforming the kernels of a non-western musical experience into an innovative, integrated and vivid western musical genre is the unique characteristic of Curlew River.
Attempts to show deep ethnomusicological qualities in Britten's parable would no doubt prove fruitless. However, if Curlew
River is studied as a European production with large added dimensions of Asian musical elements, a cross-cultural view• point can emerge.
Benjamin Britten's hopes for this kind of viewpoint are clearly stated in "A Note by the Composer" when he discussed the lessons to be learned from the skill and dedication of the performers of the Noh-drama. He questions:
Was it not possible to use just such a story - the simple one of a demented mother seeking her lost child - with an English background (for there was no question in any ^ case of a pastiche from the ancient Japanese)?
3Ibid. 4
How successfully Britten synthesizes his knowledge of two cultures in Curlew River will be the subject of the following discussion. 5
CHAPTER I
ORIENTALISM
Introduction
'Orientalism' is a word commonly used with reference to
% several interdependent designations. In the strictest terms,
a modern historian, anthropologist, ethnomusicologist, or any
other researcher who studies or writes about the Orient within
its cultural context is an Orientalist and his work is Orient•
alism. Before the twentieth century, a broader scope of this
field included a style of thought which was less scientific
and more imaginative in its outlook. From the relatively small
amount of knowledge of the Orient in the seventeenth and eight•
eenth centuries, and from slightly more knowledge in the nine•
teenth century, elaborate theories and accounts of the orient
were concocted which were only half factual.''" These fantastic
descriptions were readily accepted by the general European pop•
ulation, their credibility growing in stature to become even•
tually the historical basis of early knowledge of the people,
customs, and philosophy of the Orient.
The quest for the riches of Oriental lands, and the desire
for exotic colonies was led primarily by England and France,
and to a lesser degree Germany and Holland. While much of
"""Such accounts as the fourteenth century The Travels of Sir John Mandeville, since proven to be an entirely fictional account written by a writer who never left England, enjoyed immense popularity during the Middle Ages. This and other accounts form Friar Odoric on his missionary travels in 1324 and Marco Polo's Description of the World (12 71-1295) formed the basis for seventeenth and eighteenth century knowledge of the Orient. 6 eighteenth and nineteenth century European interest in Orient• alism stemmed from a necessity to understand the colonized countries, the style of life as seen in architecture, decora• tion, religion and philosophy was extremely attractive to the
European colonial explorers. Those Oriental attributes which the Occidental traveller found attractive or lucrative enough to bring home are of the most specific interest to the enquiry of this thesis. The history of imitation and adaptation of
Oriental characteristics has a complex and fascinating back• ground in European life from the earliest times of spice and silk imports to the modern day. The orientalisms in Benjamin
Britten's Curlew River are within the European tradition of adaptation and imitation and are blended into a European musi• cal concept. Because the process of transformation is of pri• mary importance to this thesis, an historic tracing of the phenomenon, in. related artistic fields such as painting, arch• itecture and the decorative arts is a useful area of inquiry before a more detailed analysis of.Orientalisms in Curlew
River is undertaken.
Chinoiserie
The most familiar style of orientalism known to European cultures is that of chinoiserie, an important influence in painting, sculpture, the decorative arts and, to a lesser degree, music. Chinoiserie began as a European conception of
Chinese art styles and an idealized vision of the Chinese
Empire. From the Middle Ages to the nineteenth century, this
vision of the Orient underwent certain gradual changes so 7 that what began as an imitation of a foreign culture gradually emerged as an independent European art-style. Only in the nineteenth century does the fantastic vision of Cathay, upon 2 which chmoiserie is based, become disturbed by realism.
Early European knowledge of China was based on popular accounts drawn from merchants' and travellers' tales, most of which contained little factual material; these travellers were interested primarily in the silk trade. From the first century
A.D., the Silk Route, overland from Greece through Central Asia to China, was used by the Greeks, Romans, and Parthians. With the increasing demand for silk over the next few centuries, especially in Rome and Byzantium, it became desirable for Medi• terranean countries to begin their own silk production. Around
550 - A. D. , silkworm eggs were smuggled out of China into Byzan-.. tium, thereby ending the long monopoly of China in silk produc• tion. However, Chinese silks and porcelain continued to trickle into Europe between 500 - 1000 A.D., probably accounting for isolated usage of Chinese motifs on European frescoes, manu- scripts, and carvings. The most important and certainly the most well-documented link between Medieval Europe and China was the celebrated trip of Marco Polo in the thirteenth century to the court of Kublai Khan. Returning to Venice, Marco Polo brought back rich treasures and tales of a wealthy, beautiful, and enlightened China. The civility of the Chinese, even when
Cathay is the name by which China was known to medival Europe. The name, often used in later poetic contexts, symbols ized the particular medieval viewpoint of ancient China. 3 See Hugh Honour, Chinoiserie; the Vision of Cathay, London: J. Murray, 1961. pp. 3 3-35. 8 half a mile away from Kublai Khan's presence, is described in his tales.
... out of reverence for his exalted majesty, everybody preserves a mien of the greatest meekness and quiet, so that no noise of shrill voices or loud talk shall be heard. And every one of the chiefs and nobles carries always with him a handsome little vessel to spit in whilst he remain in the hall of Audience - for no one dares to spit on the floor of the hall - and when he hath spitten he covers it up and puts it aside.4
Renewed interest in this country spurred other countries to send embassies to China, and following the opening of communi• cations, early examples of Chinese blue and white porcelain appeared in Europe at this time. From the few Chinese art facts available to Europeans at this time, along with the highly embellished "histories" of merchants and diplomats, the
European conception of China, or Cathay, began to be set.
A picture of a country which had autocratic yet just rulers, industrious, obedient, and skilled citizens, tribes of strange monsters and serpents, fabulous palaces, jewels and huge gold reserves emerged and was accepted in Europe until the end of the seventeenth century.
In the early part of this century, oriental decoration became extremely fashionable in Europe. Imitations of scenes from imported Oriental goods appeared on European engravings, cabinets, and porcelain. Delft pottery began in Holland in
1614 as an imitation of Ming Chinese blue and white porcelain, painted with figures of Chinese people, gods, dragons, and flowers in a charming but naive style based on popular
4Ibid, p. 11. 9
conceptions of China. Eastern fabrics became increasingly pop•
ular and were imitated by textilemakers in France and England.
The importation of tea into English homes caused the
accoutrements of tea-drinking - cups, pots, caddies and kettles
- to be seen widely in English homes. Original Chinese porce•
lain was preferred for tea-drinking, but English imitations
began to be made as early as the end of the seventeenth century.
With the popularity of porcelain, textiles and decorative
artifacts of Chinese design or origin, more adventuresome enter•
prises in architecture began to emerge. Louis XIV, for his mistress Madame de Montespan, built a pavilion based on a
Chinses plan in 1670. The pavilion, the Trianon de porcelaine, was built in the park at Versailles and was said to be inspired by a porcelain pagoda at Nanking. In fact, however, the Tri•
anon is built in "an uncompromisingly late seventeenth century 5
classical style;" the blue and white colour scheme, thought
at the time to be typically Chinese, and Chinese flowered embroideries gave the important exotic touches to the interior of the Trianon. The vogue for chinoiserie spread from the
French courts to the rich merchant class; small pavilions in bourgeosie gardens became common as did oriental furniture and porcelain. The establishment of a Siamese embassy in Paris
in 1684 gave the French royal family further access to exquisite
Oriental work in gold, lacquer, embroidery and pottery. The extravagant receptions and parades for these exotic dignitaries
Honour, p. 55. 10 fired popular imagination and in the following years many mas• querades and theatrical productions celebrated the Siamese em• bassy and the Orient, in general.
Versailles, with its huge chinoiserie collection inspired other European monarchs to follow suit. An increasingly popular aspect of Chinoiserie in the late seventeenth and early eigh• teenth centuries was the use of lacquer in furniture, room panels and smaller objects. Chinese lacquer furniture became popular first, but then Japanese lacquer work, of a much higher quality, became the principal import into Europe. The demand for Japanese lacquer far outweighed the amount imported; how• ever, Dutch craftsmen managed to perfect a technique in the late seventeenth century which was hard to tell from the ori• ginal, employing a glossy surface delicately decorated with chinoiserie flowers, birds and scenes. This European lacquer process was called "japanning" to distinguish it from the real Japanese export lacquer. An English treatise on japanning written in 1688 describes in detail the lacquer process and includes designs for decoration. The designs are apparently based on authentic imported examples but the authors John
Stalker and George Parker do confess that "perhaps we have helped them a little in their-proportions where they were lame or defective, and made them more pleasant, yet altogether as
Antick." This attitude of adapting non-European designs and decoration for European tastes became even more prevalent in the mid-eighteenth century. The process gave rise to an
Honour, Chinoiserie, p. 73. eclectic style that did not distinguish clearly between Chinese
Japanese, Indian or Siamese influences, but rather amalgamated
various aspects from these countries in an often bizarre or
fanciful expression with modifications that would suit the ob•
ject to a European home of the period. With the increasingly
light-hearted and elegant treatment of decoration in the later
eighteenth century, the style of Chinoiserie acquired a further
dimension; the original imitation of Chinese scenes becomes
transformed into a frivolous, exaggerated and fantastic style.
The appearance of Chinese figures in a European landscape and monkeys in oriental costumes capering over harpsichord lids or ceilings and walls is commonplace in European roccoco chinoi
serie of the late eighteenth century. English roccoco chinoi•
serie is typified in the furniture of Thomas Chippendale, who
included japan work, lattices, fretwork and carved pieces with elaborate brackets and frames for his creations in the "Chinese
style. Regency chinoiserie in England, popular between 1800 and 18 30, resulted from the remodeling of the Royal Pavilion at Brighton. The extravagance and opulence of the decor made
it the most exotic oriental building in Europe. With the
Brighton Pavilion, the taste for fantastic and extravagant chinoiserie had reached its pinnacle; the craze for orientalism faded until the rediscovery of Japan in the late nineteenth century revived Europe's taste for the exotic. 12
Orientalism in Seventeenth and Eighteenth Century Music
The fashion for orientalism in architecture, painting and the decorative arts extended into music and was particularly noticeable in music written for court entertainments. In this age of patronage, composers were often asked to include some kind of Oriental dance, song or scene in their opera or dance suite. In Lully's Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme (1670), a Turkish ceremony was included at the request of Louise XIV for an entertainment containing a "turquerie". This comedy ballet, produced in collaboration with Moliere utilized large choruses, extended orchestral numbers and solo ensembles. The Turkish ceremony included in Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme was based on the ritual of reception of novices into the Mevlevi Dervish sect.
Lully employed Turkish words and phrases in the libretto, but stopped short of utilizing Turkish musical aspects; rather,- he used devices that he considered representative of Turkish music. Repeated G major chords in the Dervish dance were doubtlessly used to represent the monotonous, hypnotic charac• ter of the whirling dance ritual, (ex. 1)
Example 1
Lully, J.B. Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme, Dervish Dance, p. 89
Al . la, Al _ la, Al _ la, Al . la, Al - la, Al -
Al _ la, Al _ la, Al _ la, Al _ U, Al _• la, Al
Al _ la, Al _ la, Al _ la, Al - la, Al _ la, Al - The instruments used are not specific but are described as ' 7 various instruments "a la turkesque". Another French composer,
Rameau in his opera ballet Les Indes galantes (1735) included scenes of Turkey, Persia, Peru and "Les Sauvages" in his work, but apart from costuming and set design, very little interest was shown in the musical exploitation of these cultures. A tambourine is the only "exotic" instrument called for, and some attention is focused on the tetrachordal structure of the g music, perhaps reminiscent of Eastern scale structures. Other composers of the sixteenth, seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries used exotic effects in their operas and ballets but generally, these effects were stylized conceptions of the cul• ture represented. Such things as the use of primitive sounding harmonies (open fifths, fourths) use of rhythmic eccentricities to emphasize a grotesque effect, excessive chromaticism and repetition of chords or phrases often had some small authentic touch, but on the whole were well within the norms of Western
Baroque music. This synthesis of a European musical tradition with a stylized conception of Oriental music is entirely in keeping with the trend in painting, textiles and other decora• tive arts of the period.
The popularity of chinoiserie in the above fields is strongly reflected in the.music of Henry Purcell's The Fairy
Queen (1692). As an adaptation of Shakespeare's A Midsummer
Night's Dream, the Purcell masque included a strange addition 7 Miriam Whaples, Exoticism in Dramatic Music between 1600 and 1800. p. 98 8Ibid, p. 133 - a Chinese garden scene complete with characters dressed in
Chinese costumes singing "Chinese songs". The three "Chinese songs" contain no real orientalisms, other than the fact that they are sung by people in Chinese costume; the vocal line is entirely European, (ex. 2)
Example 2
Purcell, H.. The Fairy Queen 47 , p. 170
j
1n f r o r [Thus hap-pyandfree,Thus treat-ed are we.With Na-ture'schiefest de - lights;
1 III f :
However, later in the scene, a chaconne occurs which contains . . 9 a surprisingly angular and awkward bass line. Written by a master of thorough bass, the bass line appears to be a delib• erate attempt to portray primitivism, a common manner of ex-: pressing exotic music at the time. (ex..3)
Example 3
Purcell, H. The Fairy Queen 58 , p. 198
For a detailed discussion of this bass line see Whaples, p. 183. Although some authentic Chinese melodies were available to the
European composer through the published accounts of Father
Amiot's mission to China, the subtle music systems and melo• dies of China were never used in European attempts at portrayal of Chinese music. Rather, superficial devices, such as in• creased chromaticism, emphasis on the third relation, and use of minor keys became associated with the exotic music conven• tions of seventeenth and early eighteenth century European music.
