DOCUMENT RESUME ED 058 998 RC 005 937 TITLE RecreationSymposiumProceedings. The Forest RecreationSymposium(State University of NewYork College of Forestry, Syracuse,12-14 October 1971). Darby, Pa. Northeastern INSTITUTION Forest Service (DOA), Upper Forest ExperimentStation.; State Univ. of NewYork, Syracuse. Coll. of Forestry. PUB DATE 71 NOTE 217p. EDRS PRICE MF-$0.65 HC-$9.87 Development; Management; DESCRIPTORS Athletic Activities; Personality Studies; *Planning;*Program Development; *Recreation; RecreationalActivities; Recreationists; *Research Needs; Resources;*Symposia

ABSTRACT In this collectionof 26 papers presented atthe 1971 information is Forest RecreationSymposiumheld at Syracuse, N.Y., presented about the forest resourceand forest recreationresearch. of the planner and the The symposium, designedto help meet the needs manager in bothpublic and private areas of the forest recreation resource, covered 5general areas:(1) Planning andDeveloping the Recreation Resource,(2) Managing theRecreation Resource, (3) Characterizing the RecreationUser,(4) Specific Managerial Considerations Related to UserCharacteristics, and (5) A Lookat the Research Task Ahead. Amongthespecific topicscovered were the recreation-resource inventory process,predicting values of design of facilities,economicsof recreation participation, analysis recreation development andprivate-recreation enterprises, ranking systems, multiple usefor recreation of environmental-quality of recreation in the East, law enforcement,and carrying capacity areas. Includedare 337references. (MJB) U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION & WELFARE OFFICE OF EDUCATION THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRO- DUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM THE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIG- INATING IT. POINTS OF VIEW OR OPIN- IONS STATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE OF EDU- CATION POSITION OR POLICY.

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P 11U 44. CEE INGS tel ..7),". vf viemplit a. Planned and Presented by: " -a. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Xlr 11111.91116._- Forest Service and State University of New York 1 4 College of Forestry vr 2c, in Conjunction with The Pinchot Institute for trt Environmental Forestry Research: Consortium for Environmental - Forestry Studies

4 Air

4 t, 4 . . 4,14. II 14

NORTHEASTERN FOREST EXPERIMENT STATION FOREST SERVICE, U.S. DEPARTMENT OFAGRICULTURE UPPER DARBY, PA. 1971

. WARREN T. DOOLITTLE, DIRECTOR THE FOREST .6 RECREATION SYMPOSIUM Held at State University of New York Collegeof Forestry, Syracuse, New York 12-14 October 1971 SPONSORED BY State University of New York College of Forestry USDA Forest Service: Northeastern Forest Experiment Station Northeastern Area State and Private Forestry National Recreation and Park Association New York State Office of Parks and Recreation New York State Department of EnvironmentalConservation PLANNED AND ORGANIZED BY General chairmen: W. T. Doolittle and R. E. Getty Program: E. L. Shafer, G. H. Moeller, H. E. Echelberger,D. Morrison, and W. F. La Page Local arrangements: A. Hamer and H. E. Echelberger. Publicity: H. Marx, R. Cochran, and R. F. Johnson Editor: E. vH. Larson

Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 1971. Recreation Symposium ProcPedings. 211 pp.USDA NE. Forest Exp. Sta., Upper Darby, Pa.

A collection of 26 papers presented at the RecreationSymposium held in October 1971 at Syracuse, N.Y., bringing together present knowledge about the forest recreation resource and forest recreation research. The Symposium was designed to help meet the needsof the planner and the manager in both public and private areasof the forest recreation resource.

907.2

2 FOREWORD

FOREST RECREATION RESOURCE planncrs and managcrs arc busy people. The surge in demand for recreation in recent years, including all kinds of leisure-time activitics, has all but overwhelmed thc pcoplc who mast allocatc thc ncccssary funds and rcsourccs, design anddevclop thc appro- priate equipment and facilities, and maintain and manage the recreation re- source. This Symposium was designed to hclp mcctthese needs of thc planncr and managcr in both thc public and private arcas of thc forest-recreation community. Ovcr the last scvcral dccadcs, forest-recreation rcscarch rcsults have appcarcd in all typcs of publications from one-pagc how-to-do-it pamphlets to volumi- nous works on thcorctical approaches for an arrayof rccrcation-managcmcnt problems. Thc decision-maker nccds considerable timc and money to scarch through this litcraturc before hc finds an answcr to his particular problem. The papers that appcar in thcsc Proceedings wcrc prcparcd in attempts to consolidate and synthesize past rcscarch efforts over a widc rangc of recreation subject-matter areas. At thc samc timc, cach paper includcs a wealth of refer- ence material that should be hclpful to anyoncwho wishcs to pursuc a givcn subject in morc dcpth. But, most important, the authors havc written thcir papers so that planncrs and managcrs can undcrstandthe important aspccts of cach subject without having to fight thcir way through complicatedformulas, thcorctical conccpts, or dctailcd explanations. Whcrcvcr feasible, the authors havc simplificd the so-callcd complicated aspccts of spccific conccpts by pro- viding practical cxamplcs of how thc planning and managing thcory works, or does not work, for variouslevels of recreation activities and rcsourcc conditions. When this Symposium was bcing developed, almost a ycar and a half ago, many of thc researchers who wcrc asked toparticipatc rcmarkcd that if wc waited a fcw more ycars they would have morc rcscarch results to rcinforcc or cxpand thcir present data. Such is thc lamentof cvcry rcscarchcr. Forest- recreation planncrs and managcrs cannot wait a "few morc years"; thcy want answcrs now, even though the answers may be subject to accrtain degree of crror. To paraphrasc an old saying, "It is bcttcr to havc had afcw answcrs to improve thc dccision-making proccss than ncvcr to havc had any answcrs at all.' So we hopc that thc information prcscntcd hcrc, although far from perfect, will rcsult in better forest-recreation decision-making. And if that is thc cnd rcsult, our ultimate objective for conducting thc Symposium will have been accomplished. Furthermore, we hope this Sym- posium will scrvc as a catalyst for futurc sunimarizations of rccrcation research rcsults for planning and managing purposcs. W. T. DOOLITTLE and R. E. GETTY

3 CONTENTS Planning and Developing the Recreation Resource TIIE RECREATION-RESOURCE INVENTORY PROC- ESS FOR STATE AND REGIONAL PLANS: Hugh C. Davis PREDICTING QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE VALUES OF RECREATION PARTICIPATION: Elwood L. Shafer and George H. Moeller 5 DESIGN AND LAYOUT OF RECREATION FACILITIES: Howard Orr 23 THE ECONOMIC IMPACT OF RECREATION DEVEL- OPMENT: A SYNOPSIS: Wendell G. Beardsley 28 PRIVATE RECREATION ENTERPRISE ECONOMICS: Malcolm I. Beyins 33 AN ANALYSIS OF ENVIRONMENTALQUALITY RANKING SYSTEMS: Julius Fabos 40

Managing the Recreation Resource PRESERVING NATURE IN FORESTED WILDERNESS AREAS AND NATIONAL PARKS: Miron L. Heinselnian 57 UNDERSTANDING THE VISUAL RESOURCE: Floyd Newby 68 EXTERNAL BENEFITS OF NATURAL ENVIRON- MENTS: Larry W. Tombaugh 73 INVENTORYING RECREATION USE: George A. James78 MULTIPLE USE MANAGEMENT FOR RECREATION IN THE EAST: Robert L. Prausa 96

Characterizing the Recreation User THE CAMPER: Gerald L. Cole and Bruce T. Wilkins 105 HIKERS AND OTHER TRAIL USERS: Robert C. Lucas 113 MEMBERSHIP IN CONSERVATION GROUPS AND OUTDOOR CLUBS: John C. Hendee 123 HUNTER-F1SHERMEN CHARACTERISTICS: FACTORS IN WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT AND POLICY DECI- SIONS: Robert S. Bond and James C. Whittaker 128 THE SKIER: HIS CHARACTERISTICS AND PREFER- ENCES: William A. Leuschner and Roscoe B. Herrington135 THE SNOWMOBILE: John W. Hetherington 143 Specific Managerial Considerations Related to User Characteristics UNDESIRABLE BEHAVIOR IN FOREST CAMP- GROUNDS: Roger N. Clark 150 PERSPECTIVES ON LAW ENFORCEMENT IN REC- REATION AREAS: Lawrence C. Hadley 156 COMMUNICATING WITH RECREATION VISITORS: J. Alan Wagar 161 FACILITY REHABILITATION: Edwin H. Ketchledge 166 CARRYING CAPACITY: MAINTAINING OUTDOOR RECREATION QUALITY: David W. Lime andGeorge H. Stankey 174 A Look at the Research Task Ahead CULTURAL "FOGWEED" AND OUTDOOR RECREA- TION RESEARCH: Wilbur F. La Page 186 AN OPINION ON THE FUTURE OF FOREST REC- REATION RESEARCH: John F. Hamilton 194 EXPANDING AND STRENGTHENING OUTDOOR RECREATION RESEARCH: Walter S. Hopkins 197 -THE CHALLENGE OF RECREATION PLANNING: METHODOLOGY AND FACTORS TO CONSIDER: Ronald Uleck 200 . Planning & Developingthe Recreation Resource THE RECREATION-RESOURCE INVENTORY PROCESS FORSTATE AND REGIONAL PLANS

by HUGH C. DAVIS, Associate Professorof Resource Planning, Department of Landscape Architecture,University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Mass.

ABSTRACT. The establishment of guidelines foridentifying recrea- tion resources in the inventorying processshould be limitea to conditions and characteristics of the natural resourcesthemselves. This requires not only that we define recreation,but also that we prescribe the combination of resources necessary to carryon a variety of recreational activities.

THIS PAPER dealswith conceptscan be collated withthe specific sites iden- rather than techniques. The traditional tified. Coupled with on-site investigations, approach to the topic is how to makea strong economic,social, and physical an inventory of recreation resources.Thiscase can be presentedfor the desirability has been discussed in several governmentof one site over another. publications and new approaches have been But what are the realistic minimum re- reported in a variety of professional jour-quirements for a public campground? Cer- nals. Rather than summarize what we nowtainly by now we have all developed some know about inventorying recreation re-sortofadministrativeandmanagerial sources, I have chosen toexplore several "standards." But the real pertinent question relevant topics that we do not know sois: Are these minimum requirementsbased much about, and to suggest a few areason physical resourcerequirements neces- that need study. sary for camping?; or arethey more-or-less Perhaps the greatest problem in makingarbitrary factors based on agencyphilos- an inventory arisesfrom the physical re-ophy and personal values? Clearly thelatter quirements for outdoor recreation activi-is most often the case. This is sobecause ties. Collectively these are sobroad as toone can, fromthe resource-requirement be almost without bounds. Compare,for ex-point of view, "camp" almostanywhere. ample, the task of identifying potential newUnlike a dam site, natural-resource con- dam sius in the Northeastern United Statesstraints on camping are few indeed. with the task of identifying potential new campgrounds. Realistic minimum physical A BASIC PROBLEM requirements for dam sites can be easily established. Air photos and topo maps can Herein lies a basic problem in making an be studied and tentative locations canbeinventory of potential recreation resources. placed on maps. A great quantityofFor we cannot in fact make an inventory necessary backup geologicaland hydrolog-without at one and the same time evalu- ical data are already available, andtheseating. Regardless of the techniques adopted 17 to locate new areas for recreation activities,other sections. Money for campground de- we must first establish some guidelines thatvelopment is limited, and the dollar must permit arational and more-or-less con-be stretched. And finally we are well aware sistent means of selecting one area and re-that funding agencies in Washington are jecting another. more receptive to the creation of new areas close to urban centers. We generally refer to such guidelines as "standards" and they are in fact a partial evaluation process, because they dictate THE SHORTCOMING th-t: a particular combination of natural re- All these considerations and many others sources is suitable for a camping area whilewill be given attention in preparing the another set is not. In almost all cases, how-specificationsor guidelinestoassistin ever, these standards are not basedexclu-identifyingpotentialcampgrounds. The sively on resource-) rytiabilities, but rathermore specific the standards can be made, are a combination of economic,social, andthe easier and more efficient will be the job administrativefactorscoupled withre-of identify;ng all areas meeting the criteria. source characteristics. The inventory is then made, using what- To express this same point in anotherever techniques are most appropriate. As- way: the identification of new areasforsuming it has been done properly, when potential state parks will set some mini-the inventory is completed, all areas meet- mum totalsize,say 600 acres.Thisis ing all the established standards will have largely an economic and administrativebeen located and recorded. And perhaps standard apart from the natural-resourcemore important, all areas that do not meet capability, and it reflects the cost and man-all standards will not be recorded. agement difficulties encountered in run- In this greatly oversimplified example, ning a multitude of 50- or 100-acre parkswhat has actually happened? What is the scattered throughout a state.Social anddifficulty withthisrather standardap- political constraints are reflected in theseproach?I suggest that too much of the standards by attention paid to the distancetotal planning process has been made an from centers of population and proximityintegral part of what really should be only to othei already existing recreation areas.a data-gathering proces3. Too many plan- All thisis by way of saying that thening considerations have been built into broad basic guidelines used for identifyingthe "selection" process of identifying recre- and making an inventory of recreation re-ation resources. For, in fact, a vast num- sources are not founded strictly ontheber of resource complexes suitable .for characteristics of the resources themselves,camping have not been identified because but rather on a mixture of several kinds ofthey lacked the non-resource characteris- constraints. Though it is clear why this istics that were built into the standards. In done, there are benefits to be derived if thisreality what happens in these situations is were not always the case. that, in terms of the recreation resource, a kind of development priority system be- Consider the situation of a state begin-came a major and inseparable partof the ning an inventory as a necessary early step in the revision of its state-wide recreationinventory process. plan. Previous so called "demand" studies I believe this is undesirable for several indicate a need for additional campground. reasons. First, it is not a completeinven- We know that recreators do not just gotory of areas physically suitedfor camp- camping, but that they engage in othergrounds. Second, and closely tied to the recreational activities, and that the tent orfirst, it greatly reduces the planners' ability trailer is often just home base. Thus theto consider alternativedevelopment pro- new campgrounds shouldbe near water,grams. Third, and byfar the most im- and in association with woodland or forestportant, while natural-resourcecomplexes for hiking and so on. We also know thatdo change over time, they change at a certain parts of the stateare currentlymuch slower rate than do political, eco- better serviced with recreation areas thannomic,social,and administrative condi- tions. Thus, when any or all of these lattermeans that some specificationsfor identifi- constraints change, the inventory will havecation must be established. The develop- to be repeated in light of the newsituationment of these specificationsis extremely and its effect on the standards and guide-significant, for they in fact begin to attach lines. a quality to the recreationexperience. Finally, by placing so many different Using again the simple example of a po- kinds of constraints on the data-gatheringtentialcampground,iftheidentifying operation, economic and decision-makingguidelines include such things as size of efficiency is increased but at the expense ofpotential areas, presence of flat water, and planning flexibility. And an inflexible planpercent of tree canopy cover, somedegree is almost always an extremely poor plan. of a quality environment for the camping experience is being established. Obviously THE ALTERNATIVE additional increments of quality may be added or subtracted through area design The alternative to this, it seems to me, isand management techniques. But neverthe- quite clear. The establishment of guidelinesless the basic resource combinations looked fortheidentificationof recreationre-for in the inventory are, or can be, afirst sources in the inventory processshould bestage in some sort of quality measurement limited to conditions and characteristicsfor recreation experiences. of the natural resources themselves. This, as most of usknow, is not as easy as it This concept is useful in another way as well. If the guidelines for identifying rec- sounds. It not only requires that we define of recreation (no small task in itself), 'but also reation resources includethesesorts that we prescribe the combination of re-things, as determinants of a "good or bad" sources necessary to carry on avariety ofenvironment for the list of activities, I sug- activities. It.may perhaps be helpful to ex-gest they may also beuseful as one com- ponent in the actualplanning taskof plore this task a bit further, and to con- de- sider some of the things involved. .establishing a series of priorities for First, as part of the definition process, a velopment. list of basic outdoor activities must be com- This is not contradictory to what Ihave piled. This list itself is a kind of definitionsuggested above, for it is only one of many in that what itincludes is considered out-factors in the planning process that must door recreation and what is left out is not.enter into a priorityschedule. It is strictly The listis of prime importance, as onlylimited to the character of the resource. data pertinent to it will become partof theIt offers no assistance in regard topoliti- inventory; thus the list forms the limitscfcal, economic, social, andadministrative recreation content of a subsequent plan.Itpriorityconsiderations,whichare,and is my belief that initiallr this listshould should be kept, separate fromnatural re- attempt to be all-inclusiveand cover as source capabilities. complete an array as possible of those recreationactivitiesthatare dependent upon an identifiable nature resourcebase. IMPLICATIONS This activity list, I believe, is so impor- This rather brief description of the iden- tant that if it is theresponsibility of a pub-tification and inventoring of recreation re- lic agency to make aninventory, thatsources suggests severalthings. First, that agency shouldinvolve citizenadvisorythe process be limited to natural resources. groups in thetask of its compilation toSecond, .that an activity list bedeveloped assure as manydifferent kinds of activitiesthat suggests the kinds of recreation oneis as possible. seeking to provide. Third, that guidelines The second part of the task centersmust be established thatdefine the neces- around the fact mentionedearlier:thatsary characteristicsof the resources needed to provide therecreation activity. Fourth, there are certain kinds of outdoor recrea- provide tion activities that arenon-specific in theirthat the previous three steps can data that are useful in the planningjob for resourcerequirements.Thisofcourse 9 suggesting a set of alternative development ditions will be most helpful. For example, priorities. Finally, it implies that additionalhow do people react to different sizes of information must be collected relating tobeaches? Does length of stay on a beach other factors that enter in the recreationchange as density of users changes. Is there planning procedures. This material can per- a preference forcampgrounds etc. in con- haps be gathered at the same time asthe iferous stands over hardwood areas? What resource data, but itshould be a totallysorts of recreation can becombined in one separate and distincttabulation. Onlyafter area without diminishingthe quality of a thitinventory is made are these various setsuser's experience? How do these activity as resource ofmaterialcombined andfinalplans combinations shift, if at all, established. characteristics change? It is clear that in the identificationof Finally I suggest that perhaps the single recreation resources the most criticalele-most important study needed,and one of ment is to establishthe guidelines or stand- the most difficult, is of how people per- ards. Research in this area continues tobeceive their environment. Were we to have important. The studies on thisbroad topicthis information at hand, it mightwell have made some headway. But morestudieschange many of the arbitrary standards we of user responses to various resource con-are forced to use at present. PREDICTING QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVEVALUES OF RECREATIONPARTICIPATION

byELWOOD L. SHAFER, JR.,andGEORGE MOELLER, respectively Director, Pinchot Institute, Northeastern Forest Experi- nzent Station, Forest Service,U. S. Department of Agriculture, Upper Darby, Pa.; and Project Leader,Recreation Research, North- eastern Forest Experiment Station,Syracuse, N.1'.

ABSTRACT. If future recreation consumption andassociated in- tangible values can be predicted, the problemof rapid decision- making in recreation-resource management canbe reduced, and the problems of implementing those decisions canbe anticIpated. Man- agement and researchresponsibilities for meeting recreation demand are discussed, and provedmethods for forecasting recreation use and associated qualitative values arepresented. The best approach for developing recreation-participation rateequations may be to include a distance factor, recreation-supplyvariables, socio-economic measurements of users and non-users,and qualitative measures of recreation environmentsall in the same model. The effectsof technological progress on values and behavior patterns aredescribed; and methods for forecasting relevanttechnological advances are outlined.

klERICANS, with more time on theirpublic and private lands rests squarely on hands and more money to spendthe shoulders of recreation resourceplan- than ever before, boomed leisure intoners and managers. an 83-billion-dollar businessin 1969. (U. S. This paper deals with the problems of News and World Report1969). Thatforecasting the quantitative and qualitative figure tops the total outlay for national de-aspects of outdoor recreationparticipation. fense during the same year. The moneyAt times this objective seemsalmost in- going into outdoor recreation activities andsolvable, for this is a dangerous cornerin equipment reaches into almost every aspectthe research arena where naturalsciences of the Nation's economy. Today, pleasureand social philosophies collidewith a re- isbusiness. And it's the fastest-growingsounding crash. business in the land. In America, the dominant schoolof been Behindthescenes, serving the ever-thought in resource management has increasing demand for the trappingsofpreoccupied with the quantity of things leisure, are the muscle and sinew ofAmer-volume of output, reduction of costs, crea- ican technology. But the responsibilitiesoftion of plenty. This is thetrademark of the meeting the quantitative and qualitative as- ourindustrial-technological system: pects of outdoor recreationdemand forability to produce large quantitiesfor large forests, mountains, lakes, and streams onnumbers of consumers. But thependulum ii is swinging back. Today, many foresters PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS aredeeply concerned with matters of quality especially quality of forest en- Management Responsibilities vironments as they relate to the leisure- time enjoyment of our society. Recreation-resource managers are almost certain to face disaster as a profession if However, it is one thing to point out the they do not plan for quantitative and quali- need for forest-recreation resource plan- tative recreation values of outdoor recrea- ning and management to include both the tion in carrying out their management tangible and intangible values of outdoor responsibilities. On the other hand, man- recreation.Itisquite another thing toagers are most certain to increasethe make profound institutional changes that likelihood of having a more respected poro- pervadeallsociety,in orderto carry fession if they plan for these values. Even through such recommendations.It'sstill if managers increase their understanding of another thingthe most difficult of allto therecreation - consumption phenomena, make those changes fast. they are likely to face deep trouble be- Institutional changes and related changes cause even the best plans will be developed in political and social values become even and fostered by people with limited knowl- more important if resource managers try edge, sometimes unaware of the extent of to meet recreation demand over the next their own limitations. decade.Thismeansthatinstitutional To better understand the relationships changes must happen rapidly if they are to amongrecreation-consumptionpatterns, be effective during the next decade, and recreation-supply variables, user character- they will have to occur pervasively. istics, management procedures, technologi- In many cases, forecasts of quantitative caladvances,andintangiblerecreation and qualitative aspects of recreation usevalues, recreation-resource managers 2nd will need to be conducted quickly, before researchers must be willing to change some managers have the knowledge needed to of their present attitudes and research ap- act. Otherwise predicting recreation con- proaches. sumption and relatingit to supply will The resource manager will have to ac- continue to be what Chubb (1967) called cept and use research results or models that "the Achilles heel" of recreation planners involve many variables. These variables will and managers. Thus there is an urgent need be related probabilistically and will describe to analyze the problems of forecasting cause-and-effect demand-relationships over quantitative and qualitative values of forest- long time periods (5 to 10 years). In some recreation participation, and to recommend circles, this suggestion may be a difficult the necessary research studies and costs re- pill for managers (and researchers) to swal- quired to solve those problems. low. It is not unfair to say that a minority The major reasons for forecasting the of managers will absolutely refuse to accept quantitative and qualitative values of out- this premise; consequently, some future re- door-recreation consumption are: search will be designed according to the To recognize possible implications ofway these ;me managers perceive the long-term recreation-management com-problem of forecasting recreation values. mitments made today. Such research will undoubtedly produce To prepare now for related commit- nothing more than sugar pills to cope with ments that will have to be made rapidly, the problems offorecastingrecreation economically, and with minimum dis- values. ruption sometime in the future (War- In recent years some managers have re- ren 1966). marked, "Give me a method for forecasting If future recreation consumption can berecreation consumption that's fast, inex- predicted, the problem of rapid decision-pensive, easy to apply, arid easy to under- making can be reduced, and the problems stand." Given adequate funding, research of implementing those decisions can be can provide management with equations, or anticipated. formulas, or models that predict tangible