In the later eighteenth and early nineteenth century the convention of exotic music most often employed was "Turkish music" which emphasized the use of the triangle, the bass- drum and cymbals. Gluck, in his opera comique La rencontre imprevue (1762), opens with a Turkish Overture, relying on instrumental colour for its oriental flavour and Mozart's opera Die Entfuhrung aus dem Seraglio (1782) is set against an oriental background in a Turkish castle. Mozart uses the instrumentation meant to be reminiscent, of Turkish music in the overture and, later in the opera, in" two Janizary choruses.
The piano sonata K. 331, has as its last movement a Rondo alia
Turca which relies on its rattling ornaments and ostinato- like bass line for its exotic connotations, (ex. 4)
Memoires sur la Musique Chinois. 1799. 16
Example 4
Mozart, Rondo Alia Turca, from Piano Sonata K. 331, 3rd movement
Beethoven employed Turkish music in his incidental music The
Ruins of Athens (1811) in a Turkish March and a Chorus of
Dervishes; again, conventional instrumental usage was largely responsible for the musical exoticism.
The attempts by Classical composers to introduce orien• talism into their operas or incidental music was completely within the mould of chinoiserie in the arts at a similar his• torical period. Orientalism in music, as in painting, archi• tecture and textiles represented the European vision of inter• pretation of Asian concepts. The basic principles were imitated and then infused with elaborate or even grotesque fantasies to present an :'idealized vision of the Orient. With the de• cline of interest in Asia, and its subsequent revival in the late nineteenth century, a new, more realistic perception of non-European culture began to evolve. Along with this increased emphasis on authenticity, an independent art concept emerges through the process of assimilation. This process, which is evident in the music of Benjamin Britten, in Curlew River, will be: further examined in subsequent pages. Japonaiserie in the Nineteenth Century
While interest in Oriental art concepts never completely waned in early nineteenth century Europe, Brighton Pavilion represented a bench-mark of the specific kind of opulent and fantastic passions for chinoiserie so widespread in earlier years. As the nadir of eclectisism in both its interior and exterior decoration, Brighton Pavilion could not be bettered.
After a period of disfavour, interest in chinoiserie revived with new precepts to govern its nature. Accuracy of detail and simplicity of design became the important aspects of art objects: excessive ornamentation and decorations of a whimsical or fantastic nature were unacceptable. Reaction against the excesses of earlier chinoiserie fostered an increased interest in Japanese objects. An important historical event also brought
Japan to Europe's notice at this time.. The isolation policy long maintained by Japan ended in 1853, when the American,
Commodore Perry forced trading concessions from the reluctant
Japanese. While Japanese porcelain and lacquer had been in• fluential in Europe since the sixteenth century, the new trade agreements made larger amounts of Japanese goods available in
Europe. Of all the wares exported from Japan, the woodblock prints had the most profound effect on European art. The composition and viewpoint of these prints were startling to people in the west, as was the presence of such emphatic line and silhouette. The Japanese techniques of diagonal or angular perspective, asymmetrical composition and colour-area meeting colour-area abruptly were soon adopted.by such artists as Van Gogh, Degas, Toulouse-Lautrec, Gaugin and Whistler creating a new European art concept. The Japanese influences became so totally absorbed into the French style of painting at the end of the nineteenth century, that specific devices became diffi• cult to isolate. While the seventeenth and eighteenth century craftsmen tended to approach oriental art concepts with a view to improving aspects through their own interpretation, the nineteenth century artist had a far more receptive and humble approach. Drawn to oriental art through the desire for sim- 1 plicity and authenticity, the later artist sought to master the essential principles of Chinese, and, most particularly,
Japanese art. The competent use of these principles coupled with contemporary western idioms led to the development of a completely autonomous art style, free from the pastiche ten• dency of earlier chinoiserie. The cultural influence of the
Orient became so absorbed into western art approaches that the concepts were complete and irreversible.
Orientalism in Nineteenth Century Music
In keeping with the trend towards the authentic utiliza• tion of Oriental attributes, the first production of Gilbert and Sullivan's The Mikado (1885) was meticulously accurate.
Experts in Japanese culture advised on the correct make-up, postures, walking and opening and closing a fan."''"'' In the music, there are some instances of orientalism, although generally it is western, English and Gilbert and Sullivan.
Audrey: Williamson. •. Gilbert and Sullivan Opera, Rockcliff Publishing, London, 1953. p. 142. The orchestration of the Overture emphasizes the woodwinds
and percussion, recalling sounds of traditional Japanese
music. The male chorus which opens after the overture sings a
melody based on a pentatonic scale, (ex.5)
Example 5
Gilbert and Sullivan, The Mikado, Act I, Opening Chorus
— -- —*-
i ffi. n i Ml Hf if f f f P —rr —>-\.11 i ' - 0 1
- PO-r\ On
Authentic usage of a Japanese musical idiom comes in Act II at
the entrance of the Mikado. Here Sullivan uses a battle
march of the Japanese Imperial Army from 186 8, employing both
melody and words, (ex.6)
0 Example 6
Gilbert and Sullivan, The Mikado, Act II, Mikado's entrance
\ 1 1 1 i- 1 I —* \—\—\- Mr 4 1 A * o -4 0 tt ) o? r i 1 ' 1 '* ' ' Pi.-*-*- fe-V*.
1 > 1 1 Ml —o
These instances of orientalism, some more authentic than others,
are largely outweighed by the atmosphere of fantasy in The 20
Mikado. The characters and setting are superficially Japanese, having in essence little to do with any real situation. The quality of "Japanese-ness" in The Mikado is really embroidery on a very English ambiance; the use of madrigals and glees in the music, the libretto (e.g. "Here's a pretty how-de-do,"
"Three little maids" and "The flowers that bloom in the spring") and the characterizations are completely within the tradition of English comic opera.
Claude Debussy, in his quest for an emancipation of the contemporary tonal system and in his fascination for colour effects was much taken with the Javanese gamelan orchestra which played daily at the Paris World Exposition in 1889. The percussive sounds and rhythmic complexities of this exotic group drew Debussy back day after day to listen with other excited 12 admirers. Of particular interest to Debussy was the ability of Javanese music "to express every shade of music, even un• mentionable shades, and which make our tonic and dominant seem 13 like ghosts." The subtlety and nuance of the Indonesian ensemble is evoked in at least three of Debussy's works:
"Pagodes" from Estampes (1903), "Et la lune descend sur le temple qui fut" from Images for Piano, Second Series (1907) and
"La terrasse des audiences au clair de lune" from Preludes,
Book II (1910-1913). Innovative use of percussion and gong effects may be seen in the following example: (ex.7) 12 Edward Lockspeiser. Debussy: His Life and Mind, Vol. I, 1862-1902. Cambridge University Press, 1962, p. 114. 13 Ibid., p. 115. 21
Example 7
Debussy, "Feux d1 artifice", Preludes, Book II, p. 70
Debussy's interest in whole-tone and pentatonic scales may
have resulted from his experiences either with the Javanese
gamelan or with the Chinese theatrical troupe that was also in
Paris in the 1890's. Debussy's scale structures are not Asian
in the strict sense, nor are his colour effects derived from
the gamelan. The presence of these exotic elements is tempered
by Debussy's own sophisticated and creative style of composition 14 and becomes evocative rather than specific.
Some interesting points are raised in an article en• titled "Pentatonicism in Debussy's Music" by Constantin Brailoiu in Studia Memoriae Bela Bartok Sacra, Budapest, 1956. Of particular note is M. Brailoiu's discussion of treatment of the orchestra of La Mer as a gamelan stylise, p.423.
\ 22
Giacomo Puccini, in three operas containing non-western
musical elements, strove for authenticity in a more specific 15
way than Debussy. Two operas containing orientalisms,
Madama Butterfly (1904) and Turandot (1926) use.Japanese and
Chinese musical idioms in some innovative ways. Often Puccini
directly quotes an authentic Japanese or Chinese tune (four 16
melodies in Butterfly and three in Turandot). The following
examples show one original tune and its implementation in
Madama Butterfly, (ex. 8,9) Example 8
"Ninon-Bashi", from Nippon Gakufu, ed. Dietrich, Leipzig, 1894
1 p* (If f C MU { C I It f\ ] ff I J* jl
iJMosco Carner in his article, "The Exotic Element in Puccini" in The Musical Quarterly, XXII, (1936), pp.45-67, con• siders that the Girl of the Golden West (1910) contains Orientalisms. Due, however, to the more specific definition of "orientalism" in this thesis, I have chosen to exclude this example. 16 1 Mosco Carner in his book Puccini (1910) and in an earlier article "The Exotic Element in Puccini" discusses Puccini's utilization of original Japanese and Chinese melodies at length. 23
Example 9
Puccini, Madama Butterfly, Act I, nine measures after 87
(Le amiche fcstcffirlano Butterfly, ehe ne bacla qualcuna: intanlo PUfftclalo dcllo Siato Civile ritira I'allo e lo a lire carte, poi avrerte II CommlB*»rlo Imperlale ehe tulto e flnito).
Viol.
V-lc
animando rail, f
Secondly, Puccini removes motives from authentic melodies and either varies them or fits them together into a new melodic curve based on a pentatonic scale system. An excellent example of this assimilation of non-western elements into a new, and personal statement can be.seen in the Boys' Chorus in Turandot,
Act I, m. 19. Here Puccini uses motives from a Chinese Imperial 17
Hymn and a Confucian hymn, combining and extending the frag• ments into an organic whole.
The flavour throughout these new melodies is pentatonic owing to the origin of the passages. However, these pentatonic melodies are harmonized in traditional western methods, with the occasional addition of some "exotic" characteristics such as a drone bass, or an ostinato pattern used in a harmonic sense. Parallel chords in Butterfly and Turandot are prominent
17 Mosco Carner, "The Exotic Element in Puccini", pg.53. also. Puccini had consulted recordings and some transcriptions 18 before writing these two operas and. had clearly interpreted what he heard as a harmonic manifestation. The fact that
Chinese and Japanese music have no harmonic basis but are monophonic systems, obviously did not concern Puccini who translated ornamentations and fixed tones as harmony.
Other exotic touches such as polyrhythms and, especially, instrumentation give further oriental flavour to Puccini1s scores. Polyrhythms reminiscent of the Javanese gamelan orchestra, Chinese and Japanese percussion instruments, and unusual combinations of groups and timbre heighten the exotic impressions made by the subject matter of the operas.
Puccini's usage of oriental idioms is innovative and successful; his attempts at authenticity are only hampered by the contem• porary state of knowledge of the Orient. His purpose was not to imitate Oriental music, but to assimilate concepts into his own personal statement. This process resulted in an individual and independent style of composition, a process that Benjamin
Britten also used in Curlew River.
Summary > .
From the foregoing discussion of orientalism in the arts, some general observations can be made. Early impressions of the Orient were largely based on travellers' tales which were usually a generous mixture of fact and fiction. From these stories and a few genuine art facts, a vision of the Orient became firmly established in the European mind. Using this
Ibid., pg.46. vision as a basis, an imitative process began in the arts which first tried to copy, in European terms, the fundamentals seen in Oriental objects - colours, lacquer techniques, tex• tile manufacturing, and pottery glazes. In music, masques and ballets included Oriental scenes which relied mainly on costuming and set design for exotic touches, but which also had a few attempts at imitation in musical terms. With style changes throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries a more capricious and fantastic elegance became sought after; the European vision of the Orient became more distorted. This was reflected in the "Turkish" music, of the eighteenth century, music which had little real connection with Turkish music, but rather relied on the European musical conventions of the day for its Turkish connotation. In the nineteenth century, with the expansion of political horizons, a clearer view of the
Orient became available; as a consequence, authenticity was highly desireable in painting, the decorative,arts and music.
With an emphasis on simplicity and line, nineteenth century painters adapted Japanese wood-block techniques, assimilating them into an entirely different and independent art style.