1.2 not always be correct,and may lead to and intangible valuesof recreation partici- of true causes and pation. These models canbe quick, easy,about as good an idea However, there iseffects as that afforded by thePtolemaic and inexpensive to use. system thatproclaimed that the universe no guaranteethat management or research- of understand why these equa-rotated around the earth. A true grasp ers will fully even the simplestinteraction of man and tions work. Herein lies oneof the most knowledge and the difficult problems in the useof formulasnature requires special demand and in-ability to use abstractions,which like the for forecasting recreation Copernican system is at odds with common- tangible valuesacceptingprediction pro- gazes at the uni- understood. sense impressions as one cedures that are not fully night. With the responsibilityfor making rec-verse on a starry that involve Today's recreation-resourceplanners and reation-management decisions the time or inclina- thousands, and sometimesmillions of dol-managers do not have tion to delve into the manydetails of fore- lars,recreation-resourcedecision-makers estimatesaboutcasting quantitative andqualitative values usually want answersnot the research- recreation consumption. Tobe sure, theseof recreation use. Therefore recognize that rec-er's responsibility is toeventually produce same decision-makers the recreation- reation-consumption forecasts arestatisticalresults that are meaningful to be nothingmanagement process. estimates that sometimes may researchers need to more thancarefully formulated guesses.At At the same time, the same dme, managers mayrebel at thehelp recreation-resource managers emerge these guesses in a formfrom a stage of conventionalwisdom to a idea of receiving understand how rec- that emphasizesuncertainty. For example,state where managers publish the statement:reation consumption will occur.For in- a researcher may do not explain the "On the average, acertain recreation ac-stance, if researchers tivity will increase byX percent by theprocess by whichrecreation consumption year Y,with 95percentprobability".occurs, such anexplanation is as meaningful be any easy way toto management asthe Apparition's procla- There does not seem to that Macbeth would work around the problemof uncertainty ormation in Shakespeare, probability, or to directlyrelate the "aver-"never be vanquisheduntil Great Bimam recreation-user survey towood" came to "DunsinaneHill", or that age" results of a harmed "by man a particularrecreation-management situa-Macbeth would not be is not "average". born of woman" (Clark1936). Unfortu- tion that usually heard of camouflage If this problem ofuncertainty and varia-nately Macbeth never bility is to be met, it mustbe met head-on.or cesareanbirth. researchers should One way of doingthis is to developfore- Similarly, recreation of what may beexpected un-not be content toproclaim, for example, casts in light drops, recreation der best, worst,and most likelyfuturethat, as family income supply conditions.consumption also drops. Adecrease in in- recreation-behavior and the Forecasts from such anapproach reflect thecome could becaused by reduction in impossibiliry of preciseprediction, andwork force (which mayhave a negative the developmentofeffect on recreationconsumption); or a should logically lead to could be caused by management plansdesigned to cope withdecrease in income conditions arren workers taking longervacation periods alternativefuture have a positive 1966). (which may very likely effect on recreationconsumption). Methods recreation consump- Research Responsibilities developed to forecast tion are most likely tobe accepted if re- Many of today'srecreation researchers how recreation thinking in forecast-search shows management need to reorient their consumption takes place,rather than just demand and mmeasuring ing recreation provide managementwith an equation that associated intangiblevalues.Researchers based on past or toforecasts consumption must realizethat to apply common sense the surface concerningpresent data. what is visible on Furthermore, sufficienttime should be man's social enjoymentof the forest may available in the research schedule to allowquantitative and qualitative values of out- for updating research communications be-door recreation, we must discuss certain tween management and research. This cangeneral features of these equations(or be accomplished once or twice a year by models). researchers and interestedrecreation re- The equation to determine the area of a source managers hibernating in some se- circle is cluded spot and asking each other such unaskable questions and rethinking such A = r R2 (1) overall problems as: Are we really con-To find A, one simply measures the radius ducting relevant research in this area? Forof any given circle, squares it, and multi- whom? What changes are needed to more effectively provide the necessary demand plies it by the constant 77-. models? What are managers going to. do Here is another equation: with the research results when they have U = 3409 0.0183 Xi them? Why do we want to know the an- + 0.1757 X2 (X, X22) (2) swer to that question regarding intangible values? If I could give you the answer to which is as simple to use as A = 7f R2, ex- that question right now, how would itcept that it forecasts quite accurately the change management operations? Are we average annual use intensity (U) a manager really asking the right questions? In what can expect at any given campground in the form would research results be most use- Adirondacks (Shafer and Thompson 1968). ful? Are there better ways to get the an-The numbers in the equation, such as 3409 swers you want? Are you willing to payor 0.0183, are constants, just like 7f in the the cost required to obtain the information? first equation. Except now, instead of meas- uring the radius of any circle to find its These kinds of discussions will be hardarea, one measures the items (or variables) work, but more needed research changes designated as X1, X2, and X3 for any given and reorientationof key problems will or planned campground: come out of such meetings than out of a group of year-round recreation researchers X, is the total square feet of land and water area at the campground's swim- working behind dosed doors. ming beach. X.2 iS the total number of campsites in Prediction Model Characteristics the campground. X, is the total number of islands acces- Forecasting was once an honorable occu- sible by motorboat from the camp- pation for seers and magicians. Over the ground. last 10 to 20 years science has attempted to take forecasting of recreation-use and in- Insert these three values in the equation, tangible values out of the area of conjec-perforth the necessary calculations, and you ture, and to develop equations that makecan determine ihe total average annual visitor-daysthat can be expected at a accurate prediction possible (Dub! 1967). particular Adirondack campground. The In fact, equations for predicting certaintime required to measure the three X values types of recreation values have already been developed for specific management pur-from topography maps, or site-design lay- poses. In most cases, research is needed to outs, is approximately 5 minutes. improve the reliability of these equations, Predictive recreation-consumptionfor- but the toughest part of the problemmulas have also been developed that involve methodologyhas alrmdy been solved. Sur- other kinds of variables (X values). How- prisingly, very few managers have adoptedever, the overall approach to forecasting these methodologies to their particular rec-tangible, and even intangible,values of reation-management problems. Why? Foroutdoor recreation is the same. The major some of the reasons already discussed underproblem is to define the variables that you the professional responsibilities of manage-think are important in influencing demand, ment and research. Therefore, before re-and then to mathematically find the rela- viewingvariousequationsthat predicttionship between those variables and some

8 14 workers, and measure of behavior, orattitude, or par-users,sportsmen, welfare ticipation in a given recreationactivity. others have argued that intangible recrea- tion benefits cannot be valuedquantita- But how does one decide whatequation misses when forecastingtively, and that any attempt to do so or methodology to use the qualitative essence of suchexperiences. recreation values? If arecreation-resource Economic-demand curves for recreation manager adapts resultsof previous researchparticipation do not measure thediminish- to solve hisparticular forecasting problem, closely related toing marginal utilityof recreation facilities. such research should be economic-demandcurvesare the scope of the problem athand; other-Statistical should besimply a convenient way of summarizing a wise, a new forecasting equation set of empiricalobservations in a functional developed through additionalresearch. statement. Any attempt to squeezeconno- In evaluating an equationthat forecaststations regarding utility orwelfare out of recreation participation oramenity values,such data is at best a dubiouspractice, and an importantconsideration is the R2multi-at worst simply a nonsequitor. The slope squared. An R2 ple correlation coefficient and position of statisticaleconomic-demand value, which can varyfrom 0 to 1, de-curves is largely afunction of income dis- variation for the scribes what percent of tribution(Seckler 1966).In estimating value being iiredicted isexplained by therecreation benefits, we are dealingwith a equation. The closer R2 COMM tO1, thevague utilityfunction. We are attempting better the equation. Based on pastresearch to estimate marginalutilities in a context efforts, one way to evaluate howuseful an where we cannot quantify prices,and can- equation may be forforecasting recreationnot operatewithin the rules of the market. use or amemtyvalues is as follows: Some of the first research attempts to Usefulness of the forecast recreation participationinvolved If the Rs value of anequation for management gravity models, as developedby Clawson equation is purposes (1959) and later describedby Cesario 0- 0.20 Poor that as 0.21 - .40 So-so (1969). A gravity model stipulates .41 - .60 Pretty good distance from a recreationfacility increases, .61 - .80 Very good decreases according .81 -1.00 Really great the use of that facility to some mathematicalfunction (fig. 1). Now we will examine howthe R2 value Going one step further, someresearchers of various predictiveequations found insuggest that theexpenditures incurred in past researchchange according to the typestraveling to and from afacility, plus on-site of variables used, and the area orsize of the expenditures, reflect thevalue of the rec- Results of recreation ntraction involved. reation experience.Therefore, travel and this literature reviewwill help to justifyon-site costs incurredthroughout a range the selection of futureresearch studies, and of distances from a facilityprovide an esti- be to pinpointthe variables that should mate of economicdemand for that facility. studied when forecastingfuture recreationThus the gravity modelis nothing more values. than the first step of a two-stepprocedure

EFFECTS OF QUANTITATIVE VALUES ON PARTICIPATION

Economic Demand and Distance Measurements Attempts to use economic-demand curves for assigning monetary values torecreation RECREATION benefits are in response to aneed felt by USE administrators who want tojustify recrea- INTENSITY tion-facility developments. Atthe same time, considerableopposition to the eco- DISTANCE nomic approach hasarisen.Wilderness

9 for developing an economic-demand curveparking places, amount of money t1,--man- for a recreation complex or region. agement spends on advertising, or aistance Using this method, Allen and Whaleyfrom population centers (the gravity-model (1968) developed a model that predictedeffect) to determine the amount ofrecrea- overnight occupancy of campgrounds intion use to expect at a specific recreation the Cache National Forest in northernarea. Utah. The gravity-model phase of the ex- For example, average annual visitor-days periment predicted use of a total campingper campground, for 24 Adirondack camp- complex on the Forest per 100,000 popula-grounds, was described by a model that tion residing as various origins from theused four on-site variables. The model had complex. The number of competing camp-.an R2 of 0.98. A visitor-day was defined as ing alternatives within a 75-mile drive ofone camping party using one tent or trailer each population origin was also included assite at a campsite in a given campground a variablein the model. The resultingfor one day (Shafer and Thompson 1968). equation explained 57 percent of the varia- In another study, total recreation visits tion (R2 = 0.57) in camping use within theat any one of 154 outdoor recreation sites camping region studied. In the same study, 74 percent of the variation in fishing-usein the Appalachian Region throughout six Northeastern States was forecast witha intensity of two streams in the Uintahmodel that contained four supply variables Mountains of Utah was explained by usingand one management-procedure variable round-trip distance (in miles) br-ween a(fee vs. no fee). The R2 was 0.74 (Seneca stream and a given county of residence,and Cicchetti (1969). plus two additional socio-economic varia- bles. An equation that explained 71 percent of A study by Smith and Kavanagh (1969)the variation in total visitor-days per ski in England showed how the number ofarea for 26 ski resorts in northern New visits per 10,000 population from urbanEngland and New York used three site areas within an 80-mile radius of a 1,570-variables plus a distance measurement (a acre reservoir were estimated quite reliablygravity-model feature) from major north- (R2 = 0.69) by knowing the distance of aeastern metropolitan areas. One visitor-day given urban population-density zone fromwas defined as one skier visiting a ski resort the reservoir. When population density induring any part of one day. The same both urban and rural areas around the reser-study described how, during a winter sea- voir was included,the resulting modelson of comparatively poor snow accumula- explained 90 percent of the variation intion, money spent on various types of ad- reservoir use. vertising significantlydescribed (R2 = 0.83) the number of visitors a ski-lodge Wennergren and Nielsen (1968) deter-manager could expect (Echelberger and mined the relationship between the numberShafer 1970). of boating trips taken by a sample of 9.2 percent of the boaters in two northern The essential point of these and similar Utah counties, and the travel distance be-studies has been to show how supply- tween a respondent's residence and a givenoriented variables can be used to estimate lake. The resulting equation explained 80quite reliably (based on R2) the amount of percent of the variation in the probabilityuse an outdoor-recreation facility may re- that a given rzcreationist would visit anyceive. However, there are several important one of 22 alternative water-recreation sites.underlying assumptions that need to be considered in judging the usefulness of equations that result from this type of re- Influence of On-Site Characteristics search approach. Methodologies have been devised that For instance Seneca et al (1968) argued depend largely on the physical site charac-that supply variables, rather than socio- teristics of a particular recreation area, sucheconomic characteristics of recreationists, as lake size, MC of swimming area, miles o,fshould be used in the development of rec- ski trails, number of campsites, number ofreation-consumption models because the growth in income and leisure time, together ous recreation-supply alternatives available with changing attitudes of the population,to the recreation planner. have reduced the relative importance of the Furthermore, in an equation that relates traditional constraints of travel cost anduse intensity to on-site supply character- distance. Seneca et al. (1968 ) pointed out: istics, the amount of user-days generated by The "costs" of a200-mile trip to the rl-t equation is conditional on the presence head of a family who owns his car, a ot demand. Therefore a model that predicts two-week paid vacation, and a desire to use on the basis of supply variables is not get out of the city, are not nearly as im- portant in his decision to travel as is his equivalent to an economic-demand func- knowledge that when he arrives at the tion.When supply-orientedprediction site both the natural enviromnent 2nd the models are developed, the question remains physical facilitin he desires to use are in as to whether economic conditions are such fact present and obtainable. that the predicted amount of recreation The inference here isreinforced laterwill still occur if additional supply condi- when we discuss the influences of usertions are developed according to the com- characteristics on recreation participationbination of supply variables specified in the and examine how R2 values resulting frommodel. In this regard, perhaps an independ- prediction models generally are much lowerent recreation-use-pattern study is needed than for supply-oriented prediction models. for the geographic area and user population being considered. The results of this kind Also, some sites used in the developmentof study should then be combined with of supply-oriented equations will be over-results from supply models for the same used-as indicated by the use-intensity atgeographic region. (The supply model in- overflow areaswhile other sites will be atdicates the availability of recreation oppor- or below capacity (regardless ofquality oftunity, given certain supply conditions.) the recreation experience). Accordingly,An allocation of the projected future de- the resulting estimated user-response equa- mand can then be made to determine tion implicitly will reflect an average qualitywhether and where shortages exist in rec- of a recreation-day based on the actual use reation supply. conditions at the number of sites examined at a particular point in time.Seneca and A further difficulty remains, however, if Cicchetti (1970) explain that estimated useshortages in recreation opportunities are from a supply-oriented equation does notdetected for a given geographic area necessarily imply the actual capacity of thewhich is usually the case in this era of sites. Capacity cannot be determined with-increasing recreation demand. From an eco- nut defining explicit qualitycriteria. Obvi- nomic standpoint, this crucial problem re- ousiy there is a research need for betterquires the valuation of a recreation experi- understanding of recreation capacity in re-ence, and the subsequentjustification of latinn to the problem of a quality experi- increased recreation supply. ence. More about thislater. The valuation of a recreation experience When using an equation that relates rec-is an important but thorny problem. Valid reation use-intensity to recreation-supplyobjections exist in the literature for all the variables, one should not confuse the pre-economic-valuation methods of recreation- dicted recreation use with economicde-participation patterns. In this regard, rec- mand; and also, one should not aSSUITle that reation-resource managers would be well supply of facilities will generate the associ-advised not to worry about the peculiarities ated economic demand. More explicitly, aof an economic valuation approach to justi- use-prediction equation that involves sup-fying recreation expenditures, but rather ply variables will yield quantitativeindica-to concentrate on the morefundamental tions of the number of recreationvisits thatproblems of justifying their decisions on could be accommodated within theboundsthe basis of how use-intensity is influenced of present supply conditions. Such an equa-by the quantitative values of recreation tion can also provide someknowledge ofsupply, consumer characteristics, and quali- the substitution possibilities among thevari-tative aspects of the recreation experience. User Characteristics Number of models with Influenceof range It' in this range 0.01 - 0.10 27 Another kind of equation for forecasting .11 -.20 20 recreation consumption utilizes socio-eco- .21 -.30 2 nomic characteristics of a given population. .31 -.40 1 These variables include such items as annual One of the most successful recreation- family income,educationof householdparticipation models involving socio-eco- head, and occupation. nomic characteristics was developed by For instance, a recreation activity-scaleGillespie and Brewer (1969). Using17 value) which reflects user participation insocio-economic variables that can be meas- 11different kinds of outdoor recreationured from United States Census data, their activities throughout the United States) canmodel explained 62 percent of the variation be predicted by using nine socio-economicin annual water-onented outdoor recrea- variables. This model has an R2 of 0.30tion-days per family for residents of St. (Mueller and Gurin 1962). Louis, Missouri. In a comprehensive study of socio-eco- nomic data collected by the Outdoor Rec- What Prediction Method to Use reationResourcesReviewCommission (ORRRC), Kalter and Gosse ( 1969 ) de- Gravity models seem most appropriate for forecasting demand for relatively small veloped recreation-participant demand func-homogeneous regions where vegetation, ter- tions for residents of 12 planning regions. inrain, and water-recreation resources are New York State. Thirteen socio-economicfairly uniform. The general form of this variableswere involved in themodels, which examined overall participation, vaca-kind of equation is: tion trips, and outing participation in the U = f (Distance) five recreation activities for 1960 and 1965. and it is read, use (U) is a function (f) of The range of R2 values for the 74 result-distance. That is, the number of people ing recreation-demand models were: (U) from a series of population centers Number of models with who will use a given recreation area can be 12' range Ft' in this range predicted by lmowing the distance from 0.01 - 0.10 9 the recreation area to a population center. .11 - .20 12 .21 -.30 13 The economic-demand model, a byprod- .31 -.40 10 uct ofthegravity model, may be useful for .41 -.50 11 .51 - .60 10 forecasting economic demand for recrea- .61 -.70 tion activities where a realistic entrance, or .71 -.80 4 participation, fee is involvedsuch as com- Variables that did not explain a significantmercial campgrounds, ski resorts, snow- proportion of total recreation participationmobile developments,or commercial were retained in the modelswhen thehunting-fishing enterprises. An economic- authors considered such variables as im-demand model can also be useful for pre- portant.This procedure may have ac-dicting the change in demand for public countedfor some improvement in R2facilities that may result from fee changes. values. The general form of this model is: Cicchettieta/. (1969),alsousing U = f (Costs) ORRRC National Survey data, developed recreation-use participation models for 24In other words, use at a specific facility is types of activities in 1960 and 1965.Mostrelated to costs incurred in troveling to and of the independent variables aced in thefrom the facility, plus on-site admission models were socio-economic characteris-costs. tics of the American public, plus a few Use-prediction equations that involve supply variables (including landsmpe-clas-measurements of on-site supply character- sificationstandards). The range of 1(2istics at recreation facilities generally result values for the 79 resulting models were: in higher R2 values than gravity models (except when gravity models are limited of recreation environments, and emanating tosmall homogeneous recreation com- from any one of several population centers, plexes). Recreation-supplycharacteristics is related to distance from the environment used in such models should be containedto the population centers, supply charac- within the same physiographic areasuchteristicsof the environments, and user asthe Adirondacks or the Appalachiancharacteristics inthe population centers Region. Including travel distance with on- surrounding the environments. If the quali- site characteristics in the same model seemstative values of an environment are inserted toincrease the resulting R2 value. Thein this last equation, the predictability of general form of this equation is: the equation may be improved. The prob- lem here, of course, is to quantify these f (Supply) so-called intangibles. That's the next sub- Specifically, use of a recreation facility isject. related to on-sitecharacteristics of that facility. Equationsthat employ recreation-user EFFECTS OF QUALITATIVE characteristics to predict recreation-use pat- VALUES ON PARTICIPATION terns seem most useful for management and When considering qualitative values of planning purposes when a homogeneousrecreationparticipation,managementis population of users and a fixed supply con-playing in an unfamiliar ball park. Essen- dition are involved. When a travel distancetially, the name of the game (meeting the variableisincluded with the socio-eco- needsof outdoorrecreationists)hasn't nomic valuables, the R2 value seems to im- changed, but in this ball park the base lines prove slightly. One distinct advantage ofare not clearly marked, and managers need the socio-economic model is that the datato be extremely careful not to hit a foul necessary to develop the model may beball and think it's a home run. One of the obtained quickly and inexpensively frommost difficult problems in outdoor recrea- U. S. Census tracts; and future data for thetion management is not one of forecasting equation can be obtained periodically there-and accommodating sheer quantities of after to determine any shifts in the values visitors,but of allocating resources and of independent variables. For example, the funds that can accommodate recreational socio-economic model may be useful forexperiences of varying qualities (Schoenfeld forecasting consumption of National For- 1968). Qualitative recreation values involve est recreation opportunities thatsurroundsuch intangibles as security, beauty, pleas- a given urban-suburban area. A separateant feelings, health, freedom from stress, model can be developed for each city. The and self satisfaction. general form for the model is: U = f (User Characteristics) The Best Recreation Environment In this case, use or participation in a given Webb (1967) pointed out, when discuss- activity ior people living in a specific pop-ing the qualitative values of wildlife, that ulation centerisrelated to their socio-"citizens are seeking ways tochallenge economic characteristics. their intellectual cunosity and utilize their In summary, the best approach to de-creative energy" through recreational ex- veloping predictive recreation-use modelsperiences; and in this regard, resource man- may be to include distance,supply, andagers should "no longer be forced to play socio-economic variables in the same equa- the cost-benefit game" of providing the tion: intangiblebenefitsof such experiences. U = f (Distance, Supply, User Character- Webb's inferences seem appropriate to the istics, Qualitative Values of the management and enjoyment of all natural Environment) recreation resources. The inference drawn from such an equa- But how can recreation environments be tion, if it works, would be that recreation developed to provide maximum intangible use (U) expected at any oneof a numberbenefits for man? In the case of animals ib there are at least some guidelines. In anbecause they own or manage it, individuals optimalenvironment, awildlifespecies in each instance react the way they do, maintains its balance of births and deathsArdrey argues, for reasons no different, no and does not destroy its environment. Rec-less innate, no less ineradicable, than do reation-resource managers cannot controllower animals. As Ardrev points out, "the man's birth rate, but they can obviouslydog barking at you from behind his mas- exert pressures to insure that man does notter's fence acts for a motive indistinguish- destroy his forest-recreation environments.able from that of his master when the fence Determining thebest forest-recreation was built". Ring-tailed lemurs, prairie dogs, environment for mansuch as stipulatingrobins, tigers, and Atlantic salmon, fence optimum tent-site spacing, defining howlizards, herring gulls, monkeys, and man many acres of water are needed to enjoyall of us will give everything we have for a day's fishing, or determining how largea place of our own, or to maintain what we an area of undisturbed wildland environ-already have. This theory applies particu- ment is required for one man to contem-larly to the territory man uses for leisure- plate the values of naturewill not be antime enjoyment; including the shade from easy task. These kinds of challenges call fora tree in his own back yard to the majestic value judgments as to what is meant by ansnow-capped peak of a distant mountain. environmentbeingthebestfor man Thus the clamor of certain groups for (Osmond 1965). preservation of forest environments, the ringing condemnation of resource managers The Need for Territory and Status by other recreationistsfor not building more recreation areas,or reciprocal re- One might begin to explain what is bestactions from some forest owners or man- for man by examining how the anthro- agers to defend their tights to develop their pological nature of man relates to his leis- forest as they please, involves a force far ure behavior patterns. Certainly, a principalgreater than a mere social reaction of our cause of today's recreation-demand explo- times. sion is the affluent combination of more Territory in the evolving world of ani- money and more leisure time in which tomals, whether that territory be one's fav- spend it. But an even more basic factor oritehikingtrain, campground, boating contributing to man's search for a place inarea, fishing spot, or one's silvicultural re- the great outdoors probably is related tosponsibility, is "a force perhaps older than his biological makeup. sex" (Ardrey 1966). It is well to keep this From our ape ancestors on the Africanpoint in mind when weighing the pros and veldt, Ardrey (1966) suggests, man hascons of management and research efforts acquired an imperative need for "territory".designed to help solve the almost over- Man, Ardrey proclaims, is as much a terri-whelming problem of meeting the qualita- torial animal as a "mockingbird singing intive aspects of recreation demands and the clear California night". Ardrey implies values. that man acts as he does for reasons of his evolutionary pastnot his cultural present The Need for Recognition and that his behavior (including,leisfire) is as much a mark of his species as "the Considerations other than an imperative shape of a human thigh bone or the config-territorial need may influence man's intan- uration of nerves in a corner of the humangible outdoor-recreationvalues. For in- brain". stance, Morris (1969) described how the For instance, if certain segments of theneed to be recognized as a member of the public defend the aesthetic quality of aleisure class also influences behavior prit- forest environment against development be-terns and value systems of recreationists. cause they feel the forest is of their In relating how man inevitably tries to heritage; or vice versa, ifpubriror privateestablish a status among his fellow man that managers claim the right to develop thatis somewhat above the average, particularly same forest in the manner of their choosingwhere leisure behavior patterns are con-

2 cerned, Morris (1969) uses an analogy be-for every occasion; the camera buff who tween man and insects. For example, Morris must have a variety of cameras dangling points out that many kinds of insects arearoundhis neck; the hunter who has a poisonous; so larger animals learn to avoidseries of rifles or stuffed big-game heads eating them. It is in the interests of poison-hanging in his den; the camper who has a ous insects to show a warning flag of somemirage of decals sticking on his trailer; or kind, such as the way a wasp displays blackthe wilderness hiker who simply must have and yellow bands on its body. Predatorsthe 24 ounce (rather than the 3%2 ounce) know these markings and avoidwasps. sub-zero sleeping bag inhis pack. Such Other harmless and unrelated nonpoisonous examples are almost endless. insect species "have taken advantage of this These are some of the intangible values system by developing color patterns similarthat are an important part of recreation be- to those of the warning club" and ..."byhavior, but that are very difficult to exam- becoming fake members of the warningine, let alone measure. Nonetheless, such club they reap the benefits (underliningvalues play an important rolein man's ours) without having to possess any realleisure-time behavior and participation pat- poison" (Morris 1969). terns. Herein lies an exciting challenge to This insect example can be used as aresearch, in terms of basic methodology crude analogy to help us understand whatand comprehensive experimental design, has happened to the human status seeker.that can lead to improved understanding of Simply by "wearing the flag" of domi-intangible recreation values. These values nance, certain individuals say they couldare key elements in understanding man's be in a certain status level if they wantedrelation to his recreation resource. A few to. It follows, naturally enough, that harm-examples of recent research that should be less subordinates can join the "dominance helpfulin formulating new methods of club" and enjoy its benefits if only theymeasuring intangible values include studies can display the same flags, or at least createby Lansing and Morans (1969), Kasmar an illusion of dominance. (1970), Neulinger and Breit (1969), and The system works like this in outdoorBultena and Klessig (1969). A thorough rereation. At any particular moment inliterature reviewan important prerequi- recent history there has always been asite to any researchundoubtedly will un- highly functional costume to go with thecover many more important references. high-status sport of the day. To wear ski apparel, for example, indicates that you canAmenities afford the time and money to indulge in this expensive sport. This status display As yet, research has not really predicted can be enhanced by wearing stretch pantswith any reasonable accuracy the effects of different recreation use-intensities on the andiski jacketwith several lift-tickets stapledtothe collarasordinary dayqualitative values of a given recreation ex- clotheseven when not actively participat-periencealthough itis now possible to ing in the sport. The wearer is emanatingbegin to observe and measure certain kinds signals that say, "I am very leisured"; andof recreation amenity values, or at least such signals can say this almost as well forsome indicators of those values. a non-skier. However,when the attire is As more and more people cluster into accepted as everyday wear, it loses its im-outdoor recreation facilities and environ- pact, Then a new sport,preferably amentsin much the same way that they are dangerous one, has to be raided for itslustering into urban regionstheir effect unusual costume. on the natural environmentbecomes an The illusion of dominance is not con-increasingly important factor to consider strained to wearing apparel. Some otherin forecasting future recreation-participa- obvious examples in outdoor recreation be- tion patterns. In a sense, the most important havior patterns include: the sportsman whorecreation values that forest resources can has a variety of decals on his field jacket;provide for society, and the individual, are the fisherman who simply must have a flyvirtually being loved to death in some of this Nation's most scenic areas. Recreation- But a problem arises when applying such ists inadvertently are destroying, throughamenity-response systems to management overuse, some of the most scenic resourcesproblems; the system does not describe they seek to enjoy. In these kinds of re-human response to resource amenities in source-management environments the ma- quantitative terms. In this regard, however, jorproblemisnotto forecast futureresearch techniques are already available increases in use, but rather to predict howthat may prove useful in approaching this certain management regulations and pro-sticky problem. cedures can limit, or even decrease, recrea- tion use-intensity. Much of the concern forRelevant Past Research Efforts predictions of this type are centered around the idea of amenity resources, a concept A few examples of quantitative-measure- that requires clarification and better under-ment techniques for assessing the value of environmentalamenitiesinclude(Craik standing. In discussing amenity resources for urban1968): living,Atkinson and Robinson(1969) 1.Adjective checklists for respondents to defined amenities as "those stimuli which record their impressions. lead to feelings of comfort, pleasure, or 2.Activity or mood checklists to be used joy", a description that can also apply to by unobtrusive observers. amenities in outdoor-recreation participa- 3.Q-sort decks, consisting of 50 or 100 tion. Atkinson and Robinson ( 1969) went statements, each on a separate card and on to explain that amenities "make up one each expressing an imjportant charac- of the outputs derived from man's environ- teristic, which are sorted by an observer mental system; that these outputs can be into piles of specified numbers along a managed; and that decision criteria and dimension ranging from "most charac- management systems can be developed to teristic" to "least characteristic" of the accomplish this taskin arational and item being evaluated. sociallyresponsiblemanner".Although 4.Rating scales, including preference rat- Atkisson and Robinson used an urban ex- ings and semantic differential scales used ample to show the several components in- by respondents. volired in any amenity-response system, the 5.Viewing time, or participation time. components of their system can just as easily be used to describe outdoor-recrea- A few recreation-research studies have tion amenity values: used some of these techniques to quantify amenity values, and have resulted in equa- Component in Example of Output tions somewhat like those discussed previ- the system Amenity strinu-Lake shoreline in undis- ously under theeffectsof quantitative lus generatortributed wildland area. values on recreation participation.In a (or participant) study aimed at developing a quantitative Respondent Hiker walking along the preference score for visual characteristics shoreline. Shaferetal. Amenity valuesThe pleasure of the view innaturalenvironments, evoked by the lake and the (1969) explained 66 percent .of the varia- surrounding mountains. tion in preference .scores for a wide range Cool breezes. of natural-resource environments depicted Sound of waves breaking on the shore. by black and white photographs. Prefer- Seclusion. ence scores for individual photos were Response to Support for maintaining obtained by having respondents rank the amenity values environment in natural photographs.Sixvariablesrepresenting State. different quantitative features in .the pic- Frequent walks along the shore. tures were used in the final scenic-prefer- Potential Motorboat noise. ence model developed fromthefield- disamenities Recreational development of interview data. shoreline. Logging on surrounding In a similar study, Peterson and Neumann hillsides. (1969) determined preference weights for

62 black and white photographs of a varietyotherwise) that facilitate this type of re- of swimming beaches in the Chicago area.search should be welcomed (Osgood et al. A significant 94 to 98 percent of the varia- 1957 ). The same reasoning applies to the tion in preference scores was explainedbyquantification of other intangible recreation quantitative values derived from semantic-values as well. differential scale ratings that were obtained But even among those who agree that in personal interviews of beach users. research on this subject is necessary, some In examining preferences for visual ap-will argue that any description of qualita- pearance of resiodentialneighborhoods intive values should be done with qualitative the northern half of the Chicagometropoli- measurement devices, but there areinherent tan area, Peterson(1967 ) used 23 projecteddifficulties in this approach. Consider an color photographs of residentialneighbor-experiment, for instance, where three re- hoods, and asked respondents to rate anspondents are asked which of two activities appropriate scale for each of 10variables. fishing (F) or mountain climbing (C) A resulting preference modelincluded nine provides more pleasure. (The amenityvalue variables that explained 99 percentof theinvolved in this experiment could just as variance in preference scores for the scenes. well be self-reliance, aestheticenjoyment, Shafer and Mietz ( 1969 ) computed anexercise, or some other intangiblevalue attitude scale that showed therelative quan-other than pleasure). Suppose the results titative value of each of fivequalitative of this inquiry were as follows: wilderness values. The scalar values com- first step in Fishing (F) or puted in the study are a basic Individual Mountain Climbing (C) quantitatively defining,for management F > C of "in- 1 F > C decisions, the relative importance 2 C > F tangible" wilderness values. 3 Conclusion: F > C The Right Units of Measure Note: The symbol ().) here means"is liked ln many respects, studyingqualitative better than." walking where recreation values involves One concludes from the resultsthat two angels fear to tread. There are manypeople the majority of the re- who shudder at the thoughtof bringing a out of three, or spondents, derive more pleasurefrom fish- quantitative measuring instrumentinto the climbing; that is values, such ing than from mountain domain of intangible recreation F> C. But now suppose weintroduce an as aestheticsfor example. It is necessary to here between a additional activity into theexperiment, such draw a sharp distim ;.on (S), and ask each respondent study of the process ofaesthetics as a kind as swimming to rank thethree activitiesfrom the one of human reaction, andthe creation of the one 'Whereas the latterthat gives him the most pleasure to aesthetic environments. pleasure. Further- should, and undoubtedlywill, remain inthat gives him the least the domain of the artistand landscape more, in thissecond phase of the experi- ment, suppose noneof therespondents architect, the former is aperfectly legiti- Now the re- mate area ofscientific study, and any in- changes their initial response. struments or equations(quantitative or sults might look like this: Second experiment in so far ar The remain- Climbing is Fishing is ing possibility First concerned is concerned Individualexperiment concerned F > S F > C C > F> 1 S > F.-41 > C 2 F ) C C > F 3 C > F C> S> F-4110 C > S S > F Conclusion: F > C C > F Note: The preferences in the firstexperiment are underlined in thesecond experiment.

rirs es --)40 The problem that we now encounter istensity on user-satisfaction. In this respect, that we directly contradict the conclusionsuppose research provides managementwith of the first experiment involving a choicean additional equationthat relates user- between C and F alone. (Obvious, isn't it?) satisfaction to number of boats/acre on any Now C> F. Yet, none of the respondentsgiven lake: changed his mind in the second experiment Degree of user-satisfaction = concerning C and F. The reason for this f (number of boats/acre of lake). contradiction is easily given: the two state- ments "F> C" in the first experiment were Now the manager has the information to split in the second experiment. This kindmake a tentative decision. Assuming that of paradox can result from almost any ex-total boat-use increases with lake size, a periment where qualitativevalue scales arelevel of demand can be predicted for boat- used to evaluate people's feelings, and theing on a certain size lake. Using this con- preferences are summarized for any onesumption curve, the manager can calculate activity. In experiments of this type, it isa boar/acre valuefor any projected total important to use an appropriate measure- boat-use value(fig.2). Now, assuming ment technique (or eveninvent a newthat user satisfaction decreases as boat-use one), and to include a control for all thoseintensity increases (fig. 3) the manager can variablesthat ac countforsignificantdetermine the influence of any givenlevel amounts of variation in whatever isbeingof boats/acre on user satisfaction; andthe measured. Obviously the procedure pre-tradeoffs between boat density and user sented in this example is not the best waysatisfaction can be evaluated in arriving at to summarize the data. the final decision about how manyboats The most critical research challenge liesper acre to allow onthe lake. not only in developinghypothetical models This simplified example underscores the of human response to amenity stimuli asreason why research onamenity values and typified in Wagar (1967)which is a stepuser-participationratesshouldproceed in the right directionbut more important,simultaneously in the same research study in quantifying the satisfactionvalues ofwhenever possible. those amenities. It is imperative to mention here thatin In the real world of recreationparticipa- tion, the number of variables that should be examined is probably much more com- plicated than described in the following Figure 2. example, but a simplified example will suf- fice to explain the necessary relationship that should exist between models that fore- cast expected quantitiesof recreation users, BOATS / ACRES and models that describe associated qualita- LAKE SIZE tive values. Both types of mockels should (ACRES) predict results that relate to the same units of measure. Otherwise managers willbe faced with the same old dilemma of trying TOTAL BOAT USE PROJECTED to mix apples and orangesand come up with a decision. For instance, suppose re- search developed the equation: Figure 3. 'Total maximum number of boats on a lake = f (lake size in acres). LEVEL OF SATISFACTION USER But presumably, recreation-resource man- SATISFACTION agers should not make ameaningful deci- sion about how many boats to allow on any given lake until they know the effect, if BOAT USE / ACRE any, of varying degreesof boat-use in-

Et, 24 addition to amenity values and participa-time they were zooming across the sky in tion-rate models, other information such asa vehicle of the future. Thecaption read: a forecast of technologicaladvances that "Flying mobile camper of the future may create new types of boating equipment,is beelectrically poweredplugging into needed in the previous example before man- any outlet for recharging...Imagine agement can make the best decision. what (electric power will) do for your tomorrow ... It's your desires .and dreams that spur us on ... You'll never outdream TECHNOLOGICAL IMPACTS ON your possibilities." ALL RECREATION, VALUES Fascinating! Considering the fact that The quality of recreation experience de-man just began to fly at the turn of the pends largely on the quality of the recrea-century and is now walking on the moon, tion environment; but the quality of bothsuch developments asaflyingmobile the experience and the environment can becamper are just around the corner in rec- significantly affected by technology. A keyreation-resource management. management challenge is to predict poten- When this type of equipment is sold tial management problems associated withcommercially, who is going to be responsi- technological developments as they relateble for deciding where and how these fly- to amenity values and use patterns of rec-ing mobile campers willbeusedin reation resources. wildland areas? Who is going to provide In forecasting future demand patternsthe electric outlet for recharging it? Who and their effect on the environment, rec-is ,going to have to decide how many of reation-resource decision-makers mustthese vehicles can be safely used in a given inevitably be concerned with future tech-area at one time? nological developments in recreation-equip- The recreation-resource manager, that's ment design and environmentalcontrol. whoyou better believe it! Current breakthroughs in technology are But the manager cannot wait to start conditioning the quantitative participationthinking about how to answer these ques- rates and qualitative valuesof today's rec- reationists. Management's reactions to tech-tions until flying mobile campers, or other fascinating types of recreation equipment, nological breakthroughs comprise one of There are the major problems in recreation-resourceare on the commercial market. managementnot just today or tomorrow,too many other things to think about at one time when that occurs. Wehad better but continually. start thinking about such technologicalde- velopments before they happen, so that the Breakthroughs in Recreation Equipment resulting problems can be solved in the A simple and 'fairly typical example maylight of recreation-activity mixes that sat- help to illustrate the point by referring toisfy demands for a multiplicity of recrea- a full:page advertisement thatappeared intion activities. LOOK magazine a few years ago (10 October 1965: p. 12). On the upper halfBreakthroughs in Other Fields .of the page was a picture of a moonlit An example of how technology, even in evening in a campground, with a family a non-recreation field, mayultimately affect happily watching a TV set outside theirrecreation travel patterns is illustrated by modern trailer. Under the picture was thethe present state of research development caption: ofthepicture phone (McHale 1969). "Today, abundant electric service brings Much of the airline business today is busi- conveniences to the campsite ...Wher- ness travel that providesneeded face-to- ever you look today,electricservice face contact between seller and buyer. In makes good things happen." thenot-too-distant future,airlineswill The lower half of the page 'contained acompete with the picture phonefor con- picture of majestic mountains andlakes, ducting business transactions. Present tech- with the same family as before, but thisnological forecasts suggest that the cost of 2g conducting business by picture phone willrecreation; and it will undoubtedly alter be much less expensive and just as effectivethe conditions and patterns of present man- as present air travel to accomplish the sameagement practices. For these reasons, any purpose. As a result, airlines may appeal to overall approach to forecasting future rec- the recreation market with allsorts ofreation demand should include research on charter flights and special-rate flights to the effects of relevant technology. favorite recreation spots throughout the country and around the world. Imagine what effect this technological breakthrough A FEW LAST WORDS in the picture phone will have on recrea- The primary objectives of any study in tion-demand patterns! this area of research should be: To develop a conceptual model (hope- Predicting the Future fully a mathematical equation) that per- How can technological progressthat mits estimates of probable tangible or affects recreation demand be predicted? intangible values of recreation use for a Several procedures have been compiled by given facility, site, or piece of equipment. Bright(1968), Helmer (1966),Stover To apply the model to empirical data for (1969) and North and Pyke (1969). Most the purpose of comparing actual and pre- of these techniques are based largely on dicted values for one or more types of trend extrapolation, on studying the effects recreation activities. of technical breakthroughs in one field of study on important changes in a seemingly To illustrate the application of the prob- unrelated area of management or science, abilistic analysis in the development of or on the Delphi methoda survey pro- statistical use estimates for outdoor rec- cedure for obtaining a consensus of expert reation (Wennergren and Nielsen 1968). opinion. The central task lies in the exploration From a recreation manager's standpoint, and methodological investigation of several it would be ideal to have an estimate as toways to forecast recreation values. These when relevant future technological events approaches may range from evaluation of are likelyto occur. Timber-productionthe past; to the study of human trends and plans extend 50 to 60 years into the future, needs in the present; to the projection, fore- so why not probe 30 to 40 years into thecasting, and imaginative construction of future for possibleshiftsin recreation-several future individual and social patterns demand patterns for the same resource of recreation consumption. environments? Some managers feelthat "there arc too many of today's recreation- There is no good answer to the question management problems that need to be of how far recreation values should be pro- solved first".In recreation management,jected intothefuture. It depends. The that type of philosophy is like having amagnitude of any future projection is most chance to go on the maiden voyage of theoften influenced by the reliability of the Titanic, knowing the consequences, anddata, how far it extends into -he past,the then booking first-class passage. Today'sassociated variation in the am, andthe revolution in recreation-equipment use andexpected time interval between the begin- resulting changes in behavior patterns isning and the end of any research study. It merely the sputtering of a fuse of a muchmakes little sense, for example, to do a 5- larger explosion that is about o come. year recreation-demand forecast with data if the research study itself takes 3 years to Technology will shape the future of complete. recreation demand; it will create new pos- sibilities for management to solve demand Lenz (1968) offered a word of caution problems; it will alter the mix of choicesto those who attempt to forecast the future available to meet recreation demand; it willwhen he paraphrased Dante's warning in influence individual and social values ofthe Divine Comedy: "All forecasters must

S. circle endlessly about the bottomless pit inwill flow down the cleft of their buttocks, Hell, with their heads turned backway onbecause they tried to look too far ahead." their shoulders, so that their copious tears So we must be careful!