Some composers utilized authentic Oriental melodies, instru• ments, scales and words in their works. Romantic opera was the most usual vehicle for this increased interest in China and Japan, while orchestral and piano music of the Impression• ists contained many effects and devices influenced by the
Javanese gamelan orchestra. The actual authenticity of techniques was tempered by the individual style of the artist, who was attempting to expand the horizons of his own art form rather than to imitate exactly the artistic concepts of the
East. This same spirit is perpetuated in the twentieth cen• tury by many composers and artists; Benjamin Britten's Curlew
River provides rich material for a detailed inquiry into the changing and expanding role of orientalism. CHAPTER II
DRAMATIC AND FORMAL ELEMENTS;
ASSOCIATION WITH JAPANESE NOH-DRAMA
The dramatic elements of Britten's Curlew River closely
follow those of its Japanese prototype Sumidagawa. The
libretto from the Japanese Noh-drama has been adapted by
William Plomer, with great respect for the original characters,
language, and atmosphere of the play. In many parts the
translation1 and Plomer*s adaptation coincide almost word-for-
word. (ex.1)
Example 1
Sumidagawa Curlew River
FERRYMAN: They are holding a FERRYMAN: (stopping poling) solemn memorial service con• Today is an important day, nected with a sad tale which the people are assembling I shall tell you while the in memory of a sad event. boat is crossing to the other I will tell you the side. story. It happened last year, on the It happened on this very fifteenth of the third month; day a year ago. There was yes, and this is the very day a stranger in my boat, a on which it happened. A slave- Northman, a foreigner, a trader was on his way to the big man armed with a sword North-east, taking along with and a cudgel. He was on him a boy he had bought - a his way to take ship to tender lad some twelve years the North-land, (poles old. once) And not alone. Wearied out by the unaccustomed There was a boy with him, hardships of the road, the boy a gentle boy, twelve years was seized with a mortal ill• old maybe, and a Christian ness. He was so weak, he said The Heathen said he'd he could not drag himself a bought him as a slave. step further, and lay down on The boy said nothing. I
The translation used for the purposes of this thesis i found in Japanese Noh Drama, 3 Vols, prepared by the Japanese Classics Translation Committee and special Noh committee of the Nippon Gakujutsu Shinkokai. Tokyo, 1955-1960. 28
the bank. What heartless could see he was ill — men there are in this world! unused to travelling rough, The slaver abandoned the boy (poles once) Poor child. by the roadside and went on When we had crossed the his way. river, he said he was too weak to walk, and down he lay on the grass near the chapel. (poles once) The Heathen threatened him, swore at him, struck him. He was a man without a heart, and we feared he would kill the boy, but » he left the boy where he was, and went on his way. Xpoles twice)
The setting, however, is a major change from the original Noh- drama to Britten's church parable: this change from medieval
Japan to medieval England allows an extra dramatic dimension to be added, that of the medieval mystery play. The chorus of monks, led by an Abbot, is an element borrowed from the morality play and used so effectively by Britten, not only in a traditional didactic role, but as commentators on and guides to the play's action. Most of the chorus's dialogue is added to the original story line, a fact which expands the importance of the role of the chorus and gives a different dramatic balance to Curlew River. The chorus becomes the point of contact between the audience and the major characters, making Curlew River a more accessible vehicle to a Western audience than its Noh-drama counterpart. The highly stylized and restrained atmosphere of the Noh is diluted by the use of the chorus in Curlew River which steps back and forth from its role as commentator to being part of the cast as pilgrims.
The chorus supplies background facts for the audience as well as religious allusions and teachings. Because of the in• creased responsibilities and functions of the Chorus in Curlew
River, the group becomes one of the focal points of the parable.
The opening exhortation section sung by the chorus of the Abbot and Monks in Curlew River has no counterpart in the original libretto. An introductory section such as this is unnecessary in a Noh-drama libretto, as it is generally assumed that the playgoer is familiar, with the basic themes and subsequent 2 conflicts of the Noh-drama repertoire.
The particularly static quality of the Noh-drama, stemming from its relationship to Zen Buddhism, can be a difficult 3 barrier to the Western Audience; therefore, in Curlew River, the dramatic action is intensified through an expansion of libretto throughout the parable. A look at a section of the two dramas, side by side will clearly illustrate this change,
(ex. 2)
2 While over two hundred Noh-dramas are known to exist, there are only five basic kinds of Noh; these plays involve either the figure of a god, a warrior, a woman, a madwoman (or other designated miscellaneous characters) and a devil. 3 This relationship is explained in the theoretical writings of Zeami (1363-1443). His work The Twenty-Three Treatises of Zeami explains that contemplation, inner tranquility and ascetic simplicity, so important to Zen Buddhism are very influential on the Noh-drama. As a consequence, an immensely subtle art-form evolves, dependent upon implication, symbolism, arid economy of means. 30
Example 2
Sumidagawa Curlew River
(The voice of the madwoman is heard off) MADWOMAN: You mock me, you ask me whither I go, whither I go FERRYMAN: May I ask, did you see who it is that is singing? MADWOMAN: You mock me! You ask me! How should I, how should I know? TRAVELLER: TRAVELLER: It is a crazy woman from Yes, the people were Miyako and people are watching a woman in the amused by her mad dancing. road who seems to be crazy. They say she comes from the Black Mountain. MADWOMAN: Where the nest of the curlew is not filled with snow, where the eyes of the lamb are untorn by the crow, the carrion crow. TRAVELLER: The people were amused when they heard her singing they all began laughing. MADWOMAN: There let me, there let me go! TRAVELLER: (as the Madwoman comes into view) She is coming this way. FERRYMAN: FERRYMAN: Then I will delay the ferry• I will delay the ferry-boat. boat for a while and wait I will wait for the mad• for the mad creature. woman . MADWOMAN: (her voice cutting in on the Ferryman's) Let me in! FERRYMAN: I should like to see her. MADWOMAN: Let me out! Tell me the, tell me the way! 31
FERRYMAN, TRAVELLER, ABBOT, PILGRIMS: (Chattering freely in two parts, but in an undertone) She is coming this way! We will wait for the madwoman. MADWOMAN: Let me in! Let me out! How can you, how can you say... FERRYMAN, TRAVELLER, ABBOT, PILGRIMS: (as before) We will delay the ferry• boat! We wish to see her. MADWOMAN: ...why thepoint of an arrow divideth the day? Why to live is to warm .an image of clay dark as the day?
This change shows differing aspects of dramatic intensity,
concepts of individual roles and merging of two cultural ideals.
First, it should be realized that the actual time lapse for the
performance of the example of Sumidagawa would be at least as
long and probably considerably longer than the performance of
this part of Curlew River. Vocal lines in the Noh-drama are
greatly extended, often highly ornamented and repeated. Move• ment is slow and studied; a single simple gesture alludes to a
complex concept or action. The emphasis in the Noh on the
significance of the single movement as it is expressed in
restrained musical, dramatic and literary terms is a basic
characteristic of the Noh. The striving for economy of
artistic means in the Noh results in a highly integrated art form which relies heavily on, literary and dramatic allusion.4
The cultural importance of restraint and allusion is not as great in European dramatic works, and Britten's church parable tends to be explicit and straightforward in dramatic intent.
So while the plot and characters from Sumidagawa are trans• posed almost literally to Curlew River, the treatment of the libretto in the church parable accounts, to a large degree, for the increased activity onstage.
. In two specific instances, an interesting and noteworthy . amalgam of cultural ideals occurs, creating an original dramatic concept. The two instances concern the staging - stage and set design, costumes and actions - and the overall dramatic structure of the play. The first aspect is one of visual attribute, which, when studying the two works, becomes the most obvious basis for comparison. Britten was clearly struck by the simplicity of the Japanese Noh-drama stage which consists of a highly polished wooden area built out into the audience section, surrounded by narrow strip of pebbles. The entrance to the stage is a covered bridge over which pass the actors. The stage itself is usually bare, decorated only with a painted stylized pinetree as a backdrop. The Curlew River stage set evokes the sparseness of the Noh stage; three concentric circular areas of different polished woods form the
The art of allusion in all aspects of the Noh - literary, dramatic, musical, and decorative - was highly re• fined and designed to appeal to the literati and educated nobl in the audience. stage area, with two crossed poles, representing the mast and crossbar of the ship being the single decoration. The outer and largest circle begins as a ramp from the offstage
area; the steps up to this ramp are screened from the audience by a "masking screen". This screened area before the ramp is
similar to the "mirror room" of the Noh drama, where the prep• aration ritual for actors and musicians takes place. The outer ramp of graduated steps terminates in a seating area for
the musicians. The middle circle is the main stage, used as
the boat; the raised inner circle made of highly polished wood
is used only by the three protagonists and the Abbot and is used to represent the shore. The heavy carved wooden canopy
that traditionally covers the Noh stage is not present in the
stage plans for Curlew River; this is probably a deliberate omission. The Noh stage is carefully preserved as a separate
domain from the audience in order that the performance may
transcend the immediacy of the surroundings to create a solemn and almost mystical experience. The gravelled area, formerly where "groundlings" sat between the nobles and the stage,
and the huge wooden carved roof serve to keep the stage a
rather mysterious and remote distance from the Noh audience.
Curlew River depends far more on audience involvement in the unfolding of the drama; the chorus, as seen earlier, is the primary instrument in this interaction. The accessibility of
the chorus to the audience is enhanced by the proximity of
the stage to the audience. The stage, in its circular form, allows a kind of dramatic action in-the-round, with the principals playing to various sides of the circle as points 5 of the compass. Further, the first entry of the company begins with a procession up the main aisle of the church, a familiar experience to the churchgoer; the stage is approached by proceeding through the audience (or congregation) to ascend the stage from downstage rather than from backstage. With the general idea of the Noh stage in mind, the observer can appreciate the similarities in staging the two productions; but, more importantly, the strong cultural aspects of the medieval mystery play and subsequent European drama are deftly incorporated into the Asian model to create a unique form. While the spectator is presented with the unfamiliar Noh theatrical conventions, he can easily accept the concept, as it is tempered with dramatic conventions of his own culture. The solemnity and restraint so characteristic of the Noh-drama is present in Curlew River, but the remote, ritual quality is lessened by specifically European dramatic devices. The amalgamation of staging principles discussed here is only one of many cultural exchanges that will be found in Britten's
Curlew River. Costuming directions for Curlew River are quite specific. While the company all wears a medieval religious habit, the three protagonists use the under-cassock as the basis for
Colin Graham. Production Notes and Remarks on the Style of Performing Curlew River, part of Rehearsal Score of Curlew River, p.4. their costume and adorn it with additional "ceremonial" robes.
The use of the word "ceremonial" in the production notes is interesting as it suggests the kind of symbolic robes worn in the Noh-drama by specific characters. And indeed, if one compares the relevant drawings and details of costuming for the two kinds of play, one is struck by the Noh-drama symbolism present in the Curlew River costumes, (fig. 1,2,3) The examples are taken from the production notes of Curlew River, and from Keene's No, the Classical Theatre of Japan. The
Curlew River costumes never look Japanese, but the costuming principles are the same; a plain undergown with an outer robe is worn to symbolize the character's dignity and function in the play.^ Masks are also worn by the three protagonists in
Britten's parable; the use of masks is directly attributable to the Noh-drama and is influential in imparting the quality of solemn ritual evident in Curlew River. The protagonists are unable to express emotion with their eyes or faces and must rely on symbolic gestures to represent their emotions. The hands, head or body are used in certain ritualistic gestures throughout the parable in carefully-rehearsed and formal move• ments. The masks and the ritualistic acting they impose serve to remove the main characters from the more functional milieu of the Abbot and the monks, creating another interesting juxtaposition of Eastern and Western cultural ideals. The
Specific colours and styles of headgear, sashes, cloaks and undergowns are used in the Noh to depict a character1 station or function in life. Broadly speaking, much of this symbolism is present in the costuming for Curlew River. 36
Costume Examples
Noh-drama Curlew River )
Figure 1
Man dressed for working Ferryman Mizugoromo (cloak) worn over Kimono
Figure 2
Mad woman or woman dressed Madwoman for working karaori (kimono); ordinary female mask
Figure 3
Man. in traveling clothes Traveller suo (cloak); okuchi (skirt) 37
staging of Curlew River and all that is involved in that
function - the style of the stage plan, the costuming and
actions - is meticulously outlined in the Production Notes.
An interesting note to consider, in light of the previous
discussion, is Colin Graham's direction that Curlew River
"although suggested by the Japanese No theatre, created a 7
convention of movement and presentation of its own." With
the wealth of cultural detail involved in the production, amal•
gamated from two differing theatrical conventions, Curlew
River is a remarkable example of the utilization of already
successful techniques into an innovative and unique art form.
One of the most complex aspects of Britten's church
parable is the dramatic structure of Curlew River, and how it
coincides with the structure of Sumidagawa. At first glance,
it is apparent that the libretto for Curlew River is directly
evolved from Sumidagawa, often being reproduced word-for-word.
With this fact in mind, it would also seem apparent that the overall dramatic structure and dramatic intent could coincide
in the two works. What is not as readily apparent, however, is
the quality of saturation of Noh-drama techniques inherent in
Curlew River. In order to examine this phenomenon, a basic review of dramatic structure in the Noh is necessary.
The dramatic criteria of the Noh differs greatly from traditional Western dramatic expectations. There is no conflict
7P. 3. 38 involved between characters, only a protagonist with some secondary characters who observe the action. No distinctive personality or finely drawn character evolves from the pro• tagonist. Rather the main actor or the shite represents a powerful emotion such as jealousy, remorse or unforgiving emnity. The waki, or secondary actor, and any tsure (com• panions to the shite) merely mirror any concerns the audience may have; that is, they elucidate by questioning or by explana• tion certain actions or events concerning the shite. Physical action, as has been previously discussed, is limited to formal and symbolic gestures. The dance sections of a Noh-drama are rarely athletic and contain no flamboyant steps; rather, the movements express the texts in a dignified and assured manner, epitomizing an emotion in symbolic communication. The inclusion of music in the Noh-drama would suggest to a Westerner an operatic concept, but this idea would be misleading. While the music of the Noh is absolutely necessary, and a vital part of the whole production, it is so integrated into the drama that to consider the music independently from the text is impossible. The music, whether vocal or instrumental, is > completely bound to the text and together forms a unitT which cannot be broken to be performed independently. For study purposes, of course, texts can be examined as literature, and melodic and rhythmic cells can be analyzed, but the music is through-composed and springs completely from the text; thus, no operatic concept of drama as music exists in the Noh-drama.
The Noh-drama has therefore been defined., as "a dramatic poem concerned with remote or supernatural events, performed by
a dancer, often masked, who shares with lesser personages and 8
a chorus the singing and declamation of the poetry.
The Noh-drama libretto is divided into three main parts which dictate the style of music and poetry to be used. These
three sections - jjo, ha and kyu relate to philosophical and
structural principles found in other types of Japanese music
as well. The function of the jo_ section is introductory, the
ha section is the middle and major section, and the kyu
section is a closing section. The sections can be viewed in
both literary and musical terms as a shift from a quiet and
slow mood, to a mood of intensification, to a dramatically 9
short and musically swift closing section. The three sections
are further divided into dan,, one dan in the j°. section,
generally three dan in the ha section, and a final dan in the
kyu section. The dan in each of the sections must contain a
prescribed type of literary dramatic and musical content.
The structure and musical style of the Noh-drama are discussed
at length in articles by Minawaga^ and Teele.An extremely
eDonald Keene. No, the Classical Theatre of Japan, Tokyo, 1966. p.25. 9 Professor Roy Teele points out in a paper entitled "The Structure of the Japanese Noh Play" that the ha section should not be viewed as a development section where the com• plexity of the play increases. ^Tatsuo Minawaga.- "Japanese Noh Music", Journal of the American Musicological Society X, 1957. pp.181-200. 11Roy Teele. "The Structure of the Japanese Noh Play" in Chinese and Japanese Music-Dramas, 1975. p. 189. 40 useful table from Minawaga's article can be reproduced here outlining the construction and musical style of a typical
Noh-drama.
Table I
(Before the beginning of the Noh proper: Entrance of chorus and instrumentalists)
I. First Part A. Entrance of the second actor (waki) and his attendants 1. Entrance music (Shidai, Issei, or Nanori-Bue) by instrumentalists 2. Entrance song (Shidai or Issei) of the second actor and his attendants (omitted if Nanori-Bue is played as item 1) Shidai in fixed-rhythm, higher melodic style poem of two lw-syllable lines followed by a line of 11 syllables, each with a caesura after the seventh syllable; simple, without rich ornamentation; repeated by chorus in low voice or Issei in free-rhythm, rich melodic style; poem consisting of a 17-syllable line, with caesuras after syllables 5 and 7, and a 12-syllable line, with a caesura after syllable 7. 3. Self-introduction (Nanori) by the second actor; in speech style 4. Travel song (Michi-Yuki)of the second actor and his attendants; in fixed rhythm, higher melodic style 5. Arrival of the second actor at a certain place (Tsuki-Zerifu); in speech style
B. Entrance of the first actor (shite) and his'attendants 1. Entrance music (Issei or Shidai) by instrumenta• lists 2. Entrance song (Issei or Shidai or Yobi-Kake) of the first actor and his attendant
vIssei in free-rhythm, rich melodic style (cf.l A 2 or Shidai in fixed-rhythm, higher melodic style (cf. 1 A 2) or Yobi-Kake, a call from the distance in speech style 41
3. Tri-sectional descriptive or lyrical passage for the first actor and his attendants Recitative (Sashi) Song in low pitch (Sage-Uta; pronounced Sahgay, etc.) in fixed-rhythm, lower melodic style; usually 2 to 3 lines Song in high pitch (age-Uta) in fixed-rhythm, higher melodic style; usually in 5 to 8 lines
C. Dialogue between the first and second actors Dialogue (Mondi) in speech style Narrative (Katari) in speech style Preliminary Recitative (Kakari) Recitative (Sashi) (cf. 1 B 3) Reading of a letter (Fumi) in recitative style; usually in Yowa Lament (Kudoki) in recitative style; in Yowa; begins on Chu (Middle)
D. Explanation and development of the subject by the first actor and chorus Sage-Uta in fixed-rhythm, lower melodic style (cf.1 B 3) Age-Uta in fixed rhythm, higher melodic style (cf.1 B 3) Shidai in fixed-rhythm, higher melodic style (cf.1 A 2) Kuri in free-rhythm, rich melodic style; frequent use of the pattern named Kuri, ends in Ge (Low) through Hon-Yuri cadence Sashi (cf. 1 B 3) Kuse (name borrowed from a pre-Noh dance); consists of three sections, the first and second being in fixed-rhythm, lower melodic style, and the third being in fixed-rhythm, higher melodic style; except for the first line of the third section, sung by chorus
E. The close of the first section: dialogue between the first actor and chorus Discussion (Rongi) in fixed-rhythm, higher melodic style; in response form
F. Instrumental exit music (Rai-Jo or Haya-Tsuzumi, etc.) of the first actor and his attendants
II. Interlude (Ai-Kyogen) Dialogue between the second actor and the comedian; new explanation of the same subject by the comedian; in speech style 42 III Second Part
A. Waiting song (Machi-Utai) of the second actor and his attendants in expectation of the reappearance of the first actor; in fixed-rhythm, higher melodic style
B. Reappearance of the first actor 1. Entrance music by instrumentalists (Issei, Deha, Sagariha, Haya-Fue, or Obuti, etc.) 2. Entrance song (Issei) of the first actor; in free-rhythm, rich melodic style (cf. 1 A 2)
C. Dialogue of the first actor, second actor and chorus
D. Dance by the first actor to instrumental music (Mai, Gaku, or Hataraki-Gote, etc.)
E. Conclusion (Nori-Ji, Kiri, or Chu-Nori-Ji) Nori-Ji in 0-Nori rhythm; usually employed if the play deals with the supernatural, but not with warriors; colorful melodic contours or Kiri in Hira-Nori rhythm; usually employed if the play deals neither with the supernatural nor with warriors or Chu-Nori-Ji in Chu-Nori rhythm; usually employed if the play deals with warriors
(After the conclusion of the Noh proper: Exit of the first actor Exit of the second actor, chorus and instrumentalists)
With the construction of the Noh-drama in mind, it is revealing
to study the construction of Curlew River. What becomes appar•
ent is that not only has Britten adopted the overall tripartite
construction (jo-ha-kyu) and the five smaller divisions (dan), but, as often as possible the components of musical style are
comparable. The musical style of Curlew River is, of course,
Western and, more importantly, completely Britten's, but in
aspects such as the use of recitative, fixed rhythms, instru• mental interludes, songs containing speech elements or melodic
elements and tessitura, there is regular coincidence in the
two plays. A table denoting these coincidences follows: TABLE II
Coincidence of Non-drama Structure and Curlew River.
Noh Structure and musical type Character Bar No. Dramatic and Musical Characteristics Chorus (lj Chart - Te Lucis-Processional- instrumentalists to places Abbot 1 Address to audience (congregation) Prologue - Chorus 4 Exhortation to congregation Mystery Play
JO 1st dan Orchestra ) Te Lucis Fantasy: general entrance music - (3 chorus prepares for the play Ferryman 8 Entrance music - chromatic motif - secondary actor (waki) nanori Self-introduction - in speech style shidai Traveller 13 Entrance music - fixed rhythm - "trudging": motif (waki-tzure) J - melodic style nanori 14 Self-introduction - michi-y.uki Travel song - fixed rhythm - melodic style tzuki-zerifu 17 Arrival at ferry
Bar numbers are written in two ways; either they are enclosed in a square box, which is Britten's numbering system, or they are enclosed in a circle, which is Colin Graham's system for production purposes. Both systems are used in this table.
OJ Noh Structure and musical type Character • Bar No, Dramatic and Musical Characteristics
HA 2nd dan Madwoman
(shite) 19 Entrance music - first actor issei 20 Entrance song - call from distance yobi-kake speech style - jagged leaps characterizes madness
21 Appearance of Madwoman
Tri-sectional passage sashi a) recitative sageuta Chorus 26 b) song - fixed rhythm - lower melodic style (simple) "She Wanders Raving" - low tessitura kakeri dance Madwoman 27 interrupts song
sageuta Chorus 30 c) continuation of song, ostinato accompaniment, low tessitura, simple melodic style. Noh Structure and musical type Character Bar No. Dramatic and Musical Characteristics
3rd dan
katari Madwoman 33 narrative in speech style "Near the Black Mountains
sageuta Chorus 37 return of 26
kakari Traveller preliminary recitative
mondo Ferryman 39 dialogue between first and second actor Madwoman
sashi Madwoman 45 recitative "Ignorant Man"
kudoki *46i lament - 3 part structure "Birds of the Fenland" - A - lyrical, fixed accompaniment pattern - B - contrasting, short phrases, jagged i leaps - dialogue - A - return of lyricism, canonic choral treatment - Coda - chorus 4 9 shidai Ferryman - return of secondary actors motif and entrance song. "571 Noh Structure and musical type Character Bar No Dramatic and Musical Characteristics
4th dan hayashi interlude 55
sageuta Chorus 56 song (a) low pitch - register (b) higher melodic style (c) fixed rhythm (accompaniment figure)
shidai Ferryman 58 explanation of subject matter (a) fixed rhythm (accompaniment figure) (b) higher melodic style —^ ,(c) repeated by chorus in low voice-d.32 136) (.38)
sageuta Chorus 69 return of choral song
sashi Ferryman 70 recitative Madwoman mondo 72 Ferryman dialogue between first and second actors kuri Madwoman 75 aria - three part high point of play highest note of play Ferryman 79 discussion - speech style - Ferryman, Traveller Traveller - melodic style Chorus Chorus transition to closing of section rongi Chorus 80 closing discussion between first actor and chorus Ferryman - canonic exchange - melodic style - Ferryman, Traveller Traveller, Chorus Madwoman 81 recitative - Madwoman mondo Ferryman "86" - return of dialogue between 1st and second actors Madwoman - speech style Noh Structure and musical type Character Bar No, Dramatic and Musical Characteristics
KYU 5th dan Chorus 87 - transition to waiting song Ferryman - melodic style Traveller machi-uta Abbot & Chorus! 88 waiting song - "Custodes Hominum" [medieval mystery Ferryman play]. Traveller decorated by recitative patterns from Ferryman and Chorus. and "Curlew" motif from Madwoman - entrance music for Spirit - flute — issei Spirit 90 - entrance song - combined with dialogue between 1st and 2nd actors and chorus
mai Spirit 94 - dance of spirit to instrumental music thematic material from "Clear as a Sky" 27 nori-ji Spirit 96 - final high range song - colorful melodic contours kiri Chorus - choral "Amen"
Orchestra 97 Te Lucis Fantasy: exit music for protagonists Abbot 98 Address to congregation - speech style Epilogue - medieval Chorus Exhortation to congregation mystery Chorus lod Recessional - Te Lucis - chant - Monks play - Orchestral exit. In interpreting Table II, three factors must be examined; these include the framework of Curlew River, the role of the Chorus, and the treatment of the formal structure of the Noh- drama. The framework of Curlew River, that is the prologue and epilogue, is the most specific manifestation of the medieval mystery play in the church parable. While the Abbot and the chorus of Monks regularly appear throughout the parable, their most purposeful role is found in the opening and closing of the drama. The introduction of the mystery play aspect is not complex, as it is constructed in a simple arch form. The structure of the prologue and the epilogue is very similar, although reversed; the Christian intent of the Abbot and Monks is evident in their use of ancient chant and in their exhor• tation to the congregation. The use of the orchestra, both musically and dramatically, at bars (lo) and 9 7 provides the link between the morality play and the Noh-drama, through the transforming of the procession of monks into actors and members of the hayashi ensemble (the Noh orchestra). Within the framework of the prologue and epilogue, the church parable proceeds systematically through the Noh-drama structure. How- ever, this structure is so effectively integrated into Western musical idioms that it is only close scrutiny which reveals Britten's formal principles.
The Chorus has a more important role in Curlew River than the chorus in the Noh-drama. The Noh chorus takes no part in the action of the play and has no identity; it exists merely to recite for the actors, particularly when they are dancing.