Bibliography

Ardrey, Robert. Gillespie, Glen A., and Durwood Brewer. 1968. THE TERRITORIAL IMPERATIVE. 399 pp. Dell 1969. AN ECONOMIC MODEL FOR PREDICTING WATER- Publishing Co., Inc., New York. ORIENTED oUTDOoR RECREATION DEMAND.USDA Econ. Res. Serv. ERS-402. 15 pp. Atkinson, Arthur A., and Ira M. Robinson. 1969. AMENITY RESOURCES FoR URBAN LIVING. THE Helmer, Olaf. QUALITY oF THE URBAN ENVIRoNMENT; 179-201. 1966. SOCIAL TECHNOLOGY. 108 pp. BasicBooks, Ed. Harvey S. Perloff, Resources for the Future, Inc., N. Y. Inc. Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, Md. Helmer, Olaf, and T. J. Gordon. Bright, James R. 1965. PROBING THE FUTURE. 12 pp. NewsFront 1968. TECHNOLOGICAL FORECASTING FOR INDUSTRY reprint. AND GOVERNMENT. 484 pp. Prentice-Hall,Inc., Kalter, Robert J., and Lois E. Gosse. Englewood Cliffs, N. J. 1969. OUTDOOR RECREATION IN NEW YORK STATE: Bultena, Gordon L., and Lowell L. Klessig. PROJECTIONS OF DEMAND, ECONOMIC VALUE, AND 1969. SATISFACTION IN CAMPING: A CONCEPTUAL- PRICING EFFECTS FOR ME PERIOD 1970-1985.N. Y. IZATION AND GUIDE To SOCIAL RESEARCH. J.Leisure State Coll. Agr. at Cornell Univ. Spec. Cornell Res. 1(4): 348-354. Ser. 5. 57 pp. Ithaca, N. Y. Cahn, Robert. Kasmarjoyce Vielhauer. 1968. Wm, SUCCESS SPOIL ME NATIONAL PARKS? 1970. THE DEVELOPMENT OF A USABLE LEXICON ChristianScience MonitorReprint,56pp. OF ENVIRONMENTAL DESCRIPTIONS.Environment Christian Science Publishing Society, Boston, and Behavior 2 (2): 153-169. Mass. Lansingjohn B., and Robert W. Marans. Cesario, Frank J. 1969. EVALUATION GF NEIGHBORHOOD QUALITY. J. 1969. OPERATIONS RESEARCH IN OUTDooR RECREA- Amer. Inst. Planners 35(3):195-199. TION. J. Leisure Res. 1(1): 33-51. Lenz, Ralph C. Chubb, Michael. 1968. FORECASTs OF EXPLODING TECHNOLOGIES BY 1967. OUTDOOR RECREATION PLANNING IN MICHI- TREND EXTRAPOLATION. In Technologicalk'ore- GAN BY A SYSTEMS ANALYSIS APPRoACH. PART III: casting for Industry and Government: 57-76. THE PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF"PROGRAM RECYS Ed. James R. Bright. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Engle- AND SYMAP." Mich. Dep. Conserv.Tech. Rep. wood aiffs, N. J. 12. 298 pp. Lansing, Mich. McHale,_John. Cicchetti, Charles J., Joseph J. Seneca, and Paul 1969.I HE FUTURE OF ME FUTURE. 322pp. Davidson. George Braziler, Inc., N. Y. 1969. THE DEMAND AND SUPPLY OF OUTDOOR REC- Morris, Desmond. REATION. 301 pp. Rutgers Univ. Bur.Econ. Res. 1969. THE HUMAN zoo. 256 pp.McGraw-Hill New Brunswick, N. J. Book Co., N. Y. Clark, Mary Cowden. Mueller, Eva, and Gerald Gurin. 1936. BEST LOVED PLAYS OF WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE. 1962.PARTICIPATION INOUTDOOR RECREATION: 630 pp. Cuneo Press, Inc., Reading, Pa. FACTORS AFFECTING DEMAND AMONG AMERICAN Wash- Clawson?. _Marion. Alma& ORRRC Study Rep. 20. 94 pp. 1959. METHODS OF MEASURING THE DEMAND FOR ington, D. C. AND VALUE OF OUTDOOR RECREATION.°36 pp. Re- Neulinger, John, and Miranda Breit. sources for the Future, Inc.Reprint 10, 'Wash- 1969. ATITUDE DIMENSIONS OF LEISURE. J. Leisure ington, D. C. Res. 1 (3): 255-261. Craik, Kenneth. North, Harper Q., and Donald L. Pyke.i 1968. THE COMPREHENSION OF THE EVERYDAY 1968. "Nous" OF THE TECHNOLOGICAL FUTURE. PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT. J. Amer. Inst. Planners Harvard Bus. Rev. May-June: 68-76. 34 (1): 29-37. Osgood, Charles E., George J. Suci, and Duhl, Leonard J. Percy H. Tannenbaum. 1967. PLANNING AND PREDICTING: OR WHAT DO YOU 1957. THE MEASUREMENT OF MEANING. 346 pp. DO WHEN YOU DON'T KNOW THE NAMES OFTHE Univ. Ill. Press, Urbana, Ill. vAttuatzs? Daedalus 96 (3): 788-799. Osmond, Humphrey F. Dyer, A. Allen, and R. S. Whaley. 1965.MAN'S OPTIMAL ENVIRONMENTALNEED. 1968. PREDICTING USE OF RECREATION snms. Utah Building Res. July-August: 508. State Univ. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 477. 21 pp. Peterson, George L. Echelberger, Herbert E., and 1967. A MODEL OF PREFERENCE: QUANTITATIVE Elwood L. Shafer, Jr. ANALYSIS OF THE PERCEPTION OF ME VISUAL AP- NEIGHBORHOODS. J. 1970. SNOW (I) = USE OF SKI SLOPES. J. PEARANCE OF RESIDENTIAL Marketing Res. 7: 388-392. Regional Sci. 7 (1): 19-30.

21 Peterson, George L., and Edward S. Neumann. Shafer, Elwood L., Jr., and Roger C. Thompson. 1969. MODELING AND PREDICTING HUMAN RESPONSE 1968. MODELS THAT DESCRIBE USE OF ADIRONDACK TO THE VISUAL RECREATION ENVIRONMENT. J.Leis- CAMPGROUNDS. Forest Sci. 14: 383-391. ure Res. 1(3): 219-237. Smith, Robert J., and N. J. Kavanagh. Pilkington Glass. 1969. THE MEASUREMENT OF BENEFITS OF TROUT 1969. BUILDING A CITY IN THE OCEAN. Futurist 3 FISHING:PRELIMINARY RESULTS OF A STUDY AT (3): 66-69. GRAFHAM WATER, GREAT OUSE WATER AUTHORITY, Schoenfeld,. Clay. HUNTINGDONSHIRE. J. Leisure Res. 1 (4): 316-332. 1968. LET'S CUT OUT THE NUMBERS GAME NON- Stover, Lloyd V. SENSE. Amer. Forests May: 10-13, 55-56. 1969. OCF.ANOBJECTIVES:A FORECAST TO THE Seek ler, David W. YEAR 2000. Futurist, 4 (3): 89-92. 1966. ON THE USES AND ABUSES OF ECONOMIC U. S. News and World Report. SCIENCE IN EVALUATING PUBLIC OUTLOOR RECREA- 1969. 83 BILLION DOLLARS FOR LEISURE. Sept. 15: TION. Land Econ. 42 (4): 485-494. 58-61. Seneca, Joseph J., and Charles J. Cicchetti. Wagar, J. Alan. 1969. USER RESPONSE IN OU11)OOR RECREATION: A 1963. CAMPGROUNDS FOR MANY TASTES. USDA PRODUCTION ANALYSIS. J.Leisure Res. 1 (3): Forest Serv. Res. Pap. INT-6. 10 pp. Intermt. 238-245. Forest and Range Exp. Sta. Seneca, Ioseph J., and Charles J. Cicchetti. Wagarq. Alan. 1970. USER RESPONSE IN OUTDOOR RECREATION:A 1964. HE CARRYING CAPACITY OF WILDLANDSFOR REPLY. J. Leisure Res. 2 (2): 137-139. RECREATION. Forest Sci. Monog. 7. 24 pp. Seneca, Joseph J., Paul Davidson, and Warren, E. Kirby. F. Gerard Adams. 1966. LONG-RANGE PLANNING-THE EXECUTIVE 1968. AN ANALYSIS OF RECREATION USE OF TVA VIEWPOINT. 108 Prentice-Hall, Inc., Engle- LAKES. Land Econ. 44 (4): 524-529. wood Cliffs, N. J. Shafer, Elwood L., Jr., John F. Hamilton, and Webb, William L. Elizabeth A. Schmidt. 1967. PUBLIC USE OF FOREST WILDLIFE: QUANTITY 1969. NATURAL LANDSCAPE PREFERENCES: A PRE- AND QUALITY CONSIDERATIONS. J. Forestry: 106- DICTIVE MODEL. J. Leisure Res. 1(1): 1-19. 110. Shafer, Elwood L., Jr., and James Mietz. Wennergren, E. Boyd, and Darwin B. Nielsen. 1969.AESTHETIC AND EMOTIONAL EXPERIENCES 1968. A PROBABALISTIC APPROACH TO ESTIMATING RATE HIGH WIIH NORTHEAST HIKERS. Environment DEMAND FOR OUTDOOR RECREATION. Utah State and Behavior 1(2): 187-189. Univ. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 478. 27 pp.

-28 DESIGN & LAYOUT OF RECREATION FACILITIES

by HOWARD R. ORR, Regional LandscapeArchitect, Division of Recreation and Watershed, Southern Region, USDAForest Service, Atlanta, Ga.

ABSTRACT. Design and layout of recreation facilities is aproblem- solving process that must be divorced from theemotionalism that has shrouded outdoor recreation and must dealdeliberately with the growing information concerning people and natural resources.

DESIGN AND LAYOUT of recrea- result of overdemand, and that people will tion facilities is the last major step in use very poor facilities when there is rela- a long chain of eventsleading to tively little choice. public enjoyment of basic resources. It is Sitefailurehascaused somerather in this stage where environments aremodi-strange reactions:a turning tocure-all fied or created after many hours of research plant materials that are both beautiful to and planning aimed at solving the myster-behold and will withstand the trampling of ies of man and his needs and the site andthousands of visitors, and frantic poring its capabilities. over fertilizer lists to find something to Design, like any other problem-solving strengthen vegetative growth. process, requires that youknow the prob- What causes site failure? Too many lem before you can hope to solve it. The people. Too much use. more you know the better yoursolution is How many people should a site be able apt to be. to stand? If you own or operate a campground or The results of poor solution rangefrom recreational development of some Icind, you no use of thesitt to failure of the site.Noknow very well how many people must use usuallyindicates lack of knowledge stay how many days for you to break even. about the marketpeople.Site failure is the What about public agencies? The public result of lack of knowledgeabout the site. should be ableto expectno it'seven Of course there is alwaysthe possibilitystronger than that: they have a right to that the designer does notknow what toklowthat our investment of their money do with the informationhe does have. realizes values for them that are at least Thou.gh it is very rarethat no use will equal to cost plus the going safe rate of result, this is not because wehave known return. In other words: we should make much about people. Morelikely, it is the some calculations also.

Total social cost 4- safe interest over the amortization period Number of visitor-day use necessary to justify the development. Total social value of one visitor day

Visitor day-use necessary to justify _Percent of theoretical capacity use needed to justify the development. Total possible visitor days in amortization period You will find that it takes 50 to 60 per- Serviceadministrativestudy. Measuring cent of capacity use to justify the cost onthe design potential for creating pedestrian a 50-unit campground. If your campgroundimpact was an important problem. A sys- is receiving less use than this, and the sitetem developedfor determiningthisis is deteriorating, you are really in trouble. known asPPIorPotentialPedestrian And obviously construcdng more of the Impact. same to "relieve the pressure" is not the It was built on the following analysis. answer. Recreation falls under the broad category of an activity of choice and is less subject IMPACT OF USE to control than one of necessity, such as The disease producing the symptoms isliving and work activities; but within the not just too much use or too few develop-broad category of the activity, recreation, ments. The site is receiving more impact there are subcategories or subsets of activi- per visit than it can stand. tiesknowns, predictables, and unknowns. A site has a built-in capacity to with- Knowns are activities or movements of stand impacts. You can exceed this limit by necessity, those that we know must take applying the full impact of a few visits orplace for people to use the site or develop- the reduced impact of many visits. Differ-ment. They must be solved for in the de- ent designs produce different impacts. signandrequiredefiniterecognizable design statements. Predictables are activities We can squander the carrying capacityof choice involving predictable patterns of of the site or we can use it wisely. Most ofmovement. They are solved for in the de- the impact problems we all have are due to sign by both definite design statements and poor 'utilization of the recreation resource. the application of design psychology. Un- We have not thought of recreation as aknowns are activities or movements subject product. Because it involves the psychologi- to random selection and the whims of the cal well-being of man and is closely tied tousers. They involve design psychology and freedom of choice and esthetics, we hesi- overdesign (built-in safety factors). tate to put dollar signs on it. We have feared and rejected with righteous indigna- tion the obviously evil intentions of anyone speaking of economic justification. This particular stand has done much to retard progress. The fact is, outdoor recreation is a prod- uct, a commodity that our society finds essential, one that vast numbers of people pay for, one sdAmportant that it is govern- ment-subsidized. It is my belief that sig- nificant progress depends on recognizing this and beginning to manage production of recreation as scientifically and as eco- nomically as other natural-resource-bised commodities. At least partially because of this "esthetic detachment" from reality, it was thought until recently that facility placement in recreation development was not important Figure 1.Patterns of movement. Al and A2 as a variable in site deterioration. In actu- show actual pedestrian travel from a camp- ality it turned out to be second in impor- ing unit to known points of use. B1 and B2 tance among 38 variables tested in a Forest show the travel as straight lines.

3 '7,',F.1,7=1;72grra,...r7.111=1IWZMITSTLIVITWere.,.:Nte... commentenssaymeammauovernsmtwarres.sn.vm,rx,....m...

Since activities of necessity or knownson facilities orreinforced points of the site are usually repeated inthe same pattern ofsuch as tent pads, parking spurs, roads,and movement, thus creatingrepeated impact,surfacedpathsaremeasuredtoscale, they are of vital concern when consideringtotaled, multiplied by 3, and divided by the impacts on the ecological balance beingtotal area within 50 feet of all units. disturbed by site design, construction, and This method measures potential only, but use. Itis also the portion of site impactactual pedestrian impact will vary in pro- resulting from use that is most controllableportion with the measured potential. through design and is thus an indication of Measuring this potential impact was only the "quality" of the design. part of the problem.How this fits in with For example, how a pedestrianmightother variables in determining site carrying actually travel from his camping unit to capacity was still unknown. points of kriown circulation is shown in What happens when a recreation site figure 1, Al and A2. The problem here isdeteriorates? Like a 10-ton bridge, when its that if 12 different people made diagramsload exceeds the limit, it falls down.The would get 12 sep- on a particular site, you site falls down physically when it losesits arate answers, all different. vegetative cover and invites erosion. It also The use of straight lines between thesefalls down esthetically when it loses its same known points ofcirculation is shownvegetative cover. Bare ground and erosion in figure 1, B1 and B2. Though peopledoare not visually pleasing. not actuallytravelinstraightlines,a It was concluded that we could measure straight line between two points will bethe loss of vegetative cover, andtherefore drawn the same, no matter who does it. measure the amount ofsite deterioration by The relative difference in potential impactmeasuring the amount of ground cover on between Al and A2 is the same as thatthe site. We call this the ground-cover between B1 and B2. index and define it as: In actual practice, the lines are drawn The percent of that portion of the site, on an accurate scaledrawing of the design, which is not surfaced or reinforced, and such as the 50 scale general plan (fig.2). which is covered by ground-level veg- The portions of the lines that do not fall etation, litter, moss, or rock. This definition does not mean thatsite carrying capacity is reached when: (1) use reaches a certain amount; (2) certainsoil characteristics are present; (3) slope is so much; and (4) site design is such and such. This allowed allthese factors to be tossed into a pot and stirred together so the answer that eventuallysurfaces andis skimmed off the top reflects the interaction COMFORT STATION of all these factors at each individualsite. WATER The objective of the study was to meas- ure the ecologicalfactors, use, and design factors at each site and to see which com- FAMILY UNIT bination of these factors resulted in the ACTMTY AREA best correlation with ground-coverindex. GARBAGE CAN DEVELOPMENT All together, 38 factors or variables were measured. A multiple regression was run, using ground-cover index as the dependent Figure 2.Dotail of PP1 diagramming infam- variable and the remaining 37 variables as ily camping units. the independent variables. The multiple Obviously the dependent variable is im- regression indicated that: portant. How was a 75 ground-cover index selected? The key is the question, "What 1.Six independent variables made a highlyis unacceptable site deterioration?" Another significant contribution to the correla-way of stating it may be, "At what point tion with ground-cover index. does the balance between site conditions 2.Six variables explained 85 percent of theand use get out of control or beyond variation in the correlation. repair?" 3. The addition of more variables to the correlation did not make a significant After studying many sites and conferring contribution to the correlation. with soilspeople, range people, timber people, everyom available,it was deter- The six independent variables, in order ofmined that the critical point is the set of their importance, were: conditions that allows significant soil move- ment. Very simply: if the ground isless 1.Subsurface depth (thickness of B hori- zon, in inches). than 75 percent covered with dead or living 2. PPI (the percent of the total area of thevegetative material, whether due to lack of site that is not surfaced or reinforcedmoisture, compaction, or slope, you will and covered by anticipated pedestrianhave significant soil movement under use. circulation). If you are starting with only 75 percent 3. Percent surface rock. ground cover, you know that that particu- 4. Substratum silt (percent silt in C hori-lar set of conditions will not stand any zon). additional impact. 5.Percent slope. So far, with only an administrative study 6. Depth to water table, in inches. as a foundation, we have a fairly crudetool. The multiple regression also resulted inEven in its crude stage, its use is extremely an equation using the sixindependent vari-important in design, and the futurewith ables for estimating ground-cover index. thorough researchmay hold the key to enlightenedrecreation-resourcemanage- Ground-Cover Index = 81.28 + ment. We are using this tool nowin the ( 0.71A) + 0.21B ( 11.73C) + review of site selection, in the planning ( 0.24D) 4- 0.82E 0.19F stage, and in design review in the site- Where: design stages. A = PPI We required detailed soil surveys and B = Depth of subsurface, in inches reports on all development sites. We deter- C = Percent surface rock mine the PPI that these soilswill support 1) = Percent silt in substratum and then check for PPI on all design studies E = Percent slope under. consideration. Designs having ex- F = Depth to water table, in inches cessive PPI ratings are not approved.

This equation has a standard error of esti- LOOKING AHEAD mate of 4.7, which means that thecalcu- lated ground-cover index will be within What of the future? We know that :I: 4.7 of the actual ground-cover,index 68these results were produced with limited percent of the time. study and should be used intelligently. In other words, by plugging the values We know that we can increase carrying for the five soils and slope variables and thecapacity by manipulating the key variables PPI (or site design variable) into the equa-and even some variables that at this time tion, the amount of site deterioration canare not indicated as beingkey. Crown be predicted. This can be done for existingclosure of the overstory isone factor. sites, or it can be used to predict what wAlThinning to a point produces more ground- happen on new sites planned for develop-cover growth. We need toknow how ment or on sites beingredesigned and re-much this changes carrying capacity and constructed. at what point loss of litterfrom falling

26 leaves overtakes gain in growing groundmine what PPI rating your design has and cover. what PPI's your soils can stand. Find out how much you must reduce PPI in order All the variables can be discussed simi- larly. We need to know how much ma-to maintain the development. nipulatinnofvariablesis economically If a minor adjustment is involved, you feasible. can probably handleit by minor design Another factor of extreme importancechanges such as modification of trail sys- for more detailed investigation is use. Anytem. Major adjustments mayrequire re- recreation use, no matter how slight, startsdesign and a totally new development.It the ecological situation into a process ofmay be the cheapestthing vou can do in adjustment. We need to know how muchthe long run. use produces adjustmentthat is critical to Let me repeat, design is the number 2 the recreation product: how rapidly it willvariable in site deterioration. As such,its adjust under what conditions. It would, forrelative success will have much effect on instance, make a great deal of differencehow well a development provides forthe whether $10/unit/year in the manipulationdesired uses within the capability ofthe of variables would hold adjustment to ansite to withstand them. It nwst thenbe as acceptable stage, or $100/unit. accurate a solution tothe development We may choose to accept $10/yearbutproblem as possible. It will nothappen by could not normally accept $100/year. accident. Design and layout offacilities Since design was the number 2 variablemust be a problem-solvingprocessand one and creative incorrelationimportanceandcanbethat requires highly analytical affected most easily, look to it first.Deter- capabilities.

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THE ECONOMIC IMPACT OF RECREATION DEVELOPMENT: A SYNOPSIS

by WENDELL G. BEARDSLEY, Economist, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Forest Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Ogden, Utah.

ABSTRACT. Economic impacts per dollar of tourist expenditure have generally been found to be low compared to other economic sectors in local less-developed areas where recreation development isoften proposed as a stimulus for economic growth. Tourism, however, can be economically important where potential or existing recreation attractions can encourage tourist spending in amounts large enough to offset these lower per-dollar impacts. In addition to definitions useful ininterpreting the resultsof impact studies, findings from several investigations of local effects of recreation spending are discussed.

SPECULATION continues to best de-from other economic sectors. Their magni- scribe the process known as "estimatingtude and some of the reasons given to ex- the economic impact" of recreation-plain their smallness are developed in the area development. Local chambers of com-following pages. The scope of this paper is merceandcertaingovernmentpubliclimited to exclude the literature dealing works agencies are noted for their optimis-with the more general questions of local tic views though some economists haveeconomic growth and the impact of public been more cautious about the economicinvestments. benefits of recreation development. What is meant by "economic impact"? How large isthe impact associated with DEFINING IMPACT recreation-area development and use? And To provide a base for further discussion, where will such impacts be felt in thea few underlying concepts deserve mention. economy? First, economic impact can be defined in at The answers are not all clear. However,least two different ways, and it should be we have the results of a few studies, com-made clear which we are referringto. pleted in recent years, which provide cluesOften "impact"isused to mean "total to some of our questions. I will briefly out-spending,"or"totalbusinessactivity" line the results of some of these studies andcreated by the spending of new (outside) the factors that are relevant to the generaldollars in a particular area. Alternatively, problem of measuring economic impactsit can refer to personal income that accrues stemming from recreation. to the area's residents in the form of wages, Generally, such impacts have been foundprofits,rents,etc.,because of the new to be relatively small compared to impactsspending. Obviously personal income is

0).1 only a portion of total business activitykinds or in other places or in provision of generated when new money is attracted tototally different public goods and services. a particular local area. Therefore real benefits of the reservoir to Local communities, counties, states, andthe Nation may be substantially less than even whole regions of the Nation view those as viewed by the local area. From the recreation development as inducing eco-larger point of view, the most important nomic growth of their area when visitorseffect of the Investment may be a redistri- from outside bring new money into the bution of income favoring the local area in area to purchase a recreation commodity.questionbut possibly at the expense of Critical elements in this concept are: (1)other areas. Whether such redistribution the recreation commodity must be ex-is desirable or not is a socio-political ques- ported from the relevant area to bring in tion,beyondthescope ofeconomic new money,which canthenrecycle analysis. through the arca's economy, producing em- This introduces some closely allied con- ployment, income, etc.; and (2) the rele-siderationsvisitors' origins, spending habits, vant area must be clearly delineatedtheand length of stay at the study area. For perspective from which economic benefitsexample, certain kinds of recreation devel- are being viewed is ,of crucialimportance.opments attract visitors from nearby metro- Forinstance,recreationspendinginpolitan areas who visit the area on single- Colorado by Nebraska tourists may resultday trips and purchase in their home com- in net economic gains to the "Western" ormunity nearly all of the equipment, food, "Mountain" region, to Colorado, to one oretc. required for use of the area. Economic more Colorado counties, and to anumberimpacts in the localarea(assumingit of Colorado communities. But it is a netexcludes the metropolitan areas) will be economic loss to the "Plains" region, tovery slight compared to other kinds of Nebraska, and to certain Nebraska com-recreation developments that might attract munities, or to some other area where thevisitors who stay several days and make money would have been spent hadNebras-relatively high expenditures at or near the kans not taken a Colorado vacation. The area in question. implication is that one should use extreme caution when interpretingthenational WHERE THE MONEY GOES benefits of a new park or recreation devel- Finally, it should be obvious that total opment (Beardsley 1970). What applies atexpenditures by recreationists are not all the local level may not apply if one assumesnet personal income to residents of the area a national perspective. or region. Some of the money received by local businesses leaves the area immediately BENEFITS as payment for imported goods and services The logic of this argument applies as well(commonly referredto as"leakages"); to local economic benefits stemming fromsome is respent within the area for local investment in construction of recreationgoods and services; and some accrues as facilities and the employment and incomeincome in the form of wages, profits, rents, it may create. Real benefits may accrue toand interest. A similar second round of a local area or a region from publicinvest-spending for imports, local spending, and ment in a dam and recreation reservoir,forcreation of local-area incomeis started instance. from those original dollars respent in the But against these benefits, assuming a local area. national point of view, we might inquire This circular pattern of expenditures is, what benefits are foregone in all other '30-of course, the familiar multiplier process, tential uses of the funds. The capital, labor,begun by an original expenditure of new and resources expended in creating themoney in the local area, continued until all reservoirmight lave found alternativeof it has leaked away. And, in general, the (and, possibly, more productive) employ-greater the proportion of goo& and serv- ment in recreation developmentsof otherices for local consumption that ?.re pro- duced locally,as opposed to those thatsensitive enough to accurately reflect the must be imported from outside the areaimpact of a small additional expenditure in (the more often basic dollars turn overone sector. before they leak away), the greater the Because of the rural and generally less- multiplier effectisinincreasinglocal developed character of many local areas income. where recreation developments have been One counter-effect on leakage stemmingmade or proposed, the impact on local from recreation development in the localbusiness and associated creation of income area may be that residents reduce recrea-from recreationists' spending has been rela- tional visits to other areas in favor of visitstively small, compared to other kinds of to the development in their area. In effect,spending. As noted above, this is generally less recreation may be imported by areadue to the high proportions of goods, serv- residentsbecauseitisbeingproduced ices, capital, etc. that are imported to these locally. areas. L6ind again, an important source of A rather peculiar aspect of economic im-leakage of money from the local area re- pacts from recreation-related spending issults when seasonal helps' summer earnings their highly seasonal nature. Often, sus-are saved and later spent outside the area. tained local economic growth is hindered because nearly all spending is concentrated SOME STUDIES into a 2- or 3-month season; capital invest- An excellent example is provided in a ments remain idle much of the year, andstudy of TetonCounty, Wyoming the seasonal labor force may leave the area, (Rajender etal.1967). There the total taking with it much of its wage and salarybusiness activity stimulated by a dollar of income for spending elsewhere. However,expenditure in grocery and food stores because of this seasonal pattern of out-(one of the main components of tourist migration of much of the labor force,spending, characterized by a high rate of school facilities, public utilities, and manyleakage), was $1.12, including the original costly public services are not reiquired atdollar, while for agricultural sales the figure the per-capita levels necessary for year-was $1.70 (table 1). Personal income gen- round residents. erated by a dollar in overall sales to tourists What industries or sectors of the economywas $0.56 and in agriculture was $0.68. share the primary impact of recreation- Several industries were affected directly related spending, and what is the magnitudeby tourist spending. These included eating of secondary impacts resulting from theplaces, auto services, food and retail stores, respending process? Some insight can beguest ranches, and lodging places. In these obtained from studies of recreation expendi-industries, indirect or secondary spending ture effects on local communities. generated in the "multiplier 'process" was Many of these studies have utilized input-only 34 percent of total spending by tour- output analysis to study the interrelationsists; the turnover of dollars from these in- of the various "sectors'(businesses, gov-dustries in the local economy was very ernments, and households)of an area.poor. However, in Teton County, the dis- Input-output analyses provide a means ofadvantage of relative smallness of multi- estimating the dollar turnover resulting inplier effects of tourists' spending is easily all other sectors of the economy from addi-overcome by the large absolute levels of tional expenditures in one or more particu-tourist expenditures. Fully two-thirds of lar sectors. However, input-output analysisall basic spending in the county was from is expensive in terms of the cost of datatourists' expenditures, and this accounted collection; if only a few broad sectors arefor 59 percent of the $12.8 million in per- used, collection and analysis of income andsonal income received by local residents in expenditure data will be less expensive than 1964. if many narrowly defined sectors are used. Because of the uniqueness of the county's But if the "sectors" are not defined nar-recreational resources and the relative lack rowly enough, the analysis may not beof opportunities for economic growth in

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Table 1.-Local impactsfromsalesin various economic sectors Personal income generated Total business activity per dollar generated per dollar of sales of sales Area Grocery Timber Grocery and food production Tourist'Agricultureand food Tourist'Agriculture Teton County, $0.56 $0.68 $0.20 Wyoming $1.46 $1.70 $1.12 S. W. .31 .82 .42 Wyoming 2.07 2.32 1.84 Itasca $1.01 County, .452 .61 .13 Minn. 2.232 2.04 1.18 Reserve, New Mexico 1.66 1.13 lAverafge for all sales to tourists except asnoted. 2Sales by resorts only.

the economy Total business activity generatedin Itasca other sectors, improvement of County, Minnesota, by adollar in sales of may depend inlarge measure on further (Hughes 1970). A recreation development. Forinstance,itgroceries was $1.18 would be very interesting toknow the dollarinsalesof agricultural products of the de-created $2.04 in total spending.A dollar of economic effect on the county created $2.23 velopment, over the past several years,of aspending in the resort sector The extremein total business activity,but resulted in major ski resort near Jackson. income compared to seasonal fluctuation ofemployment andonly $0.45 in personal leading to$0.61 for agriculture and$1.01 in timber income may have been reduced, production, an activity usingrelatively greater integrationof the economy. low amounts of business ac-high amounts of labor and Similar multipliers for total the products of other regions. tivity were found in theReserve New found for Carruthers 1966). A similar figure, $0.49, was Mexico area (Gray and personal income generated perdollar of A dollar expended forfood and groceries Canyonlands Na- stimulated a total of only $1.13in businesstourist spending in the includingtional Park area ofsoutheastern Utah activity in the local area-again (Edminster and Harline 1962). the first dollar. Thecorresponding figure Even the establishment ofCape Cod for agriculture was $1.66. found in by visitors toNational Seashore in 1961 was The im_pact of spending 1968 to have made littledifference to jobs, Flaming Gorge Reservoir on the economy impact of Wyoming countiespopulation, and taxation. "The of four southwestern the Seashore on major componentsof the was likewise notlarge (Kite and Schutz small," except for land of spendingeconomy has been 1967), There, although a dtAlar values, which have risen moresteeply than for food and groceriesgenerated $1.84 in the absence the area, a dollarcould have been expected in total business activity in of the Seashore (Herr1969).Nearby pri- spent for agriculturalproducts generated found to have risen generated by a dol-vate land values were $2.32. Personal income at 10.7 percent per yearfrom 1960 to 1968, lar in sales to tourists was$0.31 and in based upon three sectors ofnearly triple that expected, agriculture was $0,82. The values on the rest of the Cape. the economy most affectedby recreation- service Similar larger-than-expectedincreases in ists'expenditures were gasoline reported around stations, other retail businesses,and foodprivate land values were three reservoirs in Colorado(Milliken and and beverage establishments.

31 2,7 Mew 1969). Nearby private lands gained a other kinds of expenditures as illustrated net value increase of $5.16 million between by the Teton County study. 1946 and 1968, compared to that expected The results of studies such as these have without the reservoirs. important implications for recreation plan- ning and local economic-development or- ganizations. Development of the kinds of IMPLICATIONS recreation attractions that will encourage Except for increases in land values near visits year-round, longer visits, and higher recreational developments, most evidencelevels of spending by tourists will increase indicates relatively small effects on ruralthe flow of basic expenditures and will local economies from spending by recrea-result in economic improvement for such tionists. This is reflected in relatively lowareas as these. levels of secondary business activity and Recent trends toward integrated year- small income multipliers that result fromround resort communities offering a wide theexistingless-developedstructureof range of activities, accommodations, and these economies (Hughes 1970). Unlessattractions illustrate this concept. Jackson, secondary supportingbusinesses already Wyo., has added a major ski resort and exist or can bo established, dollars from side attractions such as several art galleries, sales to recreationists leave the area rela- tending to make it a year-long vacation tively quickly .as payment for imports ofspot as opposed to its past role in merely the products being sold; and local econo- cateringto summervisitorsto Grand mies receive little benefit. Teton National Park. Ketchum-Sun Valley, However, it should be recognized thatIdaho, on the other hand, has broadened recreation development may be the bestits past image of a winter ski-resort com- possible means of stimulating the economy munity and has added a golf course and of certain local areas. If opportunities for many summer homes in addition to more industrial or agricultural development areservices for summer vacationers. lacking or limited,a recreation develop- All of these trends should attract more ment attracting large amounts of touristspending the year round. The positive expenditures may easily overcome the dis-effects on the economies of these areas advantage of the relative smallness of the will be of considerable interest and may associated multiplier effects, compared to serve as a guide for development elsewhere.

Literature Cital Beardslez, Wendell G. Hughes, jay M. 1970. COMMENTS ON "TRAVEL AND THE NATIONAL 1970. FORESTRY IN ITASCA COUNTY'S ECONOMY: PARKS: AN E03NOMIC STUDY." J. Leisure Res. AN I rettr-ouTrur ANALYSIS.Univ. Mitm. Agr. 2 (1): 78-81. Exp. Sta. Misc. Rep. 95, Forestry Ser. 4. 98 pp. Edminister, Robert R., and Osmond L. Nadine. Kite, Rodney C., and William D. Schutz. 1962. AN ECONOMIC STUDY OF ME PROPOSED 1967. ECONOMIC IMPACT ON SOUTHWESTERN CANYONLANDS NATIONAL PARE AND RELATED REC- WYOMING OF RECREATIONISTS VISMNG FLAMING REATIONAL RESOURCES. Univ. Utah Bur. Econ. GORGE uszavont. Univ. Wyo. Agr. Exp. Sta. and Business Res., 176 pp., illus. Salt Lake City. Res. J. 11. 24 pp. Laramie. Millikenj. Gordon, and H. E. Mew, Jr. Gray, James R., and Garrey F.. Carruthers. 1969.KEMEATIONAL IMPACT OF RECLAMATION 1966. ECONOMIC IMPACT OF ECREATIONAL DEVEL- RESERVOIRS. USDI Bur.Reclamation.18pp., OPMENTS IN THE RESERVE RANGIER DISTRICT. N. M. illus. Washington, D. C. State Uni. Agr. Exp. &a. Bull. 515. 25 pp. Las Rajender, G. R., Floyd K. Huston, Cruces. and Dwight M. Blood. Herr, Philip B., and others. 1967. A num' or nu szsousats, PWLE, AND 1969. CAPE COD NATIONAL SEASHORE ECONOMIC ECONOMYOr TETON COUNTY, WYOMING.Univ. IMPACT um% USDI Nat. Park Serv. 74 pp. Wyo. Div. Bus. and Econ. Res. Coll. Commerce Washington, D. C. and Indus. 66 pp. Larunie.

32 PRIVATE RECREATION ENTERPRISEECONOMICS BEVINS, Associate ResourceEconomist, Agri- by MALCOLM I. Burlington, Vt. cultural Experiment Station,University of V ermont,

ABSTRACT. Cash returns torecreation enterprise laborand man- Low returns are associatedwith poor location, agement arc low. offset low small size, and short season.Land-value appreciation may returns for some operatorsand explain why they stay inbusiness. Profit maximization is notalways the prime entrepreneurialgoal: considerations or long-runcapital gain personal and noneconomic low may have anoverriding effect. Thissituation could change if coupled with high propertytaxation over a prolonged returns were knowledge by period. Recreation researcherscould add to existing classifying all firms according toentrepreneurial goals.

by theance fordepreciation and return oncapital PUBLIC LAW 88-29, passed investment. The residualis the return to U.S. Congress in 1963,called for a levels oflabor and management.Further deduction coordinated effort among all of an allowance forunpaid family labor government andprivate interests to assure called "return to the adequate outdoor recreation resourcesforyields a residual that is generations. This lawoperator for hislabor and management." present and future In general, returns tolabor and manage- stimulated numerous studiesof the eco- extremely low for firms recreation firm. As ament have been nomics of the private engaged in providingoutdoor recreation. rule,thesestudiesindicatedrelatively workshop in Penn- financial success inAddressing a recreation limited opportunity for sylvania, Johnson (1966)said, "Probably the outdoor recreationbusincss. three out of five recreationenterprises will This report reviews anumber of these of business for factors associ-fail financially, or go out studies and analyzes those some other reason,within 5 years after ated with poor returns.Some of the goalsthey start. And, probably not morethan of recreation entrepreneurs arereviewed, will ever be really of current finan-half of the remainder and the appropriateness financially successful." cial-analysis techniques isevaluated. In a study of ruralrecreation enterprises in New England, Moore(1964) found that PROFITABILITY low returns to labor and managementchar- OF MI RiCRIATIONFIRM acterized a wide varietyof recreational detailed Most economists agree onprocedures forfirms. His report was based on labor andcase studies of 30operations. The specific determining annual returns to enterprise management. In simple terms,the com-findings shed important light on monly accepted procedure is todeductprofitability. In a study of the privatecampground actual cash expenses from grossincome, that 47 per- and submict from this amount anallow-industry in Vermont, I found cent of the campground operators weretoo few customers. Citing a report pre- operating at a loss. To make matters worse, pared for the Appalachian Regional Com- they had no return on their equity (Bevinsmission by Robcrt R. Nathan Associates, 1967). In another study of campgroundJohnson (1968) noted that fewer than 6 businessesin New York,Loomis and percent of all recreation enterprises employ Wilkins (1970) concluded, "Incomes de-five or more persons on a year-round basis. rived from thecampground operationsEven during the peak of the season, fewer studied were extremely modest." Actually,than 16 percent have five or more em- net cash income less depreciation averaged ployees. only $83 for the season (before any allow- AccordingtoLoomisandWilkins ance was made for interest on investment). (1970), "It is difficult to operate businesses The authors suggested that many camp- profitably without sufficient volume over ground operators need to look for non-which to spread fixed costs." A camp- monetary returnstoderivesatisfaction ground swimming pool with the necessary from such operations. filtration and cleaning equipment may cost Several factors are associated with in-$6,000. The cost for providing this type of come level in the outdoor recreationfield. recreation service is excessive for the op- Among the more important are location oferator who is small or fails to reach fairly enterprise,scaleofoperation,business high occupancy rates. Loomis and Wilkins volume, length of season, and price level.c:Jrrelated campground size with net cash income less depreciation. They found that, LOCATION OF ENTERPRISE for the campgrounds studied, those with Johnson (1962) emphasized the impor- fewer than 100 sitesaveraged a minus $1,043; those with 100 to 199 sites, a minus tance of a good location: "Awesome sce-$451; and those with 200 or more sites, a nery, salubrious climate, spectacular fishing, and other natural resources are economi- plus $1,818. cally sterile without the well-beaten path On the basis of occupancy, the New along which thenecessary services can York study indicated that those firms with afford to cluster." less than 40 percent occupancy had a net Location is critical when one is estimat- return of minus $2,273; those with 40 to ing demand for outdoor recreation. Any 60 percent occupancy had a positive return good text in business management stresses of $758; and those with occupancy exceed- the importance of studying the business ing 60 percent had a positive return averag- site in great detail before making a final ing $4,289. selection. But many recreation entrepre- neurs never take this critical step. They LENGTH OF SEASON commonly start with a specific location and The Bureau of Outdoor Recreation then attempt to select a recreation enter- (1966) surveyed more than 2,000 financial prise to fit It. In some cases, the propertyinstitutions in a nationwide attitude study has been in the family for years. in otherof lending practices. Bankers and lenders cases, it is purchased for personal pleasure were asked if outdoor recreation enterprises rather than business potential Quite possi-were more risky than other business ven- bly the owner has fond memories of thetures and, if so, why. Nearly two-thirds of area as a boy and desires to "return home" the respondents answered yes, and cited to relive these memories. This is fine forthe limited length of season. personal satisfaction but makes poor busi- The major recreationmarketisthe ness sense. family unit. The family travels when chil- dren are on vacation from school, so most SCALE OF OPERATIONS family recreu 'on trips are limited to the AND BUSINESS VOLUME summer months. One might legitimately Johnson (1966) concluded that two ma-question how a business firm can succeed jor causes for low returns from recreationalwhen full-scale operations are restricted to ventures were small size of enterprise and 10 weeks of the year. prices, yet their buy-and-sell decisions arebusiness operations if these analyses are to not greatly, affected byprice. The tradi-be meaningful. Following thisprocedure tional cattleman who attempts toanalyze makes possible more realistic projections of local market conditions and followrational recreational industry growth. economic thinkinginpredicting market Negative returns to labor and manage- changes is frustrated when faced withsuch ment might be expectedfor the social en- competition. trepreneur (described byJohnson), or the In analyzing these three types ofcattle- contemporary entrepreneur(described by men, Uvacek andSchmedemann main-Uvacek and Schmedemann). A prolonged tained that under these circumstancesit isperiod of low returns might be possible unreasonable to assess all land costs againstwhere recreation is only a supplementary be enterprise. Separation of these groups,in the cattle operation. Some value must direct focus on placed on the indirect benefits associated any analysis, permits a more with the operation. Only by somerevision enterprises where recreation is the primary of management-analysis techniques can we business activity or where profit maximiza- realistically project future growth of these tion is the desired goal. types of operations. Extension workers and others whoadvise Traditional labor income analysis rarely the recreation firm would benefitimmeas- considers changing land values. Increases urably from such a business analysis.Lend- in land values are apparent onlythrough aers would get a morerealistic appraisal, sheet,and loan applications might be morefav- year-by-year comparative balance ig- and then only if land values areadjusted orably received. Lenders freely admit norance of the economicsof the outdoor annually. recreation enterprise (Bureau ofOutdoor In the Northeast, values of landwith Recreation 1967). And this ignoranceis high recreational attributes are increasingmagnified when researchers groupfirms phenomenally. Sinclair(1969)reports more with unlike goals together foranalytical than a fivefold increase in theweighted purposes. average price per acreof unimproved land into the sold in 31 typical Vermont townsbetween And if we are to gain insight 1958 and 1968. Such an appreciationin likely tenure of recreation business opera- low tions, we must look beyond returns to land value can offset many years of build farming; labor and management. We must labor returns whether it be from considera- recreation, or other activity. into our analytical framework tion for increasing land values.This may A smaller, though significant, increaseinhave as much or more bearing on tenure land values was noted in the Bureauofthan actual business profits. Outdoor Recreationreport,Recreation Land Price Escalation(1967).This report showed that land values are risingfrom5 IMPLICATIONS FOR EXTENSION WORK to10 percent per year throughoutthe Nation. The recreation firm adviser shouldfirst determine the true personal andbusiness RESEARCH IMPLICATIONS goals of the landowner before making spe- cific recommendations. Johnson(19S6)said, If entrepreneurial goals are distinctlydif-"If profits are not the major concern, we ferent, then the researcher who groupsallhave no business trying tojustify their firms torther in an analysis of businesssuccess or flay theirfailure by use of eco- picture. operations is presenting a confused nomic measures." This problem goes back to theinitial collec- tion of research data. At that time,he must Perhaps this means that we, as educators, ask the right questions so that eachfirmshould establish some values to reflect these can be properlyclassified according to thenoneconomic considerations and incorpo- operator's true goals. Firms mustbe sorate these valuesinto formulas used to classified in any descriptive analysisofjudge business decisions. lime-tested de-

36A !-4-14 cision-making procedures should not benecessary.Substantialimprovementsin dropped. Every business operator, regard-work methods have been accomplished less of his motivation, should at least bethrough time and motion studies in agricul- aware of how his operation deviatesfromture and forestry. These same techniques the optimum situation dictated by rigidneed to be applied in the recreation field economic analysis. Ideas that might be dis-in both public and private sectors. carded for the entrepreneur whose primary goal isprofit maximization might not be PROPERTY TAXATION discarded for the entrepreneur with other A MAJOR PROBLEM goals. In the Northeast, property taxation is a Consider,forexample,theretiredmajor emerging problem that could have plumber who fondly remembers bobsled-a pronounced impact on all private recrea- ding as a boy and wishes to establish ation development. The problem is acute in commercial bobsled run on his property.areas where the fair marlcet value of land is His prime motivation is personal recreation.rising unchecked in response to an urban Perhaps he should not be discouraged frominterest in a rural retreat. such an operation even though market In Vermont I studied taxation of youth analysis indicates that the odds for successcamps and attitudes of operators (Bevins are low. He must mentally equatehis total1970). In 1966 only IS percent of the personal gains and financial losses in arriv-youth-camp operators felt that they might ing at a final decision. be taxed out of business. By 1969 the num- All business operators should be madeber had risen to 38 percent. The youth- aware of the break-even concept and itscamp industry is a victim of circumstances. application. Campground operators mightLand and water resources, which are ab- use this tool to project cost-revenue datasolutely necessary to effectively operate a and to determine the occupancy level atyouth camp, carry a high value for seasonal- which revenue from campsites will coverhome development. The zamp operator specific expenses. From such an analysis,will receive a significant capital gain if and proper decisions might be made concern-when property is sold for seasonal homes. ing an economically sound rate structure.But some operators would prefer to con- If an operator chooses to deviate from suchtinue a camp operation and would do so if a rate structure, he does so in full recogni-property taxes were realistically alined with tion of the economic consequences. camp revenue. Capital budgeting should become com- A parallel situation may be emerging mon practicein evaluatingalternatives.with other recreational firms. It would in- Recognition oi the tune value and oppor-deed be unfortunate to see all types of tunity cost of money must be impressedprivate outdoor recreation resources sold upon individuals making financial decisions,for seasonal-home development. Yet such whether they be personal- or business-a situation could be triggered byunchecked motivated. We should not fear the use ofincreases in property taxation. sophisticated and complex tools in educa- tional programs even though some of our THE SNORTER WORK WEEK clients may hold other values higher than A MAJOR OPPORTUNITY profit maximization. On the brighter side of the picture, the Time and motion study and work simpli-recent movement toward the 10-hour work fication technUlues are needed in the rec-day and 4-day work week is encouraging reation field. Every effort should be madefor the outdoor recreation enterprise. If to reduce labor requirements associatedthis transition should become widespread, with daily operations. This of analysisrecreationenterpriseslocatedrelatively would be appropriate forarlassesof en-near Northeastern urban population cen- trepreneurs, irrespective of motivation. Noters might be greatly affected. The extra one likes to work harder than is absolutelyday off might provide a much-needed addi-