The chorus in Britten's parable, however, acts as an interpreter for or an intermediary between the audience and the protagonists.
They constantly explain the setting "Between two kingdoms" (bar
), reiterate a character's purpose "Far, far northward he must go" (bar 15 ) ^.reinforce climactic moments "She was his mother" (bar 74 ) or action "Ah, Ferryman, row your ferry boat" (bar As well as their supportive role in the drama, the chorus often emerges to take a major musical role, singing such important musical sections as "She Wanders Raving"
(bar 26 ), "Dew on the Grass" (bar 30 ) and the largest choral section "The moon is risen" followed by "Custodes hominum"
(bar 87 ffg.). The Curlew River chorus has a viable existence in the church parable, propelling the action by musical means; this operatic usage of the chorus is, of course, entirely
Western in its concept.
By far the most complex factor in the dramatic structure of
Curlew River is the extent to which Benjamin Britten uses the formal structure of the Noh-drama. Not only does the church parable coincide structurally with the Noh-drama in the large divisions of jo-ha-kyu, but it follows fastidiously the more detailed formal aspects as well. Using the Minawaga table, it is possible to divide Curlew River into the five dan found in a Noh-drama, and further, to match characters and their specific song types. While much of this coincidence is a factor of the libretto and the actions in which a specific character is engaged, other similarities show Britten to be more than 50 merely intuitive about the Noh-drama musical idioms. An illus• tration of the ingenious methods of Britten's integration of two cultures' musical idioms may be seen beginning with the entrance of the Madwoman or the shite (Noh-drama first actor).
The first indication of the Madwoman's presence comes at 19 with a flute motif; the ha section and the second dan also begin at this point. The Madwoman then sings her entrance song (yobi-kake) from offstage which is based on the flute motif with the addition of a jagged tritone leap. Her entrance song is in a speech style, her madness proclaimed by the al• ternate leaping tritones and the agitated inward-turning flute motif. With the onstage appearance of the Madwoman at 21 the entrance song is repeated as an extended second stanza.
This extension, effected by repetition of phrases, changes the musical emphasis from loosely organized phrases to the more deliberate recitative which precedes the choral song at 26 and 3 0 . The first section of the choral song "She wanders raving -" is very short, in a low register, and is melodically simple; it reappears in the third dan at 37 , and, as earlier, is rhythmically exact. This song can be called a sageuta in
Noh terms, for it matches the specifications of tessitura, rhythm and melody. In real terms of course, this sageuta from
Sumidagwa would sound entirely different from a Curlew River song. It is impossible to compare the songs on the basis of tonal, melodic, and rhythmic systems because the cultural impet• us is not the same; however, within the two cultural milieus, relative criteria such as low pitch, lower melodic style and fixed-rhythm have some validity for comparative purposes.
Interrupting the sageuta at 27 is the Madwoman's dance which corresponds to a kakeri dance in the Noh-drama; this short and simple dance usually accompanies the shite's ex• pression of her tortured mind. This same purpose is evident in this passage of Curlew River, as the Madwoman drifts in and out of reality while she "simulates a gentle and graceful 13 30 , the chorus continues dance to left and right." At the sageuta accompanied by a rhythmic and melodic ostinato figure from the organ. The melodic contour remains simple, moving in steps, and the tessitura stays low. At this stage, in the Noh-drama, a more melodically complex song would have been sung in a higher tessitura. Britten achieves the same contrast, by quickening the pace and emphasizing the upper notes of the melody ("sparkles like hope").
The third dan begins at 33 ("Near the Black Mountains") with the Madwoman relating to the others the cause of her grief and madness; this narrative is syllabically based on passages of repeated notes which end with a .vocal slide. The Noh-drama narrative (katari) occurs in this same section of a play, in speech style. The vocal slide is a preparatory technique commonly used in Noh singing, particularly in a highly intoned 14 recitation passage. Britten has caught the essence of Noh- drama speech style in this section, yet has infused it with
13 " • • Colin Graham. "Production Notes", pp. 9, 56. 14 T. Mmawaga. "Japanese Noh Music, " Journal of the American Musicological Society X, 1957, p. 191. his personal .composition style; the setting of the Madwoman's words, with its easy flow of language and rhythm is typical of the composer.
The next important section begins with the dialogue between the Madwoman and the Ferryman at 39 which is called the mondo in the Noh; this is followed by a recitative (sashi) and lament
(kudoki) sung by the Madwoman. The lament is a song in three parts; the lyrical section at 46 ("Birds of Fenland")15 is interrupted by further dialogue between the Ferryman and the
Madwoman at 47 The lyrical section returns at (99) with the whole cast treating the melody canonically. This lament is a departure from the Noh-drama style, which is designated as a recitative; Britten has chosen to treat the section as one of the few melodically extended parts of the parable.
The lament is terminated by a choral Coda at 50 , and the
3rd dan ends with the return of the Ferryman's chromatic motif and a repeat of his entrance song melody. The rounding-off of this dramatic section by such musical means as the recalling of an earlier motif is a completely Western concept; the Noh- drama is through-composed as is most Asian music, and unity, as defined in non-Asian musical terms, simply does not exist. '
While Benjamin Britten has used the dramatic and musical characteristics of the Noh-drama as a guide to structuring
Curlew River, the word remains clearly non-Japanese. By
My thanks to Mr. Elliot Weisgarber for pointing out that the text of "Birds of Fenland" is an almost exact translation of the song "Sumidagawa" which remains a popular ko-uta to this very day. matching large and smaller dramatic divisions in the libretto of the two works and by intuitive interpretation of the intent of the character's words, Britten retains some of the qualities.: of the Noh-drama. On a second level, however, there is a more detailed usage of the Noh-drama musical idioms. The fact that, so often, a coincidence occurs in recitative and lyrical pas• sages, in tessitura, in melodic types, in rhythmic treatment and in the general order of occurence between the two structures is astonishing. To do all this matching up of structure and mood without the church parable becoming mired in detail and inaccessible to a Western audience is an even greater feat.
With additions and expansions in the libretto, and a change of setting, Britten has managed to utilize the formal structure of the Noh, shaping it to his own compositional style. The use of masks, dramatic movement and a very simply designed stage are physical reminders of the Noh-drama in a Western interpretation. The music, with some Japanese borrowings, remains absolutely Western in design. In the best tradition of Orientalism, Britten has adapted the relevant and personally satisfying aspects of another culture's music and by inter• preting these aspects into, his own music has created an in• dependent and innovative art-form. 54
CHAPTER III
INSTRUMENTAL ELEMENTS; COINCIDENCE AND
ASSOCIATION WITH JAPANESE MUSIC.
The music of Curlew River contains many Asian-inspired elements, not all of which are immediately accepted as such by a Western listener. While an unfamiliar musical atmosphere is sensed in the church parable, Benjamin Britten guarantees that any new aural experiences are acceptable to the listener by using familiar musical conventions as a basis for their appre• ciation. The success of the work rests significantly on the skill with which Britten amalgamates specific orchestral tech• niques, as well as rhythmic, harmonic and melodic patterns from a non-Western culture with those from the European tradition.
Rather than mechanically copying Japanese musical patterns and sounds, Britten culls characteristics of this non-Western tradition that would suit his stated intention for the work.
Curlew River was to have a simple moral story such as that of
Sumidagawa, an austere setting in a church, a very limited instrumental accompaniment, and an intensity and concentration comparable to the original drama. Britten, in his own writings about Curlew River, takes pains to state that the work is no way to be considered "a pastiche from the ancient Japanese"''", nor is there anything "specifically Japanese left in the Para• ble William Plomer and I have written"2 However, a close in• spection of Curlew River and its dramatic elements has shown
Benjamin Britten, notes in London Recording of Curlew River, 1965. 2Ibid. 55
Britten's great sensitivity to the intricacies of the Noh dramatic structure. Britten's awareness of Japanese musical conventions becomes increasingly clear upon scrutinizing specific musical treatment in Curlew River.
The musical elements of the Noh-drama that impressed
Britten most were singled out in his own writings and comprised
"the mixture of chanting, speech, singing which, with the three 3 instruments made up the strange music." These elements are transferred to Curlew River in a fascinating manner. Retaining many qualities of Noh-drama musical technique but infusing the above elements with personal style characteristics, Benjamin 4
Britten creates the "totally new operatic experience" he was seeking. In the areas of melody, harmony and rhythm we see further uses of Japanese patterns and principles in pursuit of Britten's purpose.
The instruments chosen for Curlew River by Benjamin Britten reflect the spare sonic atmosphere of the Noh-drama. The pro• minent use of the flute (and sometimes, the piccolo) and five small untuned drums is modelled on the Noh-drama musical en• semble, the hayashi. Other instrumental additions for the
Curlew River ensemble include a horn, viola, s.tring bass, harp and chamber organ. The instruments appear to have been chosen by Britten not merely to embrace a Western orchestral sound but also to evoke a further exotic flavor by the part• icular function they fulfill and the sound properties they possess. The hayashi ensemble of the Noh-drama consists of
3Ibid. 4Ibid. the nohkan, (Fig. 4) a bamboo, seven-holed, side-blown flute, the ko tzuzumi, (Fig. 5), a shoulder drum, the o tzuzumi,
(Fig. 6) a side drum and the taiko (Fig. 7), a floor drum.
The hayashi ensemble is placed at the back of the Noh stage, seated on the floor or stools, except for the taiko player, who kneels.
The tone quality of the instruments of the hayashi clearly influenced the sound of Curlew River. The sound of the nohkan is emulated by the flute, while the ko-tzuzumi, o-tzuzumi and the taiko relate to the five untuned drums specified for Curlew
River. Some of the other instruments required for the church parable such as the organ and harp are scored and played in a way which is reminiscent of other Japanese instruments, the sho, a bamboo mouth organ and the gaku-so, gaku-biwa, and wagon which are plucked chordophones. The remaining instruments of the Curlew River ensemble are utilized in a fairly conventional manner. The nohkan is a bamboo flute of intricate construction; the wood is smoked then cut into strips, reversed and glued.
The flute is constructed in six sections, one of which is an inserted inner tube which gives the nohkan its characteristic accoustical properties. Originally designed to be played out- of-doors, the nohkan, has a piercing tone quality and a range of about two and a half octaves. The inserted pipe causes the flute to produce less than an octave when overblowing, a unique feature of this instrument. The flute has seven finger holes and a very large mouthhole; the size of the mouthhole produces another characteristic sound, that of the excess air needed to 57
Hayashi Instruments
Figure 4
Nohkan
Figure 5 58 produce a tone. This noise is considered important in relation to a pure musical sound in traditional Japanese music.
While all the notes within the two octave range of the nohkan are available, only a small number of the notes are in actual use. A number of stock melodies based on stereotyped intervallic units are commonly used from one Noh-drama to an• other. The rhythm of the flute part is flexible within the boundaries of the beginning and end of the melody; no time values are indicated in the flute notation. As a consequence, the flute part unfolds independently from the other instrumental parts, acting as background sound. This linear quality of the flute: music of the Noh is present in the drum and voice parts as well, creating a completely different concept of ensemble from the Western viewpoint. However, while extreme flexibility of tempo and rhythm are present, improvisation is never found in any of the performances. Each gesture and sound is notated in the score and followed exactly. The nohkan is used mainly for the beginning of scenes, for dramatic moments to create atmosphere and to accompany dance.
The flute part in Curlew River corresponds in many instances to the sound properties and function of the Noh flute. The buzzing, airy quality of the flute sound for the Madwoman's entry clearly emulates the nohkan's sound properties, and is achieved by scoring the passage in the lower register of the
flute, with tremelo. (ex. 1) The unfocused tone quality also emphasizes the condition of the Madwoman's thought; as the Madwoman moves in and out of her confused state of mind, the flute is accordingly focused or unfocused in tone quality. This can be seen by comparing ex. 1, with another passage (ex. 2).
Example 2; p. 25, j 27
I'RR'E ~~ mm Clear as a sky with Fantastic (Fantastico) Wie wol- ken - lo - ser . t . 7, , , , Ft.
The sharp piercing quality of the flute pattern in "Clear as a Sky" (ex. 2) illustrates the Madwoman's attempt to gather herself for an explanation to the Ferryman. The passage is tinged with hysteria, but shows increased control. Further on in the passage, the Madwoman lapses into confusion again,
the flute echoing this by a/ return to the unfocused tremelo sound as seen in ex. 1. Britten requires a conventional Western instrument to explore a Japanese sound ideal to achieve specific stylistic and dramatic characteristics. The flute sound in Curlew River is not the same as the nohkan; however, 60 with great skill, Britten has synthesized the nohkan tone quality with the traditional tone quality of the flute. The result of this synthesis is an exotic aura which:.infuses the austere aspect of the work, giving greater poignancy and di-.. rection to the unfolding drama. Here, as in the Noh-drama, the flute in Curlew River is used to create atmosphere in dramatic moments. Another example of this may be seen during a narrative section; when the Madwoman tells her story (p. 29 33 ) the flute has a repeated-note figure with an upward slide at the end (ex. 3) .
Example 3; p. 29, 33
PP -7=6-
This slide is commonly heard in Japanese music, particularly traditional court music and Noh-drama. It is a.microtonal ornamentation, widely used by the nohkan and other instruments.
This slide, or portamento, is also a vocal technique in the
Noh, often heard as an upward preparation for a specific note, 5 or simply as part of a melodic pattern (ex. 4).
This example is from a transcription by Minawaga, discussed on p. 191-192 in his article on "Japanese Noh Music". 61
Example 4
ri\o A*e.- LLU SCC*'»vo n ,i ; / To o ~o
Britten has used this portamento for an interesting dramatic purpose. The flute begins a dialogue with the Madwoman, who echoes the instrument's rhythmic pattern and portamento at the end of each phrase. The portamento is usually within the range of a whole tone, ascending as the story begins, then descending as the Madwoman's anguish becomes more and more apparent. The flute also plays these portamenti in a higher register as the story becomes more agitated, eventually being doubled by other instruments. The sound is focused and pierces the atmosphere; the voice mirrors the flute sound. The flute becomes associated with the Madwoman throughout Curlew River, not merely as a precursor of her presence, but as an inter• preter of her frame of mind. A jagged, leaping figure is sung by the Madwoman upon her first entrance and various treatments of this rising fourth instrumentally and vocally are skillfully employed to show different stages of the Madwoman's composure. This same leaping figure is associated with the cry of the curlew (ex. 5) and is played by the flute. 62
Example 5; p. 41 47
t i % Flute ?— tf—% —,—i— =—pp
The flute also echoes the Madwoman's lament beginning at bar 46 and is employed in a soaring" scale, figure to create the feeling and sweep of a flight of birds, (ex. 6) .
Example 6; p. 40, 46 ffg.
poco cresc.
Later in the parable,~at bar 75 , when the Madwoman likens her
lost child to a bird, the flute is further heard in figures of despair (ex. 7) .
Example 7; p. 75, (16 6 3 As well as heightening drama, the flute traditionally accompanies dance in the Noh-drama. Two instances of this convention may be found in Curlew River; to accompany the Madwoman's kakeri dance at 27 (see ex. 2) and to accompany the Spirit's dance (mai).at 94 The flute in the latter case is replaced by a piccolo (ex. 8)
Example 8; p. 115, 94
1 \ v—w ~xrz— w—
. pp simply ; ... . P .....
Britten uses the flute in Curlew River in another Noh- drama tradition*. - The nohkan is usually heard at the beginning of the various sections (dan) of the drama, to create atmos• phere, tension, or to focus the audience on dramatic intent. Britten follows this procedure very effectively, utilizing the flute in a prominent, if not lead position in four of the five dan.. The first dan begins with the Te Lucis fantasy; the whole instrumental ensemble is heard, but the flute appears to have the prominentLmelodic role. This prominence is achiev• ed by an anticipation, effected by the horn and viola, the decorative nature of the harp writing, and the tessitura of the flute writing (ex. 9). 64
Example 9; p. 6, 5
Db. £ I - r __r r ^
111 7 7 ^
The Madwoman's entrance comes at the beginning of the second dan ( 19 ), accompanied by the haunting curlew motif played by the flute. This motif, discussed earlier (see ex. 4) is heard throughout the drama in various transformations, and is clearly a pivotal figure, musically and dramatically. The third dan: ( 33 ) begins with the narrative section (katari) and a portamento sound on the flute employed by Britten to approximate the nohkan portamento (see ex. 3). The fourth dan begins with an hayashi interlude at 55 ; the flute pro• minently plays the Curlew River refrain (ex. 10) 65 Example 10; p. 50, 55
5^1 Slow The ACOLYTES hoist the sail. (LenM^ieAKOLYTEN setzen obs SegeJ I
The fif.th dan does not begin with the flute playing a prominent role. The transition section at 87 requires full chorus with an orchestral obligato; the addition here of small bells is noticeable. However, at the end of the waiting song ( 199 ) the flute again appears as a solo instrument, playing a decor• ated version of the curlew motif, (ex. 11).
Example 11; p. 10 4, 89
While Benjamin.Britten transmits many nohkan sound pro• perties and functions to his church parable, the final stylis• tic idiom is utterly personal. The use of stereotyped inter- vallic units (i.e. curlew motif), sound qualities and the use of the flute for accompanying dance, beginning sections of drama and creating atmosphere in dramatic moments are Japanese devices, but they sound Western. Because the tonal idiom of 66
Curlew River is derived from that of the plainsong "Te lucis g ante terminum", the tonal definition of the music is Western.
Into this tonal definition, Britten has drawn certain Japanese musical devices, which are authentic in essence, but which, out of context, may be successfully transformed. The transla• tion of these Noh-drama devices into a European idiom is done with great care and always with Britten's consummate ability to work within familiar tonal, melodic and dramatic conventions to forge an original conept.
The use of the drums in the Noh-drama is related to the entire rhythmic structure of the play and specifically to the text. The text is set rhythmically within a framework of eight beats in one of three basic systems. There may be one syllable per beat (o nori), a syllable for two beats (chu nori) or twelve syllables in eight beats (hira nori). In patterns de• rived from the stereotyped rhythmic settings of text, the Noh drummers function as enhancers of the text in several ways.
Certain regular patterns may simply mark off sections of the text, while irregular patterns may put into relief especially important parts of the text. Other patterns are most often heard at the beginning of a passage, or as connectors before or after a pattern. The progression of these patterns and the subsequent anticipation by the audience is an important concept in the Noh-drama. The drum patterns do not always follow each other in an inflexible way, but are able to adjust to texts in
6Ibid. certain sections. A common adjustment is the prolongation of syllables for clarity of meaning which injects many rhythmic complexities into a basically, simple structure. As well, the general tempo o.'f the Noh tends to accelerate during a perfor• mance, both within sections and overall. Consequently, although the Noh is based on a structured rhythmic system, the need for precise understanding of the text, whether set in a regular or irregular fashion, and the acceptance of many tempo changes gives the drama a remarkably subtle rhythmic flexibility.
The percussion group in the Curlew River ensemble has much the same function as a Noh drum group. Primarily, the drums underscore the text; they illustrate a mood or an emotion, punctuate cogent sections, or intensify highly dramatic points.
Drum patterns are used, as in the Noh-drama, and appear in various guises at appropriate parts of the drama. The drum patterns;in Curlew River are not associated with a character, but rather with the dramatic feeling or,mood of the parable.
The Ferryman, a symbol of brusqueness and intolerance in the parable, appears to have a drum motive associated with him, early in the work (ex. 12).
Example 12; p. 8, 8 68 However, on closer examination, this motive is altered so often, particularly in its rhythmic emphasis, that its association becomes much greater than simply one of character. Rather, this rhythmic cell becomes representative of the irritation with and persecution of the Madwoman. An example of this trans• formation:'!, for; dramatic purposes may be seen in the.'.intensifi• cation and prolongation of the original pattern (see ex. 12) with the appearance of the Ferryman, through his mocking of the Madwoman at 1411 and I 42I (ex. 13) , to the cast's tormenting the Madwoman through 43 (ex. 14) .
Example 13; p. 35, 42
< 0 t 0
Example 14; p. 36, 43 ffg.
i I JN* ft ft ^ fl^sn The pattern, which is essentially a drum roll with a sharp stop on the first beat of the bar, adds a further pattern of unit beat punctuation at 42 and then intensifies each beat with triplet
figures 43 This same triplet drum pattern is again seen in the kuri at 75 The kuri section is considered to be the high point of the play, with respect to dramatic intensity, and the drums respond in an eerily effective way by moving from a triplet pattern,; to eighth notes, to near silence as the kuri note is approached and sung (ex. 15). In conjunction, the dramatic mood.of:the\protagonists has moved from ridicule to sym• pathy and charity for the plight of the Madwoman. 70
Example 15; pp. 76-77, 77
76 =— P -3—i P\
Cry ing in empty air. Schrei end durch lee-re— Luff.
Now the nest of the cur-lew is si - lent with1 snow, And the lamb Nun das Nest un-srer Mi> vnen schnekjt still Schnee,un-term\ Und das Larrrh rail. . pp. rail. n—1—zr ' 3 ' (n) «4 U 4 nM_r_j fef_r—r- j—> 71
Example 15/cont'd.
is de-voured by the car- ri - on crow. rail.. The in-no-cent lamb.. maid zer- hackt von der Ne - - betkrah.. Das un-schutd-ge Lamm...
Quick (in tempo) 77XAUegro) ppslow PP 8r f f f
The heathen crow! _ Good peo- pie, good peo-ple, where shall I, where shall I turn? die Hei-den-krah! — Ihr Freun-de, ihr Freunde. wogeht's nun, wogehls nun hin?
Db. PP0 _ (cottegnoj 8vabassa » i i 3 As far as the recurrence of stereotyped drum motifs is concerned, only the beginning and end of the parable have a real correspondence. The Te Lucis Fantasy uses the same pattern in both sections, and the Abbot's exhortation sections use the same figures. This unifying feature seems to clearly indicate the arch form of the parable, and to reiterate the fact that these opening and closing sections are added to the original Noh-drama plot line.
Two other instruments in the Curlew River ensemble, the harp and the organ, have particular interest in their associa• tions with Japanese instruments. The organ with its sound properties and its function in the parable is clearly imitative of the Japanese sho, a seventeen-pipe mouth organ. The bamboo pipes of the sho', fitted upright into a gourd, are played in clusters, giving a chordal effect. However, as Asian music is monophonic, the sho does not represent an attempt at harmony; the clustered tones are merely representative of the linear aspects, usually principal melodic notes, played vertically.
Benjamin Britten uses the organ in the same way in Curlew River the linear quality of the parable is emphasized by use of organ clusters in a harmonically non-functional way. The fact that many of the clusters are based on Japanese scale pattern, 7 ritsu, adds to the exotic quality of sound. (ex. 16)
There is no suggestion that Curlew River is based on this Japanese scale. Rather, Britten's intent is clearly modal with added chromaticism which easily lends itself to specific intervallic emphasis common in Japanese music. 73
Example 16; p. 1,
measurea (misur
— (- >-Z : -j— er P \
The shimmering tone clusters of the organ provide a background
for Britten's melodies, and also function rhythmically, helping
to separate musical sections or phrases. Cluster changes in
the Abbot's exhortation at I 3 I propels the drama forward (ex. 17), while cluster changes following! marks off musical selections
(ex. 18) .
Example 17; p. 4,
As candle-shine In a dismal place, A freshet spilt In a desert waste, Wie Her- zen-schein In der dunk ten Nacht, EmQjell ent - spring! Un-terfn WU-sten-sand,
The inclusion of such intervals as major seconds and minor sevenths in the organ clusters are also reminiscent of the tra• ditional sho chords. Britten takes pains to use these intervals in the organ writing wherever possible, further emphasizing exotic sonorities in Curlew River (see examples 17, 18). 74
Example 18; p. 5,
4? *
0 pray for the souls of all that fall By the way-side, all a 0 be - fet fur See - ten, die am Weg Ein - sam ster- ben oh - ne Tenors / sust.
Pray for all that fall ust B tet for See Baritones /J f
Pray for all that fall. By way-side, all a- Be - tet fur die See ten. die ster-ben oh - ne Basses fsust.
Pray for the souls of all that fall _ By the way-side, all a- Be - tet fur See - ten, die am mg — Ein-sam ster-ben oh - ne
0 praise our God that lift-eth up The fal-len, the lost,. the least 0 lobt denHsrrh, der die er - hebt, Die fie - ten, ver- torn, ver tan. -PP
Praise that , lift - eth The fal - len, the le Lobt er - hebt auf, die fie - len, vert- tan.. •0- -0-
Praise our God that lift - eth the lost the I least. ioof den Herr'n, er - hebt auf. die fie - len. ver - tan.
m Praise our God that lift-eth up The fal-len, the lost,_ the least.. Lobt den Herr'n, der die er - hebt, Die fie - ten, ver- tort),— ver tan.. The use of the harp in Curlew River is generally connected
with patterns of arpeggios, glissandi, ostinati and pedal
points. The inclusion of a plucked chordophone in the instru•
mental ensemble of Curlew River is an idea probably borrowed
from Britten's impressions of performances of gagaku, or g Japanese court music, in which one of three plucked chordo- phones may be used - the wagon, the gaku-so and the gaku-biwa. These three chordophones play short stereotyped melodic or arpeggio patterns, interrupted occasionally by ornamentation or glissandi. The patterns are influenced by the mode or melody of the court music, but their primary function is one of punctuation at regular intervals. Typical patterns would be as follows: (ex. 19)
Example 19 from Etenraku, a Japanese String and Wind Composition
In Curlew River, the harp plays a similar role to the gagaku
chordophones. It plays arpeggios, repeated melodic patterns
and ornaments in a kind of ostinato function. . Repeated at reg•
ular intervals, the harp patterns generally continue indepen• dently from the voice or other instruments.. Here, the linear
Discussed in "Ausflung Ost" by Ludwig, Prince of Hesse and the Rhine in A Tribute to Benjamin Britten on his Fiftieth Birthday by A. Gishford, 1963, p. 58. aspect of Curlew River is again evident with similar character• istics already noted in the flute, drum, and organ parts.