37 43 in cross-country skiivg. At one don to weekday businessvolumecurrentlyinterest limiting factor to business suc-time this was a highly popularactivity. a severely downhill cess. Moore (1964) noted that in NewLater it was overshadowed by England, except for summer campsandskiing, and now it is again anexpanding vacation farms, weekend businessaccountedactivity. for 70 to 90 percent of totalweekly re- The innovating entrepreneur is agambler ceipts. in a sense. He won't be satisfiedadhering to If the 10-hour day becomesacceptable,the security of a currently acceptable rec- we might verylogically move to a situationreation mode. He will question his cus- where each of two crews works 3days atomers thoroughly todetermine their true week, 10 hours a day, This wouldmakerecreation interests and theirunsatisfied economic sense, as industrial firmscouldgoals. He will critically observetheir ac- use their equipmentfar more efficiently. tions to determine how he mightmodify Consider the impact that this mighthave his operation to yield greater customer upon the recreationindustry. What doessatisfaction. He will experiment with new residence? ideas. Some of these ideas will proveworth- this mean in terms of primary hinge Is it not conceivable that theseasonal homeless, but his ultimate success may if theupon the earlydevelopment of just one in- might become the permanent home boat was urban apartment is needed only twonightsgenious idea. The lightweight developed in reseonse to man'sinterest in a week?Recreation planners should seri- ously consider thispossibilityif urban mobility. The quick-release ski binding was pressures continue to increaseand morethe outcome of man's interestin increased industries reduce the length of theworksafety. week. The aggressive entrepreneur willstudy our mathematicalprojections of demo- PROFITS graphic data and apply his personalknowl- TO THE INNOVATOR edge of people, their interests, andattitudes. The innovator in American industryis He will conceive a development program usually well rewarded. In therecreationthat will yield far greater returnsthan the field, this opportunity is not diminishedin operation planned in accordancewith a En- the least. An Innovator must haveimagina-stereotyped set of recommendations. tion, a superior knowledge of people,theirtrepreneurial gain isstill very much a interests and attitudes, and a constantmatter of individualinitiative and per- awareness of changingtechnology. severance. Accurate prediction of changing recrea- tion interests is not easy. Peoplechange, SUMMARY and their interests change overtime. Con- it DISCUSSION sider the gross inaccuracy had we pro- As a rule the returns to thelabor and jected 1930 recreation interestsinto themanagement input inprivate outdoor rec- 1970's on the basis of populationincreasesreation enterprises are low.Improper loca- alone. Our failure to recognize man'sin-tion is a major factor associatedwith low creasing mobility would have led tothereturns. Otherfactors include insufficient construction of an oversupplyof largesize of operation and too short abusiness of which would be country inns, many season. abandoned today. A similaroverbuilding would have occurred had wetlevelopM We cannot assume that theselimiting youth camps on the basis ofpopulation factors and low returns willdiscourage projections alone. landowners from entering andcontinuing field. In One cannot project recreationdemandin the private outdoor recreation many instances thedecision to operate an too far with anydegree of reliability. Spe- is more re- cific activity interest may come, go,andoutdoor recreation entoprise later return again. Witness the c lated to petsonal and noneconomic con-

38 44 siderations than to profit maximization. If,results so classified will be far more useful however, low returns are co4td withto field advisers, bankers, andothers than high property taxation over a prolongedany information nowavailable. Recreatinn period, the ultimate effect may be an over-field advisers must tailor their advice tothe balancing of these personal and noneco-productof rationaleconomicanalysis nomic considerations and an end to recrea-coupled with full consideration of personal tion business activities. landowner desires. The traditional methods of measuring A major problem of the recreation firm enterprise profitability are unrealistic unless is underutilization of facilities on weekdays. we consider land-valueappreciation. ThisImprovement may be on the horizon if the factor may be a far greater determinant of44ay work week should become common. enterprise tenure than actual cash returnsAt some point in the future, a 3-daywork to labor and management. week with two crews may become com- Any 'realistic projection of the roleofmon. Snch action wouldhave a profound impact n the outdoor recreation industry. private enterprisein outdoor recreation must consider (1) cashenterprise returns, The private outdoor recreation firm has (2) land value appreciation, (3) land taxa-an important role toplay in the years tion, and (4) noneconomic entrepreneurialahead. The highest degree of success will goals. Failure to consider any one of theseaccrue to the entrepreneurwho uses in- factors could lead to a grossly inaccurategenuity and imagination and becomes an projection. innovatoramong recreationfirms.Re- Outdoor recreation researchers can clearsearchers and field advisers are challenged some muddy watersif they will properlyto help guide the private sector tomini- classify outdoor recreation enterprises ac- mize mistakes in judgment and to maximize cording to entrepreneurial goals.Research benefits, both monetary and nonmonetary.

Literature Owl Bevins, Malcolm I. Loomis, Clifton W., and Bruce T. Wilkins. 1967. THE PRIVATE CAMPGROUND INDUS'TRY IN 1970. A STUBY OF CAMPGROUND BUSINESSES IN 67-4,5 pp. NEW YORK srATE. Cornell Univ.Agr. Exp. Sta. VERMONT. Univ. Vt. Agr. Econ. AE Res. 315. 11 pp. Bevins, Malcolm I. Vt. Agr. 1970. YOUTH CAMPS IN VERMONT. Univ. Moore, Elmer J. Exp. Sta. Bull. 662. 16 pp. 1964. RURAL RECREATION ENTERPRISES IN NEW Bureau of Outdoor Recreation. ENGLAND. USDA Econ. Res.Serv. Res. Rep. 1966. FINANCING OF OUTDOOR RECREATION.U. S. 56. 27 pp. Dep. Int. 5 pp. Bureau of Outdoor Recreation. Uvacek, Edward, Jr., and Ivan W. Schmedemann. 1967. RECREAHON LAND PRICE ESCALATION.U. S. 1968. THE CATTLE BUSINESS-AGRICULTURAL EN- Dep. Int. 33 pp. TERPRISE OR OUTDOOR RECREATION.Tex. A&M Johnson, Hugh A. Univ. Tex. Agr. Progr. 14 (1). 3 PP. 1962. PRIVATE ENTERPRISE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF outcome RECREATION.USDA Econ. Res. Serv. Sinclair, Robert 0. 20 pp. 1969. Timms IN RURAL LAND PRICES IN VERMONT. Johnson, Hugh A. Univ. Vt. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 659. 23 pp. 1966. OPPOR1VNITIES AND UMITATIONS INPRIVATE =BEATON DEvr Wmorr. USDAEcon. Res. Serv. U. S. Congress Subcommittee onNational Parks 19 pp. and Recreation. 1970. GOLDEN EAGLE PROGRAM. U. S.Government Johnson, Hugh A. C. 1968. Tun animus ANALYSIS.USDA Econ. Printing Office. Serial 91-16. Washington, D. Res. Serv. 13 pp. 596 pp.

39 45 AN ANALYSIS OFENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY RANKINGSYSTEMS

by JULIUS GY. FABOS, Departmentof Landscape Architecture and Regional Planning, University ofMassachusetts, Amherst, Mass. This paper was prepared while theauthor served as National Science Faculty Fellow in the Schoolof Natural Resources, Uni- versity of Michigan, 1970-71. The authoracknowledges the helpful advice and encouragemen. of Dr. GunterSchramm.

ABSTRACT. A review and analysis ofthe quantitative ranking systems that have been developedduring thc past decade for measuring environmental quality.

JJURING THE PAST decade manyreviewed, rathcr to provide only brief ab- quantitativeranking systems havestract interpretations of them. been developed for measuring envi- This study focuscs on the analysis of ronmental quality. This upsurge of qualitythose ranking systems that deal with land- quantification has paralleled the renewed scapequalities, but itdoes not exclude interest in environmental quality. Most ofurban scapcs such as residential neighbor- the systems were designed to estimate thc hoods. Analysis of this kind is not available qualitative values of the natural or cultural at this timc; however, the upsurgeof the landscapes.' Others were designed to testnumerous systems warrants acontinuing cultural preferences of people or their be-analysis and evaluation of them. Their havior inrelation to complexity in thevalues ought to be questioned, and the environment. Many disciplines have con- techniques must bc improved, if wc aim to tributed to the development of the systems, estimate landscape qualitiesand predict ranging from landscape architects through changes resulting from theactivities of geographers, psychologists, and economists men. to engineers. Some systemshave been de- GENERAL BACKGROUND signed by interdisciplinary teams. In this paper I aim to bring together The norms uscd in evaluating environ- information about the art of environmental mental qualities arc believed to be influ- quality-ranking systems; to analyze themenced by two sets of factors: The first is against an appropriate set of criteria;and cultural and has long historical roots.This to identify areas whereimprovement and can be analyzed withrelative certainty. further research are needed. The second is psychological. For instance, biases and value judg- human beings react to complexphysical Some personal simple, ments are inherent insuch a study, and aenvironments differently than to completely objective evaluation wouldbe monotonc surroundings;and oftcn there literature are large deviationsbetween individuals.2 impossible because the available limited at on the systems isincomplete. I will not tryResearch on these factors is very to provide a detailedanalysis of all systems present. Historical Factors ablcs generally accepted as norms by the dcsign profession. According to Litton, Thc 19th century concern for romanticthe quality of the sccnic resource depends landscape quality has had a major influence on distance of view, the observer's position, on present landscape values in the United form, spatial definition, light, and sequence. States. Coming mainly from England, theThc landscape composition is based on the interest in romantic landscape spread rap-panoramic quality type and quality of fea- idly sometime aftcr1830.Tree-planting tures in thc landscape, enclosure on the societies wcrc beautifying and laying outsidc and or by canopy. In addition, he villagecommons, cemeteries, andlocal described thc detail and ephemeral compo- academicsinthepicturesqueromantic nents of the landscape. style.' Today the fenceless suburbias with Thc variables used in conventional land- winding roads and large setbacks provide scape evaluations arc the basis for most of thc same parklike quality developed during the qualitative ranking systcms. The major thc 19th century romantic-landscape move- difference between conventional evaluation ment. and ranking systcms seems to be that the Thoreau, Olmsted, and their contempo-latter quantify areas with various charac- raries have greatly influenced our values teristics and often place numbcr values on towards nature. They preached the nccd the variables. for harmony between man and nature, and they later had great impact on thc 19th ccntury movement to protect thc "monu- Recent Factors in the Upsurge mental beauty" of the West.' Olmsted and of Quantitative Environmental others helped to bring about the preserva- Ranking Systems: tion of some unique landscapes in several parts of thc U.S., and their values have The first factors arc the increased wealth thc attitudes of the Nationaland mobility during the post World War influenced II era, which escalated the demand on the Park Service.' natural resources. Fr: instance, Wyckoff' Charles Eliot articulated well the land-compared the urban land demand per per- scape values at the turn of the century. Inson before and aftcr 1950 and found dia.:- his planfor the Bostonmetropolitan area, the 18 percent population growth in the he proposed thc protection of estuaries, Springfield,Mass., areaincreased urban spaces on thc ocean front, island and bay land use by 136 percent between 1951 and areas, and wild forests on the outskirts. He 1965. The recreation demand escalated proposed squares, playgrounds, and parks similarly,though detailed studyisnot throughout thc city" The sum of theseavailable on recreation land use increase per amenities meant environmental quality to person. By the1960's recreation demand him. was so significant that it created national attention. The Outdoor Recreation Review Conventional Non-quantitative Commissionie was set up to prepare a Evaluation of Landscapes nationwide study of the recreation demand In addition to natural and cultural fac- and problems. tors, landscape architects and land planners The need for natural stock resonrces traditionally have evaluated and mapped (coal, oil, gas, etc.) escalated in the same the visual qualities of landscapes and urban manner. The problems of strip-mining have scapes.Through drawings andwritingreceived wide attention, and evaluation of they have described the attributes of suchtheir effect on the landscape has begun-11 variables as spatial enclosure, form, edgeOur society is increasingly aware of envi- configurations (shoreline), dominant fea-ronmental concerns and the costs of re- tures, views, vistas, and contrast. SOurCeutilization and has recently under- During the past two decades, descrip-taken surveys of the combined effects of tions of the sequential experiences have resource uses such as electric power, which intensified.'In arecent study,Burtonis dependent on both stock resources and Litton° described in detail the visual vari-land for power lines and stations, and flow

41 47 rcsourccs (water for hyrdroclectric power).through designing quality ranking systems, Abrahamson" estimated a twelvefold in-arc able to provide the facts and figurcs crease of electric consumption betweenour culture denim& for decision-making. 1950 and 2000. Thc impact of such an in- crease on thc Nation's landscape might be ANALYSIS PROCEDURE extremely significant. Another factor for ranking systems de- Thc ranking systems analyzed hcrc wcrc sign is thc increasing role of the U.S. andgroupcd into three major categories based othcr industrializednationsinland-uscon their scale characteristics and overall through large-scalc planning, managcmcnt,purposc. Each of the systems within each and policy formulation." These govern-category is described briefly, and the cate- mental activities are directly responsiblegories arc analyzed against each of thc for several ranking systems discussed in thiscight criteria. study.'4 A third factor is thc availability of so-Major Categories of Environmental phisticateddata-analysistechniquesand Quality-Ranking Systems hardware. For instance Steinitz et. al. de- I. Quality-ranking systernsto evaluate veloped computer graphic techniques ap- resources for policy planning. These propriate for regional landscape analysis." systems arc providing gross apprecia- The symap version of that technique has tion of thc cavironmental quality of a been adopted by the State of New York large rcgion such as the North Atlantic to make an inventory of the natural re- region of the United States. The cate- sources of the entire State. Disciplines in- further subdivided into the terested in the environment arc discovering gory is follouing groups: statisticaland other mathematicaltools essential for quantitative evaluations."' A. S Acne, on profcssional planning A fourth factor is that the number of and design norms to evaluate land- disciplines making environmental quality scape qualities. oriented studies and research have s4.- B. Systems to evaluate peoples' prefer- rocketedduring the past decade. The ences towards regional landscape directory of Behavior Environmental characteristics and complexities. Design by the Research & Design Institute II. Quality-ranking systems to evaluate lists 34disciplines and 290 professionals resources for the purpose of planning and organizations conducting behavior and and action on interstate,state, and environmental research. The directory list- subregional scak. These systems can ing increased by over 70 percent in 4 bc used to influence physical decisions years." Furthermore. several students of on the land; for instance, the selection environmental quality concerns are inter- and allocation of land for various kinds ested in ranking systems that can be used of recreation and conservation uses of to predict consequences of urbanization of a region. The subcategories are: thelandscape."Predictive modelsare A. Systems evaluating landscape quali- widely used by physical and social scien- ties (1) for landscape development tists, who often use normative variables and and protection type decisions; (2) measures for evaluation, such as theG.N.P., for highway planning decisions. to predict the change of lifestandards." This subgroup is different, because The last factor is described by Michael highway orientedlandscapes are Novak" in his recent book The Experience mostly viewed in motion. of Nothingness. He argues that our cul- B. Systems to evaluate peopks' pref- tural norms aftRichthat the demand for erences of landscape characteristics. "objectivity" and "pragmatism" becomes more and more important andthat we Quility-ranking systems for the _pur- ought to have the "hard facts and figures" pose of evaluating the landscape for 1 to influence successfully thedecision-mak- single use such as camp.ng or -boating. ing. The planning and design professions, These techniques are used main3y to evaluate sites from among which the The third component of the landscape more appropriate sites arcselected foris the largest and thc most difficult todeal development. with. It includes alllandscapes that arc neither unique nor misfits. Several of thc ranking systems reviewed hcrc arc devel- Format for the Description opedtoevaluateexclusivelythesein- of the Ranking Systems between landscapes, which have the attri- butes of what Ervin Zubc" describes as Whcrc information is available. the rank-"ubiquities or regionally pervasive values." ing system is abstracted as follows. Thelie suggests for this type of landscape agencies and disciplines who conductedassessments and measurements tofocus on the study arc identified. The situation that provided the impetus for thc study is de-the "critical landscape attributes." scribed. Then thc factors and variables 2. The permanent or inmmtable andthe used in the study arc summarized, andchangeable or mutable landscape attributes finally thc procedure of the study is brieflyare evaluatedseparately.The permanent presented. landscape attributes arc those that cannot be changed easily or significantly bv man. They include land form characteristics. Criteria for Analysis major water bodies, and climaticcharacter- The major categories arc analyzed againstistics. The aangeable landscapeattributes cach of the eight criteria described below.are all those that areinfluenced or deter- In instances, reference is made to the in-mined by human activity or the lackof it land- dividualranking systemstoemphasizesuch as farm, urban, or wilderness optimum vise or negligence of the criteriascape characteristics. undcr analysis. It is not suggested, however, 3. Tbe factors and variablesused are that each ranking system ought to satisfyappropriate to the scale and purposeof the each of the criteria dereloped here. ranking system.A ranking system de- 1. The system is designed to evaluate thesigned to evaluate 2 large regionfor the entire landscape continuum.The land-purpose of formulating aland-use policy scape continuum has three components.may necessitate anentirely different set of First is thc unique landscape- It includesfactors and variables than a system pre- those natural or cultural landscamthatpared to evaluate a camping site.For in- have the characteristics of one of akindstance,the evaluation of theshoreline within a study area such as a region, oritquality of a small lake within acampsite has some superb quality characteristicsofarea is essential forthe latter, but would be one kind or another.Agreement abouttotally useless for a land-usepolicy formu- what constituted the unique landscape waslation for a state or a large region. not too difficrit in the past.No one refutes 4. The system is designed tobe used the unique quality of the GrandCanyon,universally, given that scale and purpose for instance. The evaluation ofuniqueness,are basicallyconstant.The design of a however, is getting more difficult inplaces skills and time. Once a only asystem demands where the unique attribute serves system is developed,it should be applicable special interest group; for example,wilder-anywhere where similarconditions and ness areas for wildriver canoeing. needs for evaluation arise.For instance, a The seccnd component of thelandscapeshoreline quality for swimmingis equally continuum is the opposite of important in Europe and inAmerica. Misfits are often referred to as misfit.2' be reproduced resuhs of human activity, andthey can 5. Tbe ranking system can by otbers.Scientists haveaccepted this have a significant regionalimpact The for good rea- problem remains, however, how todefinecriteria for a long time and For instance,sons. People havingsimilar skills or coming "misfit" or "bad quality." from the same discipline asthose who billboards are eyesores toconservationists able to re- and beautiful r-t to the graphicartists. developed a system stild be

43 49 produce and evaluateit.Several of the DESCRIPTION AND ANALYSIS ranking systems published to date are ex- Of EXISTING OR PROPOSED SYSTEMS tremely inadequate when analyzed against this criteria. I. For Policy Planning 6. The system can be wed to predict Nine systems have been classified. Five changes of quality as result of human ac-of them were designed to evaluate national tivity.Two kinds of changes need to beor regional landscape qualities, and four predicted. First is the decreased amount or deal with peoples' preferences. degree in thc environmental quality. Sec- A. Systems to erahmte landscape ond is thc increase of it. in some instancesThe first attempt to rank regional land- a study might indicate that certain pro-scape resource qualities vv-as made in the posed changes would have neutral effects 1930's by the staff of the National Park on the existing quality. Service." The purpose of the study was to evaluate the Nation's vacation resources. 7. The quantitative tools and techniquesNatutal factors provided the dominant de- used arc appropriate for the ranking sys- terminants for the ranking. The quality of tem.Several systems use statistical tech- topography,water, climate,(immutable niques, computers, and othcr tools such as rcsourccs) and thc plant life (mutable re- a photometer to measure tonalvalues. source) were described. Criteria were de- There may he instances where the ranking veloped for summer, winter, and year-round sy-stem could be improved by using appro- vacation lands. The three types of vacation priate tools and techniques. In other cases, regions were identified and mapped. tools and techniques are used unnecessarily The second national effort to rank rec- or thc process is poorly documented so resources W2S made bythe that objective evaluation by others is im-reational OutdoorRecreation ResourceReview possible. Mark Twain" once commented, Commission (ORRRC)" as part of their "He uses statistics as a drunk uses a lamp- outdoor recrea- post; not for light but for support." Similarassessment of the Nation's problems often occur with the use of the tion needs, around 1960. ORRRC proposed a system for classifyingrecreation resources computer. into six use classes: high-Aensity recreation S. The system has the ability to reduceareas, general outdoorrecreation:reas, or eliminate conflicu in tbedecision-mak- natural environmentalareas, outstandim ing process.The most obvious factors that natural areas, primitive areas, and historic influence environmental quality are politi- and cultural sites. cal, economic, technical, or technological. A set of natural-physical requirements, Special-interest gmups might constitute an in combination with proximity topopula- added factor in the decision making proc- tion, determines the use class.Landscape deter- ess. The designers of the systemsshould be attractiveness is a major factor for aware of these factors at the outsetand mining each class. For instance,natural should develop thc ranking system in such environment class areasought to have lakes, a way that it communicatesthe measured "varied and interesting land forms, values effectively, thus reducing the con-streams, flora andfauna within attractive flicts and boundaries between the influenc- natural settings." in- ing factors. For instance, alternative route The outstanding natural class area proposals of electric power lines or high- cludes"individualareasof remarkable ways might have verydifferent effects on natural 'wonder, high scenic splendor, or a given landscape. Aquality ranking sys-features of scenic importance. A ranking tem might clarify the degreesof negative system determining what constitutesthese changes for each of the possible alternative qualities WM not developed by the Com- routes. mission. The ORRRC study could well bc de- the regionally pervasive" visual andcultural veloped further and could be applied to environment of thc 167,000 squaremiles of thc three types of vacation landdeveloped thc region. Thc permanent andchangeable by thc National Park Service. landscapes were evaluated separately. Thc permanent landscape wasclassified the Ian Mc Harr with his students at into five landscape series,ranging from University of Pennsylvania, developed a mountains toflatlands. Each landscape ranking system, on a river-basin scale. A quality of the full series was evaluated for thc matrix was developed, in which contrast, spatial sequence,and water vari- compatibility(as opposed to incompati- medial, or for- ables, and was ranked as high, bility) of a given land use (industrial, low quality. estry) was measured against thenatural The changeable landscapes wereclassi- determinants(climate, slope). The use fied into eight units, determined byintensity consequences rangefrom good, fair, and that those of use, ranging from center-city unit to poor to bad. The matrix suggests land- are good forest wildland landscape unit. The areas where thc use consequences evaluated on the URIC environments. scape units were arc thc high-quality three-level ranking of high, medial,and Thc development of two othcrranking low. The major variables forthe unit systems was made possiblebv the Water evaluationswerevarietyanddiversity Resources Planning Act of1945. Under thc within thc use patterns. guidelines of thc Water ResourcesCouncil Finally a system was devised to combine established by the Act, "framework" type the permanent and changeable visualland- studies have been conducted foreach ofscape values into oneexisting landscape the nineteen water resource regionsof the value, using the same three-levelranking. US. One of the four objectivesof the B. Systems to erwlsktle people'spreferences Council is to achieve environmentalquality. study towards regional landscapethararteriaks Planners in two of the regional landscape prefer- groups, UpperMississippi and North At-and complexities.Threc dcsign ranking ence systems forevaluation were developed lantic, found it necessary to Landscape Architec- systems for evaluatingthe existing environ-at the Department of ture, University ofMassachusetts," to vali- mental qualities. date the hypothesis of the ranking system The Upper Mississippi system wasde- for thc North Atlantic Region.The studies veloped by Philip H. Lewis, Jr,and Asso- were initiated anddirected by Professor ciates, Landscape Architects,27 toprovide Zube and were prepared by fourlandscape an assessment ofthe aesthetic and culturalarchitect students, Albert, Burns,Rundell, de- values for this region. A system was and Halverson." veloped to evaluate 13 naturaland cultural rie hypothesis tested by thestudents further factors. Each of the factors was was that thequality of land form, water, subdivided into variables. Aresource-value the permanent intuitively to and contrast (the variables of point system was assigned landscape) and variety, diversity(the vari- cach of the 120 variables,ranging from 1 lan&smpe)are included such items as ables of the changeable to 20. The variables essential components anddeterminants of high points, caves, virginstands, and old and criteria overall landscape quality. mills. The inventory technique New England for the point system were notdescribed. Albert used color slides of of an area waslandscapes and tested andevaluated the Thc environmental quality students,using assumed to be determinedby the total ofuniversity number of points it received.Application tnacrisToesscopic projection. of this ranking system tothe huge Upper Burns and Rundell used a setof 10 Mississippi region is unclear. photo-montages. The pattern inthe middle North At-ground was developed in fivecombinations The ranking system for the horizon line was lantic Region was designedby Researchof field and forest. The Inc., a con-either mountains or rollinghills. A random Planning & Pesign Associates, sample. test on the adultpopulation of sulting firm in Amherst,Mass.," to evaluate