The entrance music for the Traveller at 13 p. 14, is a good example of an arpeggio pattern, repeated on different scale tones, moving steadily at its own tempo until 16 , p. 17
(ex. 20)
Example 20; p. 14, 13
Harp P /
Another harp pattern, again moving independently from the vocal line, can be found in the poignant lament "Birds of the Fen• land" at 46 . The harp plays the same arpeggio over and over, in its own tempo, slightly elaborated at the point of inter• jection by the Ferryman at | 47|. The Ferryman, Traveller and
Chorus join the Madwoman's song at 49 with the harp contin- uing the same pattern. Shortly after 49 , the viola enters with a repeated melodic pattern. Both the viola and harp pat• terns continue unchanged until the end of the lament. An excep• tional aspect to the lament as a whole is the polyphonic strati• fication of its construction. The entrances of the various voices, overlying the repeated instrumental patterns, suggest more than simply a canonic-plus-ostinato section, but rather indicate that Britten has utilized a kind of colotomic structure.
The basic principle of colotomic structures is that regularly recurring instrumental patterns in a specific order and at specific times mark the music off into temporal units. This principle is very important in Asian music, particularly in
Javanese and Balinese gamelan music. While colotomic structure usually centres around the percussion instruments of the game- 9 lan, Benjamin Britten who heard these orchestras in Java seems to have applied the principle to complete sections throughout Curlew River. As far as the lament is concerned, the harp and viola reiterate their patterns, written in eighth notes, cognizant of the unit beat of the work. The voices enter in a specific order, at specific times which are clearly indicated on the score by arrows. Again, we have evidence of 'Britten's extraordinary ability to absorb another culture's musical principles thoroughly enough that he can adapt them to his own style with complete success, (ex. 21)
See "Ausflug Ost" by Ludwig, Prince of Hesse and the Rhine in A Tribute to Benjamin Britten on his Fiftieth Birthday by A. Gishford, 1963, p. 56 ffg. 78
Example 21; p. 43, 49 ffg. ferryman I 1 Both de-rive from long - ing, Both from love. Birds of the Fen-tand," Bei- de triebt die Serin • sucht, Lie - be - volt. Vo - gel des Moor-lands,
Traveller m ^r= )F Both de-rive from long - ing,*- Both from love. *. 'Birds of the Fen-land," Bei-de triebt die Sehn-sucht, 'Lie - be-voll. V6-gel des Moorlands.
Organ.
will ask you too, "Is the fchild I love Still liv - -ing?" She will ask_ and fmgteudiVrOhlauch,"lst mein lie - bes Kind am Le - ben?" Ja so fragt sie
Baritones pp u like Madwoman)
; o Birds of the Fen-land, shewill ask you | too, "Is the child I love Still liv - Vo - get des Moorlands, sie fragt euch wohl audi, "1st mein lie - bes Hind am Le - i _ ABBOT and Basses pp*\ like Madwoman)
Birds of the Fen-land, she will ask you too, Vo - gel des Moor- lands, sie fragt euch wohl auch,
Flute
Harp.
,(araduaL-crese..i. Harp patterns continue throughout the parable as repeated glissandi in a section representing the Ferryman poling his boat at 56 in melodic patterns interrupted by glissandi at 75 and three-note patterns clearly based on the ancient
Japanese chordophone patterns (seen in ex. 18) at 77 (ex. 22)
Example 22; p. 77, 72
mHe** , k 7 \ \ m
In summary, Benjamin Britten's instrumentation for Curlew River may be observed to be chosen for tone quality and ensemble sound that is evocative of Japanese theatrical and court music instruments. Not content simply to have Curlew River ensemble sound like an hayashi ensemble, Britten goes to some lengths to have the instruments use such performance practices as stereotyped patterns, and musical function to explore more fully Asian instrumental principles. While these principles become evident under close study, details such as specific Japanese intervallic movements, scales, modes, tunings, and rhythmic patterns are employed very rarely, if at all. Curlew River is never "a pastiche from the ancient Japanese"^ but is a wonder• fully rich blend of Asian and European compositional principles,
See note!1. performance practices and instrumental timbres. Vocal tech• niques, to be discussed in the next chapter, are similarly culled and blended from the two cultures. . 81 CHAPTER IV VOCAL ELEMENTS ; , COINCIDENCE AND ASSOCIATION WITH JAPANESE MUSIC. The setting of Curlew River becomes immediately apparent with the appearance of the chorus of monks singing a plainsong hymn, Te Lucis ante terminum. The singing of this hymn, which has apparently been "preserved intact",''" also establishes the vocal climate of the church parable in some very specific ways. Gregorian chant with its linear qualities offers special musical aspects that Britten is quick to appropriate for his own use in Curlew River. The modal nature of plainsong with its empha• sis on conventional formulas and melodic devices, as well as the 2 "oratorical nature" of chant with melody based on grammatical accents are characteristics seen reproduced many times through• out Britten's church parable. The fact that the Gregorian hymn influences nearly all sections of the work merely rein• forces Britten's propensity in Curlew River for using the characteristics of chant. As seen in an earlier discussion, the Gregorian hymn sections are added to the original Noh-drama. In order to successfully change the cultural focus from medieval Japan to medieval England, Britten has chosen this liturgical concept as a framework for musical unity throughout. However, while the Gregorian characteristics in the vocal music of Curlew-
The expression "preserved intact" is one used by many scholars in connection with Britten's use of this plainsong hymn. However, it is still unclear whether this refers to the melody, the words or both; in the Liber Usualis, the melody is not the same. 2 See Music in the Middle Ages by Gustave Reese, W.R., Norton, 1940, p. 166. River are most obvious, there are also influential vocal 3 characteristics of the Noh-drama to be found. As noted in previous chapters on dramatic and instrumental practices in Curlew River, the composer displays a remarkable grasp of the basic structures of Noh-drama. Hence, the vocal music of Curlew River presents a further fascinating synthesis of cross cultural musical qualities. The principles of stereotyped intervallic units as well as melodic and rhythmic patterns, have been seen to be fun• damental to the Japanese Noh-drama. In accordance with this tradition, Noh vocal music is generally regulated by two styli tic composits of scales, dynamics, expression and vocal tech- 4 nique. The two complexes, Tsuyo and Yowa may represent for• mulae for scale patterns and melodic movement, use of accent, dynamics, length of time-units, and such vocal techniques as portamento and vibrato. In Yowa, melodic movement formulae are extremely important and are based on movement between the three principle notes of the complexy. each a perfect fourth
There is a connection between Buddhist chant (shomyo) and the music of the Noh drama. However, within the limits of those pages, this complex subject and its subsequent allegory with the Christian chant used in Curlew River cannot be explored. 4 A third style is used for a pure speech section, and contains an intonation formula with a characteristic cadential figure. See T. Minawaga, "Japanese Noh Music" in Journal of American Musicological Society X, 1957, p. 185. 83 apart.^ Tsuyo, as a highly intoned recitation stresses drama• tic tone colour, dynamics and a special vocal technique rather than melodic movement. Theoretically, melodic movement is centered around four main tones, but because the vocal chords are excessively strained in order to produce the desired sing• ing technique, melodic movement becomes limited between two tones. These tones are about a minor third apart; because of the tension of the vocal chords pitch is very unstable, and vibrato can fluctuate as much as a minor third. Upward melodic movement is often produced as a result of this strained singing, particularly in sections emphasizing greatly contrasted dynamics or sforzando-accented syllables. The choice of Yowa or Tsuyo style depends largely on the text; one of these scale complexes may be used throughout a play or may be alternated with the other, according to the content of the play or passage.
Noh vocal delivery is generally guided by rather vague g instructions to maintain "grace and dignity". Various per• formance schools of Noh emphasize different vocal interpre• tations, but there is less emphasis on beauty of sound than on a complete understanding of the role to be played. In fact, many of the best actors in Noh have inadequate or poor voices,
This intervallic relationship often leads Western scholars to assume incorrectly a propensity towards a minor seventh in Japanese Noh music; the seventh formed between the two of the three important tones is; very rarely heard, and then. always preceded by a transitional tone. The favorite interval is, in fact, the perfect fourth, the successive sum.:of: which leads to this misconception. g See No, the Classical Theatre of Japan, by Donald Keene, 1966," p. 76 ffg. 84 but the manner of their interpretation of the inner meaning of the texts is all-important. There is no differentiation between the vocal ranges - tenor, baritone and bass, - and the voice is produced at the back of the throat. Thus, the quality of diction is greatly altered. However, as the interpretation of the words is more important than a very specific projection of vowels and consonants, this vocal delivery, is not considered peculiar, particularly as the audience has libretti available to consult during the performance. As a result of the above emphasis on interpretation in vocal delivery, an interesting role accrues to the voice itself. Even though the text is set and not subject to improvisation, the move from enuncia• tion to interpretation frees the voice to act in an instru-
7 mental role. Further lack of emphasis on vocal quality,- beauty of sound and exploitation of vocal ranges adds to the instrumental character of Noh singing.
In examining the score of vocal parts of Curlew River, with some of the above musical characteristics in mind, it becomes apparent that Benjamin Britten has done a remarkable job of amalgamating pertinent musical aspects from two cultures into his own compositional framework. A striking non-Western musical characteristic to be seen in Britten's church parable is the principle of heterophony. This principle, widely used in Chinese, Japanese, Javanese, and African music, involves the modification of the main melody for simultaneous use by
Ibid., p. 77. 85 two or more performers. In this practise accompanying per• formers generally play the same melody with ornamentations, with the resulting texture a unique form of polyphony. This type of heterophonic music is heard in Japanese court music - (gagaku), a performance of which Britten attended in 1957. A transcribed excerpt from a piece of gagaku, for a string and wind ensemble (kangen) demonstrates the Japanese principles of heterophony (ex. 1).
Example 1 Etenraku - Kangen
ryuteki hichiriki
Benjamin Britten uses heterophony in a number of places in Curlew River, notably in the instrumental Te Lucis Fantasy (ex. 2) and in the vocal section sung by the chorus of Abbot
and Monks, "Between Two Kingdoms", H, p. 10 (ex. 3) .
Example 2; p. 6
Ft. - Harp m p - via^ 1~1 1 i w_ m Db. — 86 Example 3; p. 10,
mm Be-tween two king-doms the ri - ver flows On— this side the_ Zwi - schen zwei Rei - chen hin stromt der Fluff; Hier— dies - seits das. ABBOT and Basses WW r r r Be - tween two l^g- dtoms_Jlhe_ ri - ver flows; On this side the
It is perhaps not too far-fetched to associate the singing of the monks in Curlew River in Ex. 2, with ecclesiastical sing• ing in a large cathedral with its resultant reverberations and overlapping of sounds. The heterophonic section "Between Two Kingdoms" is used many times throughout the parable, ser• ving as a choral interlude and commentary between new drama• tic developments, and emphasizing the Christian overtones of
the word (see bars 18 38 79' )'.. Another stunning use
of heterophony is found at 88 with the Chorus singing a
hymn Custodes Hominum to an orchestral accompaniment (ex. 4). 87 Example 4; p-. 97, 88 88 The modified Custodes melody, played by the instrumental en• semble contributes to a cluster effect, another very common Asian musical characteristic. On a smaller scale, an extension of the same principle has been seen in the organ clusters, which are chordal aggregates of a melodic motif sung by one of the characters (ex. 5).
Example 5; p. 2, (4
j """" . „—. j j, F=3 far-'—f-®~"['
The Bro-thers have come to-day ' To show you a mys - te-ry: '
Heut ka-men die Bru - der her—11 d Ein Wunder euch auf - zu-fdhr'n:TIC A(f_: - i& V .
The use of these chordal aggregates is also common in gagaku
(see example 1), a fact of which Britten was clearly) aware. However, while tone clusters, played the sho, punctuate the generally regular meter of Japanese court music, the chordal aggregate, often played by the organ in Curlew River, is used by Benjamin Britten to the opposite effect. Using this har• monic and melodic aggregate as an anchor, Britten releases the metre of the vocal lines so that they may become non-aligned, moving independently of one another. Britten eliminates bar lines in these instances, providing a starting and ending point for rhythmic, melodic and harmonic encounters, but allow• ing for a relatively free association of vocal and instrumental lines within these boundaries. The non-alignment technique is particularly effective in crowd scenes, where the characters freely and naturally speak among themselves. The harassment of the Madwoman by the Ferryman and Pilgrims ( at 43 ffg.) is an excellent example of the above effect (ex. 6). 90
Example 6;~p..37, 43
Urv-less you enter-tain us with your sing ing. Un- less you en-ter- Wenn du uns nicht noch Spat) machstdurch oein Sin • gent Werm du uns nicht nod / *
Un-less you en-ter- tain us with your sing ing: Un-less you en-ter- Wem du uns nicht noch Span machst durchdein Sin - gen! ifenn du uns nicht noch
V/e wanto hear you si ng ing, cra-zi- ly sing - ing J Wtewant to hear you sing 'ng, Wirwotfndich sin -gen ho ren. i IT-sin-nig Sin - gen! Wirvolfn dich sin-gen horen. •
Make us laugh withyoursing-ing, Mad- Mach'uns la - chendurchSin - gen, Ir- re
-tain us with your sing - ing ! Span machst durch dein Sin • gen!
-tain us with your sing - ing ! Spal) machst durch dein Sin - gen!
cra-zi-ly sing - ing!
Jfifek r irr- sin-nig Sin - gen!
-wo - man! Frau du! The rhythmical independence of the voices, which is seen between other voices, and also between voice and instrument
illustrates another of Benjamin Britten's exceptional style
characteristics, that of text setting. Britten is recognized
as being greatly influenced by the English Baroque composer,
Henry Purcell, particularly in the setting of the English
language in natural speech patterns. The ease of inflection and accent of the language is noticeable throughout the parable,
and is particularly effective in dialogue sections. A fine example of Britten's text setting is seen at 51 when the company takes the Madwoman's part in asking the Ferryman's permission to come aboard. The simply rhythmic and melodic setting parallels the inflection and pattern of English.
Here again, the canonical entries are non-aligned, which
further illuminates the speech of the characters. (ex. 7) 92
Example 7; p. 48, 51
r
Fer- ryman, she begs of you To let heroome a- board. She sees the boat is crowded, But let her comes Fahr- mann, sie bit- tet dich, Ach, ial) sie doch an Bond. Sie sieht das Boot volt Leu- te, Doch lafi sie doch a) ABBOT p cnesc. tsr cffg A* 0 * ~0 g Fer-ryman, she begs of you To let her come a-board. Fahr- mann,sie bit-tet dich, Ach, lafi sie doch anBord.
! Fer-ry-man, Weib.. ; Fahr - mann)
: f ; H— 1 , ; 7 i , axil !
? p , «—i
=-pp
j — ^
-board, Let her come a - board! Let her I! fer-ry- Bord, ' Lafi sie Fahr - -- • • -0rd! _
Shesees the boat is crowd-ed, But tet her come a-board. Let her come a - b_oai Sie sieht das Boot vol! Leu - te, Doch laf) gje doch an Bord, Lafi doch an sie J)—h—I k Iv—4, K b l ' mf
b She sees the boat is crowd-ed, But tet her come a- board, ! b^-te^ $ich. Ach. ^c/f a^'B^ord* sie y sfe Sie sieht das Boot voll Leu- te. Doch la/i sie doch an fjgrd,^
She sees the boat is crowd-ed, But tet her oome a- board, ! Sie sieht das Boot voll Leu-te, Doch lafi sie doch an Bord. j FERRYMAN FAHRMANNp
This mad-wo-man seems, Though her mind may be wan - d'ring tch meindiet-re scheint,H&>n ihr Geist auch ver- wirrt ist.
-man, she begs of you To let her oome a - board. mann, sie bit-tet dich, Ach, lafi sie doch an Bord 93 Another fascinating example of Britten's text setting shows a direct Purcellian influence. The Ferryman's derisive discussion
of the Madwoman's condition starting at 40 ends in a dramatic delivery of the word "wand'ring". The Baroque flavour of this passage includes a melisma on the word "wand'ring", a character• istic Purcellian melodic pattern, and intense chromaticism to illustrate the tormented thinking of the Madwoman (ex. 8).
Example 8; p. 35, 41 ffg.
p, fi t—f -rr —of7 J —r—r- r fV 9 7 r gffor V j fr —7 * r r tr |_I/ ff, -}f -ygM—e H A-ny foot can see Yourfeetarewarrih'ng,\faurtr«u^Ttsare wan - d'ring, Je-derNarr er-kemt De-neFus-se ir - n=n Dein Ceist qehl ir - re.
This passage has an interesting counterpart in one of Purcell's
most famous arias, "Dido's Lament" from Dido and Aeneas (1689)
(ex. 9).
Example 9
_BE • vn The use of stereotyped intervals and melodic motifs as
structural elements is seen throughout Curlew River, recalling
this same usage dictated by the two Noh style composites Yowa and Tsuyo. It must be emphasized that while the pitch content of these stereotyped patterns might coincide between Noh-drama and Curlew River there are additional cultural considerations
involved in the separate musical languages. Similarly, there are instances in Curlew River of comparable Japanese and 8 1 Western scale patterns, but to conclude that Britten used
Japanese scales in the parable would be simplistic. The impli• cations of Japanese scales and modes go far beyond the notes they represent and thus, are not comparable solely on this basis. However, the use of melodic and rhythmic patterns as structural elements is common to both the Noh-drama and Curlew
River. The Gregorian hymn, Te Lucis, serves as the basis for many melodic motifs used throughout the parable. The abbot's sung religious motif (ex. 10) comes from the plainsong (ex. 11) while the Ferryman's horn motif maintains the range of a fifth from the hymn and utilizes the intervals from the second phrase with an alternating 3rd degree (ex. 12). The Madwoman's sung motive of confusion (ex. 13) is also derived from the second phrase of the plainsong.
Example 10; p. 2, 2
Abbot
How in sad mischance A sign was gi-ven of God's grace. _i Wie in bitt'- rer Not Bin Zei-chen kam von Got- tes Gna-de.-L
Schneyer, Mary Ruth, p. 162. 95
Example 11
Slow (Lento) cresc ALL VOICES 1. Te lu-cis an-te ter-mi-num, Re-rum Cre-a-tor, po-sci-mus, Ut pro tu-a cle-men-ti-a 2. Pro-cul re - cedant sprnni - a, cE*t -noc-ti~ - urn phantas-ma-ta<- — .t : Ho-stemquenostru..... m compri-me 3. Praesta, RS - ter pi - fs- si - me, Pa-tri-que compar U-ni-ce, CumSp'i-ri-tu Pa- ra-cli-to.'J
. and rail
1 Sis praesul et cu - sto-di - a. 2. Ne pol- lu an-tur cor- po- ra. men.. 3. Reg nans per. d-mne sie-cu- lum. The ABBOT comes forward to address the congregation. Tenor Solo DerABT tritt vor.um die Gemeinde anzureden. 96
Example 12; p. 8,
^1511^3 •-TT, P 1
Example 13; p. 23, 22
/(freeW La a_ IP Tell me the, tell me the way! Tell me the, tell me the way! Jr.h.nicM^ver^stehinichLver^steh'.L
Further uses of plainsong motives include the Traveller's "May
God Preserve Wayfaring Men" at 16' , the Ferryman at 54 "God have mercy upon us"; then at 55 , the instrumental interlude plays a new melody developed.from the first line of the plain• song, which eventually becomes at 56 the important choral refrain "Curlew River" (ex. 14)..
Example 14.; p. 51, 56
7LTTTgpr Ay C(po^— in^ The Spirit's "Kyrie" again repeats the plainsong melody while another version can be seen at 86 , the Ferryman's admonition to the Madwoman to pray for the soul of her child.
A vocal aspect found specifically in the Noh drama, and transferred for use in Curlew River is that of vocal portamento
The striking instances of these vocal slides of a tone or semi• tone are found in the Madwoman's narrative at 33 The ob• sessive monotone of her speech is emotionally charged by the rising or falling twist at the end of each phrase. While the
Noh vocal portamento is often a function of the method of vocal delivery, it is also considered an ornamentation or enhancment of melody line. Britten has treated ;the portamento in the same way, using a simple, restricted melodic concept with a single ornamentation at the phrase end (ex. 15).
Example 15; p. 30 34
One day a-las he vanish'd, One day he vanish'd: -Doch-eUnesJacB-WzSchwand-er. -Ach,-da^.ver-schwand_ec
The contrast between this passage and the Madwoman's previous passages containing intense chromaticism (see 20 ffg.) is complete and the result is electric.
Vocal style in the Noh-drama is governed by the style composite in use,,either Yowa (meaning "weak") or Tsuyo (mean• ing "strong"). As previously explained, these Noh terms cannot 98 be thought of as a single description, but rather as a compo• site of many different musical aspects. Writings of the early 9 . Noh masters describe the emotional nature of various types of 0 singing-rejoicing, elegant, love, sorrowful and sublime singing - by illustrating the desired effect with a poem. The various schools of Noh-drama have formulated their own interpretations of these categories and these are passed on from teacher to pupil. Considerable difference exists in the interpretations of different schools. In Curlew River, the composer takes great pains to be very specific about the desired singing style, often requiring many changes in performing skills within one osectionf the .voca Thl econtrast Ferryman's requires entrancd eb y sonBenjamig at| n8 Britten | is a .goo dFro examplm the e declamatory style atl 8 j , the Ferryman changes to an emphatic singing style to emphasize "In every season", then to a smooth
lyrical delivery of "A year ago today" at 11 and then finishes his section at I 12 with a dramatic delivery of the portentious "Today is an important day". In spite of the restrictions Benjamin Britten imposes on himself of basing his church parable on a Noh-drama and speci• fying an all-male cast, an austere staging and a limited in• strumental accompaniment, there is a tremendous richness of resource to be found in Curlew River. The vocal music dis• cussed in this chapter reveals the resourcefulness and creative powers of a composer who, within the bounds of two cultural
Notalby Zeami, the great Noh scholar (1363 - 1443 A.D.). traditions, forges a tightly-knit, intense and inventive musical morality play.
\ 100 CHAPTER V
CONCLUSIONS Although Benjamin Britten has written that "there is nothing specifically Japanese left" in Curlew River there are many Japanese dramatic and musical idioms, adroitly handled, reshaped and integrated into the fabric of his church parable. Following in the traditions of the phenomena of nineteenth century orientalism, Britten has created an autonomous art- form based on synthesizing two cultural music ideals. Recep• tive and highly sensitive to the unfamiliar music heard on his Asian trip, desirous of achieving the intensity and concentra• tion of the Japanese Noh-drama yet cognizant of the necessity for originality rather than imitation, the composer set out to assimilate personally satisfying characteristics from two cultures into a unique musical creation.
From the musical culture of Japan, Benjamin Britten has adopted the libretto of Sumidagawa, principles of the dramatic structure, staging and costuming of the Noh, and has used Japanese instrumental and vocal tone colours and techniques. Heterophony, a fundamental Japanese musical treatment, and stereotyped rhythmic, melodic and harmonic patterns are con• sistently found throughout the parable. As in the Noh, the similar use of musical and dramatic symbolism in the parable expresses much of the mysticism found in the Japanese art- form.
From Britten's musical culture, he chose the setting of a Medieval Religious Drama and based the melodic and tonal components on the Gregorian hymn "Te lucis ante terminum." This 101 ancient Western monophonic tradition, seemingly restrictive to a twentieth century composer, actually gives rise to one of Britten's most inventive works. And, despite the many new techniques employed by the composer, many familiar Britten style characteristics are present."" The essentially tonal frame• work intensified with a process of chromatic introversion, masterful text setting, often resulting in independent rhythmic propulsion, the frequent use of unequal fourths (cf. cry of the Curlew), special interest in instrumental and vocal tone colour and prolific melodic invention found, in Curlew River are all hallmarks of the composer's style. None of the compositional traditions from either culture are simply transplanted to the score of Curlew River; rather, each aspect is tempered with Benjamin Britten's personal stamp. Adaptations of Japanese instrumental tone colours are employed in the parable, using carefully chosen timbres of Western in• struments to evoke Asian sounds. Heterophony is present not simply as a Japanese technique, but as an exploration of . : .' .. : Britten's interest in the renunciation of harmony as a compo• sitional catalyst. The dramatic structure of the Noh is closely followed, but is interspersed with choral comment, recalling the tradition of the Medieval Religious Drama with is emphasis on didactic morality. The plainsong, as the melodic basis of the work, is heard in its original form only in the pro• cessional and recessional; between these instances, its pre• sence can be detected in.every section, particularly when references to Christianity are heard. The staging, costuming 102 and use of masks have many of the ritual and symbolic qualities of the Noh, but these qualities in their Curlew River trans• formation, are even more strongly identifiable to the Western audience as the legacy on which European liturgical and dramatic traditions are based.
Benjamin Britten's Curlew River has emerged as a complex work which, under cursory observation may be appreciated as an intense, stylized and strangely beautiful work. This parable, unique among Britten's work, has a second level of appreciation, however, when the inspiration for Curlew River, is carefully explored. The music traditions of the Japanese Noh-drama coupled with those of Britten's musical heritage are merged with consummate skill, to yield an innovative and vivid work in the best spirit of enlightened orientalism. 103
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Gilbert and Sullivan. The Mikado. Farnborough, England: Gregg International Publishers Limited, 1968.
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Purcell, Henry. The Fairy Queen. London: Novello and Company, 1903.