45 51 Amherst was conducted, using the paired Without much effort, thc highcst and low- comparison format. est values could bc built into the ranking The study of Halverson was similar to ivstents on thisscale. Hcncc the entire that of Burns and Rundell, using line draw- lindscape continuum could be evaluated. ings in place of photo-montages. Permanent andchangeablelandscape The studies showcd that greater variety attributes arc separated in the Potomac and of pattern and changes in topography were the North Atlantic Region systems. In preferred over little variety of pattern and the matrix of the Potomac svstem, the flatter landscapes. major cmphasis is based on the 'differentia- tionbetween naturaldeterminants and A unique study wa: made by Joachim compatibility of land uscs, while in the Wohlwill" on human reaction to com- North Atlantic Region study between thc plexity in the physical environment. Wohl- (permanent) and the will's purpose was to "determine whether landscape systems landscape units (changeable), landscape is relationships between stimulus complexity emphasized. Both systems evaluate success- on the one hand, and interest and prefer- fully thosc resources that need protection ence on thc other, as previously determined or preservation and those that arc modified for artificial stimuli in the laboratory, could constantly by human activity and can be bc generalizee to stimulus domains involv- ing ready made stimuli." He used two improved at will. The appropriatenen of the factors and classes of stimulienvironmental and artistic as examples of such domains. variables used in these appears to be op- timum for this category, except for the A 7-point scale of complexity via:: estab- Upper Minissippi system. The evaluation lished by obtainingjudges'ratings a of 13 factors and 120 variables within a amount of variation presclit in environ- region that consists of several hundred mental and art pictures. The exploratory square miles seems to present a monumental behavior, (the number of timcs the subject and unnecessary task. Variables such as an chose to expose each slide briefly) and the old mill or a small waterfall might have subjects' preference (evaluation ratings on significance for a specific local planning a 7-point scale), was tested andanalyzed effort, but add little to the environmental through regression. The preferencefor quality of a huge region. complexity increased from levels 1 to 4; Unfortunately, for neither of the three then, as complexity further increased to systemsNational Park Service, Potomac, level 7, the preference decreased. This type of studies could have influence on planning and Upper Mississippiare the analytical and ranking procedures presented in suffi- policy formulation. cient detail to permit wider adaption or evaluation by others. Furthermore, they Analysis of Category could not easily be reproduced by students The ranking systems of this category of quality ranking systems. deal with regionally pervasive landscapes An evaluation of the category I ranking only, and do not rate the unique land- systems against criterion six (predictability) scapes nor the misfit landscapes. Zubejusti- leads to the conclusion that no one system fies this exclusion as follows: "The search in this group was designed for predicting for uniquenccs and to a lesser extent the quality changes as a result of human ac- concern for misfits tends tofocus on dis- tivity. Probably the system designed for crete sites, on specific welldefined seg- the North Atlantic Region could be de- ments of the landscape."" veloped further for such predictive pur- It is true in most cases, however, that a because it evaluates the changeable unique quality might extend far beyond aralesscape attributes separately.If the variety site. For instance, the wilderness type land- and diversity change of the proposed land- scape of northern Maine or theembayed scape pattern are linown, the new com- rocky cliffs of the Maine shoreline con- binel landscape quality could be estimated stitute unique attributes on a subregional because the value of the permanent land- scale within the North Atlantic Region. scape remains constant. re- Quantitative techniques for the purpose portion of a comprehensivenatural of evaluation were used only in the systems sources inventory,done in collaboration Massachusetts Ex- that were ,jcsigned to evaluate peoplepref- with thc University of Department thcsc systems, simple tension Service and thc State erences. For cach of the impe- statistical techniques wcrc used to set up of Natural Resources, who gave The team evaluated the experiment and to evaluatethcm. Thc tus for the study. biophysicalre- explanations arc simple and adequate,and threeresource(actors: factors, andlandscape the test could bc made easily tovalidate sources,natural types and values.Eight areas were flagged thcm. tiorprotection where concentrationof The last criterion deals with thcability highivality landscape resourcesoccurred. of the systems to reduceconflicts in thc Furthermore, high-quality, fragile, or scarce this decision-making process. To satisfy resources wereranked as unique for preser- be pre- criterion, thc systems ought to vation. The unique landscapesincluded the sented in such a way thatnonprofessionals heath, dune, and- salt-marshlandscapes, and can understandthem. No one of the sys- fivtareas of high pointsthat provided tems in categoryI was found to fully panoramic views of the islandand the and the satisfy this critcrion. The ORRRC ocean. In addition,the land-form attributes NAR studies arethe most convincing, were evaluated andranked into four cate- is thc most while thc Mississippi system gories. This ranking systemlater influenced complex. Itispresented ina 600-pagc the system developed forthe North At- poorly even to report, and it communicates lantic Rcgion. other professionals. A resource evaluation systemfor the Island, New For Physical Planning andAction Department of Parks of Staten York, was designed by IanMcHarg and The greatest number ofranking systems Juneja, landscape architects."The purpose WM found in this category.Seven of the of the study was to evaluatepotential land 11 systems were designed toevaluate re- uses for theisland, based on the intrinsic gional landscape qualities, andthc other values. They described andinterpreted 32 four dealt with preferencesand perceptions ecological factors (land features,aquifers, of people. etc.). Ranking criteria weredeveloped for factors, ranging A. Systems to erobsoielasedscdpe polities each of the ecological from maximum to minimum.A system of 1. For landscape developmentand pro- ranking" placed a value on stne-wide rec- tection type decisions.The each resourcefactor,havinghighest, reation study in Wisconsin gavethe im-medium, low, or lowestvalue. Based on petus for thcdevelopment of an environ- this evaluation, each resource wasassigned by Philip mental quality ranking system for a compatible land use. H. Lewis, Jr." This study was oneof the first efforts to rank environmentalqualities An environmentalquality-ranking sys- on a regionalscale. The purpose was to tem was recentlydeveloped by Handley, evaluate "thc state wide patternof re-Jordan, and Patterson" ofthe Bureau of Regional sources values"for recreanon. Lewisin-Outdoor Recreation's Northeast ventoried and evaluated onthe basis of 11 Office. The system was anattempt to natural and cultural factors,which werequantify levels of environmentalquality in further subdivided into 220 resourcevari- a segmentof the total possible spectrum. ables. The concentrationof these resources The primary pu of the system was to in so-called "environmentalcorridors" pro- proviiie a basis137eenvironmental quality vided the high qualitystatewide pattern of evaluations of a single areaunder varying predict con- resource values. conditions. The intent was to the individual envi- resource evaluationforsequences by vatying A landscape ronmental factors throughdifferent com- Nantucket Island, Massachusetts, waspre- binations of time, intensity,and input inter- pared by_ Ervin Zubeand the author in 1966.he" T landscapeevaluation was a relationships.

47 53 The portion of thc environmentalspec- against what Fines describesas "thc process trum covered by thc system is indicated by of landscape crosion." the use of cight broad categories: resident population, communityresources,water 2. For highway planning decisiom.The resources,land forms,leisureresources, following two systems ofcategory 11 vegetativeresources,wildliferesources, (evaluation of Ian Iscape qualities)were and historical/archaeologicalconcerns. Each dcsignedtomeasure highway-oriented of these categorieswas further brokenlan&apcs. Before development ofthcsc down into those factors believedto con- systems, several planners were interested tribute thc most to its meaning." Numerical to describe thc components of a quality values assigned to each factor produceda highway." Others were interestedto study positive base value. This base valuewas the driver's experience in motion andre- subsequently modified by application of cord the visual sequence." weighting 'factors (muitipliers) to reflect The first quantitative rankingsystem of incremental value not solely attributableto highway lands.a. pes that is knownto the the degree to whicha category's factorsauthor was developed by Frederic O. arc present. Negative factorsair, water,Sargent" at thc Vermont Resources Re- visual, audio, and crowdingwere usedtosearch Center. Sargent,a resource econo- reflect thc value limitations thesesources mist, evaluated highwayscenery by ranking impose on the derivable benrits of the base two componentsdistance and varietyand values. then adjusting this total rating with refer- The next system described herewas de-ence to depth, breacit:i, intermittency of veloped in England. A landscape evaluation the view, and eyesores ifany. Distance was research project for East Sussex Countyrated from I to 5; thc greater the distance, was prepared by K. D. Fines" at the Eastthe higher the rating. VarietyW2S also Sussex County Planning Department. The rated from I to 5; thc greater the variety, aim of the study was to designa method the higher the rating. The distance and of landscape and townscape evaluation. At variety ratings were added to provide the the start, a world wide scale of the natural total rating at one observation point. A and cultural values was devised, ranging series of ratings every Y2 mile characterized from unsightly, undistinguished, pleasant,the scenic quality of a road. Thesystem distinguished, and superb, to spectacular. was designed to( I)facilitate justifying To eliminate personal bias in landscapeap- scenic road designations, (2) facilitate lo- preciation, a representative group of 45 cation of scenic turnouts on highways, and persons was selected to rank and evaluate (3) determine the need for scenicaccess color photographs of landscape andtown- on a given road. scape views of the entire landscape ccw- A highway aesthetics study for the US. tinuum. The result of the vkw evaluatiom Department of Transportation was con- was converted to land-surface values of ducted by Professor Hornbeck & Associ- landscape types, features, and viewpoinv.ates," at the Department of Landscape The landscape of East Sussex was evaluated Architecture at Harvard since 1965. The and measured against the landscape velue purpose of the study is to develop devices profile of England. Application of the tech- to increase theiphlaenning of scenic qualities nique was briefly discussed. It was sug-of highways. aesthetic factors Weft gested to be used as a guide to the formu- identified as visual inputs in the study. lation of urban expansion policy and in the They included edge quaky, degree and section of routes and sites in open country.quality of enclosure, object dominance by The report demonstrated the application ofcontrast, size and nearness, the quality of the technique to predict the change ofobject diversity, and thc attributes of the landscape values created by a 400 kVvisual alignment. The visual impacts of supergrid transmission line on alternativeeach input (aesthetic factors) were rated routes. The evaluation system would alsoand measured against behavioral outputs be used for protecting valuable landscapes (speed control, orientation) of the driver.

48 describe B. Systems to evaluate peoplespreferences. Tcn variables were identified to landscape zones such as, sky zone, vegeta- Four studies dealt with peoples'prefer-tion zone, and stream zone in thephoto- ences for natural andcultural lanIscape identified characteristics. Thc first of them was donegraphs. Four additional variables oflandscape zone dimensions. They were by George Peterson" at thc Department perimeter, interior, arca, and horizontalend Uni- Gvil Enginecriv at Northwestern squares of various itemsin the 8 x 10 versity in 1965. The purpose of thestudyphotographs, overlayed bv 1/4-inch gridfor was to analyzequantitatively the eercep-analysis of pictures.Lan.dscape zone and tion of the visual appearance ofresidential dimension variables were read intothe neighborhoods. Nine variables were assumedcomputer. Tonal variables weredetermined to contribute to thevisual appearance ofby the usc of photometer and wereadded. residential rcighborhoods: preference,A model was formulated bycorrelating expensiveness, greenery, open space, age, 46 x 46 total possible variables,and a matrix safety, privacy, beauty, and closeness to describe the landscapes model was con-was computed to nature. A hypothesized in thc photograph. structed. Preference to variables wastested variable by The next step was the landscape prefer- and rated on a scale for each significant slides to140individuals. ence test "to see if there was a projecting 25 relationship between quantitative itcmsin Finally the hypothesis was testedthrough concluded thatthc photographs of a landscapeand the regression ani!ysis. It was preference scorc of that landscapc."To thc most significant dimensionfor prefer- "appears to beevaluate preferences, 250 respondents ex- ence of visual appearance each. whichis amined 20 packets of 5 photographs the general physicalquality, from 1to 5 strongly reflected by the perceived ageofA landscape preference score was obtained from thesample intervieus, the neighborhood." and a multiple-regression analysis wasused The next system was an analysisofto evaluate thedependent variable prefer- landscape development by Peter Jacobsandence score. Thc model wasquite successful. Douglas Way,.2 landscape architects.The"In five of the six field tests, thepredicted purpose of the study was toevaluate theand observed ranks of thclandscape pic- ability of various landscapes tovisuallytures showed agreement."s2 absorb land-use activities. Thethree vari- The last study in this categorydealt with ables were vegetation density,topographica system of landscapedimensions developed closure, and visilal complexity. Aranking by K. H. Craik," a psychologist, as a con- scale was devised, renging from 0 to 9,"thetinuation of the forest-landscapedescrip- degree to which undevelopedlandscapestion study by Litton." The aimof Craik's differed visually from theidentical land-study wo . to improve landscapeinventory scapes with selectedactivity uscs intro-methods and landscape resourceevaluation. duced into them." Thirty subjects wereFirst Craik collaborated withLitton in tested, using the paired comparisonformat.developing a landscape ratingscak that The authors concluded that greater vege-contained 10 factors, includingobserver's tation density and topographicclosure ab-position, extent of view, andenclosure; and sorb visual complexity betterthan littlecontained 34 dimensions such asthe ob- vegetation densityana flat topography. server is lookingdown upon or looking up developed landscape toward the scene. In addinon, he A predictive model for natural landscape typology, consistingof preferences waS prepared StThe North-a graphic 10 schematic landscapeforms. eastern ForestExperiment Station, USDA consisting in total Forest Service, by Shafer,Hamilton, and A series of test panels, researchof 250 people, were drawnfrom forestry Schmidt," an inter-disciplinary faculty, Jan team at theStation's Syracuse unit. Theand conservation students and study was "to identify whatscape architecturestudents and faculty, purpose of the and general quantitative variables inphotographs ofU.S. Forest Service personnel, relatedtouniversity students. Toappraise the reli- landscapes weresignificantly scales and public preference for thoselandscapes."°ability of the landscape rating

49 55 graphic landscape typology, the observers purpose of thc systems. However, in somc judged50 landscape scenes,ratingthc cases thc number .of variables selected arc scenes on each landscape dimension and either too few or too many. assigning each scene to thc most appropri- The two extreme cases were thc Wiscon- ate graphic type. Thc result of the study sin study, which dealt with 220 variables, showed substantial consensus among panels which seemstobc unmanageable and and impreKsive agreement in the way theysuggests too great 2n expenditure for in- employed thc landscape rating scales. A ventorv. On thcother hand. Sargent's detailedexplanation ofthcstatisticsis classifiation system. using only afew included in thc report. Preliminary tests of variables, suggests an oversimplified rank- the relationship of thc landscape dimertsions ing system. and types to aesthetic appeal served to illustrate thc scientific application of thc The more significant problem is that the techniques. majority of the variables used were selected intuitively, so thattheir scoring values were arbitrary. This analysis suggests two Analysis of CategoryII important aciions to improve thc state of in this category thc ranking system by the art of the ranking systems: first, thc Fines, the study of East Slimes. and in a systems shouldincludeprimarilythose lesser degree thc systems of the Bureau of variablcs that arc already substantiated by Outdoor Recreation and thc Staten island thceightpreferencestudiesdiscussea; Study, evaluated thc entire landscape con- second, the designers of preference studies tinuum. One aspect of Fines' systemis should review thc factors and variables used especially remarkable: hc appreciated thc in the ranking systems discussed and should entire spectrum of the world natural-cul- evaluate peoples preferences to those land- tural qualities, ranging from unsightly to scape characteristics. spectacular. Then he placed his region into The universality and the reproducibility thc context of a world-wide scale of values. of the ranking systems developed by the Thc Nantucket study placed grcat em- BOB, Shafer et.al., and Craik are well phasis on unique qualities in addition toexplained and well described. The three pervasive landscape values. Parts of thestudies that do not fully satisfy the above unique Nantucket landscapes are nationally criteria arc: First, the Staten Island system, sighificant, such as the heath vegetation;which describes the phenomena ranking others,for, example the sand-dune land- through qualitative terms and also through scapes, hasie only island-v.-ide significance. names of location such as the phenomena Thc ranking system should indicate the rank for the water features and scenic level of significance of uniqueness. Sargent values "the Narrows, Kill Van Kull, and and especially the BUR systems placed Arthur Kill." The later ranking is meaning- great emphasis on the evaluation of theful only for those who conducted the negative factors or misfits. The BOR listed study or know the island. .Second, the explicitly the components of negative fac-study "highway esthetics." The 1968 re- tors, anci the weighting of the values seemed port reviewed is extremely complex and ro estimate the environmental problems difficuk to understand. Third, the study well. "visual analysis of landscape development," The second criterion, the separation of because it does not explain adequately the permanent and changeable landscapes, was testing method; hence it would be hard to not developed in any of the systems dis- reproduce. cussed in this category. The systems for The criterion that the ranking system Staten Island, Wisconsin, Nantucket, and should be useful for predicting changes was East Sussex County recognized some of included at the outsetin 3 of the 1 1sys- these factors but did not go far enough intems. They were the ranking systems for separating them. East Sussex, BOR, and Shafer's predictive Thc factors and variables used in thismodel for natural landscape preferences. category are appropriate for the scale andThcse attempts are very encouraging. It is

50 hopcd that thcy will set thc example foresters at thc University ofNew Hamp- future ranking systems. shire. The purposc of thc study was to for Computer and statisticaltcsts wcrc uscddevelop anumericalrating system primarily inthc systems for preferencecampground sitc selection. Eight physical factors wcrc cvaluatcd: water, topography, tests.thesetestsundoubtedly demand statistical techniques. Among thc nonpref-potable water, vegetation, natural attrac- wildlife,and crence systems onlythe East Sussex study tions,vista,forestpests, used statistics. Shafer uscd a photometer toclimate. These factors were furthcr sub- (e.g. sizc and measure tonal values in photographs.Tools divided into 22 variables. of this kind certainly have grcat potential,quality of water) Thrce socio-economic but the analysis of thcir value is difficult, factorsthclocation,economic-business campground because thc test;ng of thc techniqueis management, and proposed were expressed by 20 variables limited at this time. facilities (e.g., acccss to major highway). The con- The last criterion deals with thc systems' dition of variables was ranked from ex- ability to reduce conflict in the decision-cellent to good, fair, and poor. A point making process. It was suggested earliervalue was assigned to cach condition within that complex studies and professional jar- cach of thc 42 variables. The point score of study gons limit communication. One case thc physicalfactors and socio-cconomic in this category, thc Nantucket study, hasfactors were totaled separately for rating proved to bc successful in communicatingthc campground sites as excellent, good, the landscape values to thc decision-makers. fair, or poor. As a result of that study, over 25 percent of the Island's land has been permanently An appraisal system for recreation p- protected, where the majority of thc pro-tentials was developed by thc USDA Soil tected areas consist of fragile landscapes. Conservation Service (SCS)." The pur- pose of the study was todevelop a sys- Fer A Single Use tematic approach to evaluate thc natural resources of thc areafor potential future Four studies are grouped in thiscategory,outdoor recreation developments by SCS each bascd on professional planning and and county recreation planners. Ten kcy design norms to evaluate qualities. Not oncelements were uscd in evaluating recrea- of these systems was designed to evaluatetional potential for each of 12standakd the preferences of people. kinds of outdoor recreation areas(e.g.1 A quality ranking system was adopted camping grounds,fishingwaters,golf by Chubb3at the MichiganRecreation courses). Thc key elements were climate, Resource Planning Division, from a PhD scenery, natural areas,historic areas, sbils, dissertation by Carlton Van Doren" atwater, wildlife, size anddisrributioi1 of Michigan State University. The purpose of population, proximity and access o er- the system was to develop attraction andship, and land-use pattern. A rating system capacity indicesfor boating and for other was devised; and anumber from 0 to 10 recreational uses. A case study for boating was assigned to eachkey clement to -indi- attraction was developed. Twelve variables cate thc degree ofexcellence represented were identified, amongthem size, access, by the key element for a particularkind fishing, and scenic qualities. A scoringof recreation development." Amultiplier schedule with maximum score was estab- was assigned foreach element within each lished for each variable. The recreational kind of recreation development to represent quality of the attributes of eachvariable the weighted importance of aparticular (e.g. size of lake: small 0, medium 10,large key element. Then a score number was 20 points)determinedthe numberofobtained as the result of multiplyingthe pointsit received. The score numbers ofrating number of a particularelement with the variables were totaled to provide the the weighted multiplier. Finally the sumof attraction index for the boating site. the scores of all.the key elements gavethe An evaluation of forest campgroundsitts numerical score for a kind of recreational was done by Allison andLeighton," for- development.

51 57 A method for quantitative comparisonunder the physical factors, which couldbc of some aesthetic factors among rivers waseasily separated; then the system would developed by Luna Leopold." The purposesatisfy this criterion. of his study was to quantify the non- The analysis of the appropriateness of monetary values of various potential hydro-factors and variables used suggests that power dam sites in river valleys. Leopoldsome factors listed for the forest camp- described3sets of factors;14 physical 0aroundfor instance, distance from urban factors such as river width, depth, basinpopulation and climatic factorsshould be area, deposition, and erosion; 14 biologicconsidered at a higher level, such as in the and water-qualityfactors, among themsystems discusscd in category 11. The num- water color, amount and type of algac,ber and the kind of variables evaluated in river fauna, and land flora; arid finally 18the SCS study (10) and in the Michigan human use and interest factors, for instanceboating attraction system (12) seem to be trash, accessibility, vistas,land use,aridlimited to describing and evaluating the misfits. An evaluation number from 1 to 5quality of a site. The variables used by was assigned to each of the 42 factors. Leopold seem better for site level evaluation. Then a uniqueness ratio was calculated, Each of the four systems in this category which is the number of sites being evalu-could be applieduniversally and repro- ated divided by a given number for aduced easily. They all are well written and given factor. For example "if a site factorexplained. The Leopold system would is one among twelve of the same category,create some difficulty to reproduce because thesitesharesthischaracteristicwith it is somewhat complex. eleven others. It is unique in the ratio 1 to Only Leopold's system could be used to 12 or its uniqueness ratio is1:12 (.08). Ifpredict outcome of changes, though it was no other site shares the same category posi-designed to measure the relative values of tion, then the site has a uniqueness ratio ofsites as they exist today.

1 : 1 (1.0). The uniqueness is thus defined These systems of category III did not on a scale of 0 to LID."'" Finally the totaldemand any sophisticated tools or tech- uniqueness ratio for a site was determinedniques. Those that were used seem to be by adding theratios of all 46 factors.appropriate for these systems. Leopold applied this quantitative quality The last criterion deals with the analysis evaluation on 12 sites in Idaho. Hells Can-of the system's ability to reduce or elimi- yon of the Snake River was shown to benate conflicts in the decision-making proc- unique and comparable only to Grandess. The purpose of the Leopold study was Canyon of the Colorado River. exactly to deal with this problemto quan- tify the non-monetary values, which might Analysis of Category III have great and long-range social values, (the environmental quality uniqueness of The landscape continuum, as defined inHells Canyon) not yet recognized to the thisstudy, was recognized withinthissame degree by contemporary economic category only by Leopold. He developedevaluation techniques. the most sophisticated method to evaluate the uniqueness quality and the negative components in the landscape. The Michigan DISCUSSION system for boating attraction by Chubb During the 1960's an impressive number dealt with one aspect of negative factorsof environmental quality-ranking systems by deducting points for water pollution. have been designed. The ranking systems The separation of permanent and change-appear to have several values for estimating able landscape attributes was also well doneenvironmental qualities on various levels, by Leopold. One set of factors he devel-ranging from sitelevel to regional and oped, the physical factors, represent clearlynational scale. Some aspects of the quality the permanent attributes. The system forvariables have been substantiated by pref- evaluating forest campgrounds by Allisonerence studies, and psychologicalstudies and Leighton lists the biologicalfactorshave been used to explore the relationship 58 betweenenvironmental complexityand attributes that could serve as framework stimuli. Several of the systems have at- for a similar system for landscape classifi- tempted to predict outcome of proposcdcation and evaluation. actions. Another general problem with thc pres- ent systera is that thc majority of the values The ability to predict has become ex-placed on environmental factors and vari- tremely important because the environ-ables are intuitive. Many more preference arerapidlybeing mentaluncertainties studies are needed to provide a base for a increasedby our technologicalactions.set of normative values to be used in the Some of the systems have been useful for=king systems in place of intuitive values. limiting the conflicts in our complex publicIn addition,the increaseof preference decision-making process. The greatest po-studies would give impetus to scientists to tential value of the ranking systems, how- conduct additional studies on environmental ever, is that they may be used to createcomplexity problems, and to develop social new social norms for greaterappreciation indicators. of environmental qualities. The systems can Furthermore, the separation of mutable be used to create a needed and useful mythand immutable values is absolutely essential that emphasizes quality rather than quantity. ineach ranking system.Evaluationof This analysis also suggests several prob-changes or prediction as result of changes lems and needs for making the existingby human activity is not possible until the ranking systems more valuable. One of thepermanent and changeable attributes and most significant problems is that the ma-their values are separately recognized. jority of the systems do not deal with the The selection of the proper number and entire landscape continuum from the largeappropriate type of variables for qualitative to the small and from the unsightly to theevaluations has been less than optimum in spectacular. The majority of the systemsseveral of the systems analyzed. One of the are designed with single purpose toevalu-reasons for this problem seems to be that ate a limited area, and they are notplacedthe designers of the systems do not alter into the context of the scale of landscapethe variables while developing a ranking and its values. system for a larger region. A system such as Fines' should beex- These problems suggest at least two al- panded, substantiated, and adopted inter-ternative solutions: people who are design- nationally as a frame for all value systems.ing quantitative ranking systems without The designers of quality-ranking systemssufficient training should collaborate with should evaluate those developed for thepeople who already have the needed tools, sciences. For instance the classification sys-or should obtain the necessary tools.It is tem of the plant kingdom is remarkable alsosuspectedthat some quantitatively as it proceeds with order, classdownward,trained people developing quality-ranking providing more and more information andsystems are lacking the visual awarenessof detail down to plant species and varieties.designers such as those who are trained in Fines' and the NAR" systems have somelandscape architecture.

53. tri9 Reference Notes I. The term "cultural landscape" is used here to14. Additionalranking systems stimulated by describe any or allphysical influences of man governmental activities are: ORRRC study, Po- upon the land resulting from his construction of tomac River Basin's ranking by McHarg, environ- buildings or from continuous use of land as in mental corridor study for Wiscon.sin by Lewis, farming. Nantucket study by Zube & Fabos, SCS staff study The Guide to Making Appraisal, and Chubb s 2. Wohlwill, Joachim F. AMOUNT OF STIMULUS system analysis approach in Michigan. EXPLORATION AND PRF.FERENcE AS DIFFERENTIAL FUNCTIONS OE STIMULUS COMPLEXITY. Perception & 15. Steinits & Rogers Associates,Cambridge, Psychophysics 4(5):307-312. 1968. Mass., and Enviromedia, Inc., Minneapolis, Minn. NATURAI. RESOURCE PROTECTION STUDY. 1970. Ranks 3. Zubc, Ervin. LANDSCAPES: SELECTED WRITINGS input of resource data and produces composite OF J. B. JACKSON. Univ. Mass. Press, 1970, pp. 43-54. computer maps with tones. 4. Fabos, Milde, Weinmayer. F. L. OLMSTEAD 16..Almost half of the ranking systems reviewed SR. FOUNDER OF LANDSCAPE ARCIIITF.CTURE IN AMERICA. in this study applied statistics or used computer Univ. Mass. Press, 1968, pp. 42-47. for evaluation. 5. National Park Service. ADMINISTRATIVE mu- 17. Research and Design Institute, 1969 Direc- CIES:FOR NATURAL AREAS OF THE NATIONAL PARK tory. BEHAVIOR AND ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN. Res. SERVICE. U.S. Government Printing Office, Wash- & Design Inst., REDE, PL.ovidence, R. 1.,1969. ington, D. C., 1968, pp. 10-15. 18. Among the studies reviewed here, the sys- 6. Eliot,.Charles.LandscapeArchitect,pp. temsoftheBureauof Outdoor Recreation, 380-384. Shafer's and Fein's were designed at the outset to prealct quality changes in the landscape. 7. The best known notation systems for describ- ing sequential experiences are: Thiel, Philip: EN- 19. It is believed hy this author that the econo- VIRONMENTAL DESIGN ON THE BASIS OF SEQUENTIAL mists were successful in creating a myth using the EXPERIENCE, Kencbiku Bunku 18 206:145-149; 1963. G.N.P. to evaluate life standards and that G.N.P. Halprin, Lawrence and Associates: A REPORT ON is not an accurate measure for the quality of life FREEWAY DESIGN IN THE URBAN SETTING, Calif. Div. -yet it indicates it. Contemporary planning and Highways and Fed. Bur. Public Roads, May 1963; design norms for quality evaluation are just as Appleyard, Lynch & Myer, VIEW FROM THE ROAD, valid as or better than the norms of the econo- NUT Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1966. Each of these mists. descriptions uses abstract symbols to denote the 20. Novak, Michael. THE EXPERIENCE OF NOTH- variables perceived visually. INGNESS. Harper & Row, 1970, p. 35. 8. Litton, Burton R.,Jr. FOREST LANDSCAPE DE- 21. Kates, Robert. THE PURSUIT oF BEAUTY IN SCRIPT1ON & INVENTORIES: A BASIS FOR LAND PLAN- THE ENVIRONMENT. Landscape 16 (2):21-24. 1966-67. NING & DESIGN. USDAForest Serv. Pacific SW. 22. Zube, Ervin. THE VISUAL LANDSCAPE: POLICIES, Forest and Range Exp.Sta. Res. Paper PSW-49. PROBLEMS AND PRACTICES. Univ. Mass. Dep. Land- Berkeley, Calif., 1968. scape Architect., 28 pp., 1971. 9. Wyckoff, J. B. RURAL TO URBAN LAND CON- 23. Alinsky, Saul D. CITIZEN PARTICIPATION AND VERSION & ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY, Mass. Heritage COMMUINTY ORGANIZATION IN PLANNING AND URBAN 7 (4) :1-3. 1969. RENEWAL, Strategies of Community Organizations. 10: Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Com- Edited by Cox et al. F. E. Peacock Publishers, mission: OUTDOOR RECREATION FOR AMERICA: A RE- 1970, pp. 216-226. PORT TO THE PRESIDENT AND TO THE CONGREss BY THE 24. National Park Service. A STUDY OF THE PARK ORRRC. U.S. Government Printing Office, Wash- & RECREATION PROBLEM OF THE U.S. 1941. pp. 36-38. ington, D. C. 1962. 25. Outdoor Recreation Resource Review Com- 11. Zubc, Ervin H. TACONITE AND THE LAND- mission, op.cit., Chapter 6. SCAPE. Wis. Dep. Resource Develop., 1963.This study analyzes the attributes of open-pit iron ore 26.McHarg, IanL. DESIGN WITH NATURE. mines and proposcs a development program toAmer. Museum Nat. History Press, Garden City, decrease the visual effect of mining on the land- N. Y., 1969, pp. 127-151. scape. 27. Lewis, Philip H. Jr., & Associates. UPPER 12. Abrahamson, Dean E. ENVIRONMENTAL COST MISSISSIPPI RIVER COMPREHENSIVE BASIN STUDY, Al3- 07 ELECTRIC POWER. SCi. Insti. PublicInform., 30 PENDIX B, AESTHETIC & CULTURAL VALUES. Upper East 68th Street, New York, N. Y. 1970. Mississippi River Basin Coordinating Committee, 1969. 13. Eckbo, Dean, Austin & Williams. STATE OF HAWAII LAND USE DISTRICTS AND REGULATION REVIEW. 28. Research Planning & Design Associates, Inc. Hawaii Land Use Comn. Dep. Planning and Econ. NORTH ATLANTIC REGIONAL WATER RESOURCEs STUDY, Develop., Honolulu, 1970. Hawaii is the first State APPENDIXN:VISUAL & CULTURAL ENVIRoNMENT. Nov. 1970, pp. 16-24. Three principals of the firm, in the US. that has explicit land-use zoning for Ervin Zube, Paul Procopio, and the author of this the entire State. paper, assisted by Robert Brush, landscape archi- U.S. Water Resources Council. NATIONAL WATER tects, were developing this system in 1967. The RESOURCES. Superintendentof Documents, U.S.ranking system is now being further developed Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., for the State of Vermont by Terrence Boyle, 1968. The council's recommendation to plan for principal, and Peter Olin, assistant of Research environmental quality gave the impetus for the Planning & Design Associates, Inc. development of quality-ranking systems for .the North Atlantic Region and the Upper Mississippi 29. Zube, Ervin H., op. Cit., THE VISUAL LAND- River Basin. SCAPE, p. 17. 60 I fornbeck's research staff is the mostadvanced in ;0[bid, pp. 14-26. hi:Away-related landscape-quality ranking. 11. Albert, John. A srcov OF VISUAL RECREATION 1969. 45. Peterson, George I.. A mom. OF PRLFERENCE: IN THE. NEW ENGLAND LANDSCAPE, OE 1111: Burns & Runde II. A Mr OE VISUAL PRI:El:RES:CIS (JUAN CI 1.5 HAI: ANALYSIS OE 111E. PERcEP HON 1969. USUAL APPEARANCE OF RESIDENTIALNEDJ1BORIUxms. IS A RURAI. NEW ENGLAND LANDScAPE, J. Regional Sci. 7(1):19-31. 1967. Anothersimilar Halverson, Craig. SCENIC QUALITY IN THE LAND- study was conducted recently by Lansing, Marans, SCAPE: A TESTING FORMAT OF HUMANPERCEPTUAL designed to pro- and Zehner: PLANNED 1WSIDEN11.51. ENVIRONMEN IS. vntAts, 1970. This study was also Univ. Mich. Inst. Social Res., Ann Arbor,1970. vide supporting data for environmentalmapping This study evaluated people's responses toresi- method developed by Frithgof M.Lunde ofdential environments that differ in the extent to Warner, Burns, Toan, and Lunde, architects,of New York. which they arc planned. Master of landscape architecture liesis or termi- 46. Ibid., p. 29. nal project works, University ofMassachusetts, 47. Jacobs, Peter, and 1Vay,Douglas. VISUAL Amherst. ANALYSIS OFLANDSCAPE DEVELOPMENT,Harvard 32. Wohlwill, Joachim F. AmouNT OF STIMULUS Univ. Graduate School of Design, 1969. EXPLORATION AND PREFERENCE AS DIFFERENTIAL 48. Ibid, p. 12. Perception FUNCTIONS OF STIMULUS COMPLEXITY. 49. Shafer,Hamilton, and Schmidt. NATURAL & Psychophysics 4(5):307-312. 1968. LANDSCAPE PREFERENCES:A PREDICTIVE MODEL. J. 33. Zube, Ervin H., op. cit. p. 17. Leisure Res. 1 (1):1-19. 1969. 34. Lewis, Philip H., Jr., QUALITY CORRIDORs IN 50. Ibid, p. 1. WISCONSIN.Landscape Architect.54(2):100-107. 51. Ibid, p. 6. 1964. 35. Zube, Ervin, and Carlozzi, Carl,editors. AN 52. Ibid, p. 15. INVENWRY AND INTERPRETATION: SELECTED RESOURCES 53. Craik, Kenneth H. A SYSTEM OF LANDSCAPE OF THE ISLAND OF NANTUCKET.Univ. Mass. Coop. DIMENSIONS: APPRAISAL OF ITS OBJECTIVITY & ILLUS- Ext. Serv. Pub. 4, pp. 62-72 and 112-128. 1967.Mr. TRATION OF ITs SCIENTIFIC APPLICATION.Report to Zube and the author developed the qualityevalua- Resource.s for the Future, Inc., by Univ.Calif. tion system pruented in the report. Inst.Personality Assessment & Res., Berkeley, 36. McIIarg, op. cit. pp. 103-115. 1970. 37. Handley, Rolland B.,Jordan, J.R., and 54. Litton, op. cit. Patterson, William. AN ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY 55. Chubb, Michael. OUTDOOR RECREATION PLAN- RATING SYSTEM. Bureau ofOutdoor Recreation, NING IN MICHIGAN BY A SYSTEMSANALYSIS APPROACH: Northeast Regional Staff, pp. 1-37, May 1969. The PART III. THE PRACTICAL APPLICATION OFPROGRAM 1967, systemisnow being appliedfortheGrand RECSYs & SYMAP. Mich. Dcp.Conserv. 12, Traverse Bay arca by Professor Kenneth J. Pola- pp. 155-162. kowski at the Landscapc Architecture'Depart- 56. Van Doren, CarltonS. AN INTERACTION Prof. Polakowski OF ment, University of Michigan. TRAVEL MODEL FOR PROJECTINGATTENDANCE is directing the landscape-evaluationstudies of the CAMPERS AT MICHIGAN STATE PARKS: ASTUDY IN interdisciplinary Sea Grant Program sponsorcd by RECREATIONAL GEOGRAPHY. PhD.thesis, Mich. State the University of Michisan andThe National Univ. 1967; "The Index of CampingAttraction," Oc.I.unic and Atmospheric Administration,U.S. pp, 81-122. Departmcnt of Commerce. 57. Allison& Leighton.EVALUATING FOREST 38. Ibid. p. 11. CAMPGROUND SITES. Univ. N.H. Coop. Ext. Serv. 39. Fines, K. D. LANDSCAPE EVALUATION: A RE- Ext. Folder 64. Durham, N. H. Undated. SEARCH PROJECT IN EAST SUSSEX.Regional Studies 2, 58. Soilconservation ServiceStaff. GUIDE TO Pergamon Press, Great Britain, 1968, pp. 41-55. MAKING APPRAISALS OF POTENTIALSFOR OUTDOOR 40. Ibid. p. 51. RECREATION DEVELOPMENTS.USDA SCS, 1966. 41. Tunnard & Pushkarevin MAN MADE 59. Ibid., p. 4. AMERICA: CHAOS OR CONTROL?Yale Univ. Press, 60. Leopold, Luna B..LANDSCAPE AESTHETICS.Nat. New Haven, 1963, and McHarg, Ian, inWHERE History, Oct. 1969, pp. 37-44; and QUANTITATIVE SHOULD HIGHWAYS GO?Landscape Architect.57, COMPARISON OF SOME AESTHETIC FACTORSAMONG 1967. Other highway and parkwayplanners- RIVERs, U.S. Geol. SurveyCirc. 620, 1968, pp. 1-16, landscapearchitects-alsodeveloped numerousWashington, D. C. criteria for highway landscape planning. 61. Ibid., p. 5. 42. Lynch, Kevin. THE IMAGE OF THE CITY. 62. In1967,during the development of the MIT Press & Harvard Univ. Press,Cambridge, ranking system for the North AtlanticRegion, 1960. Thiel, Philip, op.cit.Halprin, Lawrence,the team at R.PD. was very much awareof a op. cit. Appleyward, et al., op.cit. Litton, Burton, need to design a classification systemwhich bc- op. cit. These reports implyquality but do notgins with the landscape and ends up withthe provide quality-ranking systems. varieties of site level landscapes. Thelandscape for 43. Sargent, Frederick. SCENERY CLASSIFICATION series, system, and unit classification developed SYSTEM. Univ. Vt. Res.Econ. Dep. 1965. the N.A.R. resembles the classificationof the plant kingdom. This similarity was recognizedfirst by 44. Hornbeck, Peter, et al.HIGHWAY AESTHETICS: Carl Carlozzi, a principal ofResearch Planning FUNCTIONAL CRITERIA FOR PLANNING &DESIGN. Land- and Design Associates, Inc, Dr.Carlozzi prepared scape Architecture Dep.Harvard University, 1968, the section on ecological considerationsfor the pp. 175-185. Twolater studies, now available, areNA.R. study. not reviewed for this study.Based on this pre- liminary investigation, however, it appearsthat 63. Alinsky, op. cit.

_ 61 Managing the Recreation Resource PRESERVING NATURE IN FORESTED WILDERNESS AREAS AND NATIONAL PARKS by MIRON L. HEINSELMAN, Principal Plant Ecologist, North Central Forest Experiment Station, USDA Forest Service, St. Paul, Minn.

ABSTRACT. The natural forest ecosystems of some of our national parks and wilderness areas are endangered by subtle ecological changes, primarily because we have failed to understand the dynamic nature of these ecosystems and because protection programs fre- quently have excluded the very factors that produce natural plant and animal communities. Maintaining natural ecosystems requires that the elemental forces of the past, such as fire, must still prevail. This paper is based on an article published in NATIONAL PARKS AND CONSERVATION MAGAZINE, September 1970, and is reprinted with permission from NATIONAL PARKS & CON- SERVATION MAGAZINE, which assumes no responsibility for its distribution other than through the magazine.

THE INSPIRATIONAL, scientific, andtimes this is so, where a climax ecosystem educational values of our Nationalexists. But as modern biology and ecology Parks and Wilderness Areas depend reveal the life histories of plants and animals heavily on our success in preserving nature. and the intricate interactions between en- But do you know that the natural forest vironmental factors and plant and animal ecosystems of some of our most cherished communities, we see more and more broken areas are endangered by subtle ecological links in natural ecosystems. changes? This is so primarily because we Fire is perhaps the single most important have failed to consider the dynamic char-environmental factor being alteredit was acter of primeval ecosystems, and becauseessential in the reproduction of the prime- "protection" programs frequently exclude val forests of many areas, for example the the very factors that produce natural plant lodgepolepineforestsof Yellowstone and animal communities. National Park and the Bob Marshall Wil- This problem is part of our present eco-derness; the jack, red, and white pine for- logical crisis, but it is a special problem, ests, and the aspen-birch forests of the often unrecognized even by conservation- Boundary Waters Canoe Area; and even ists and environmentalists. We have assumed the giant Sequoia forests of Sequoia-Kings that preservation is assured by prohibiting Canyon National Parks. logging, grazing, mining, agriculture, hunt- What then does the "preservation of ing, or trapping, and by protecting the nature" really mean for forested wilderness? forests from fire, insects, and disease. Some-I think it means we must focus on restoring 611 ; thetotalnaturalenvironment physical The concepts of "pioneer" and "late suc- factors as well as plant and animal com- cessional"or ."climax"communitiesare munities. But let mc give you a more com- helpful in understanding vegetational his- plete picture of thc ecological problems,tory. A "pioneer" forestis composed of and possible new program directions. trees and other plants capable of occupying denuded terrain, suchasrecentglacial ECOLOGICAL PROBLEMS moraines and exposed bedrock, or ground laid bare by fires, windstorms, avalanches, Natural forest communities exhibit a re-and crosion. Thc trees that form pioneer markable adjustment to local geology, soils, stands arc sun-loving and well adapted to topography, and climate. Eich plant speciesgrowing inthc opcn, but oftcn poorly occurs on soils to which it is adapted, and adapted to growing beneath a forest canopy. within altitudinal and latitudinal zones that mcct its temperature and moisture needs. Pioneers also possess special adaptations Many forests also exhibit a layered struc-for reproducing on open lands, or following ture, in which certain species occupy theforcstfiresor othcr catastrophes.Some upper canopy, while others form an under-have light seeds easily transported by the story. There is an adjustment of onc plantwindsuch as thc aspens, birches, willows, species to another in the competition forand certain pines and spruces. Some are moisture, nutrients, hcat, and light. capable of sprouting from the root collar, or from underground stems or roots.Thc Yct seldom does a single forest com-oaks, aspens, birches, many other decidu- munity hold permanent possession of anyous trees, and coast redwood posscss onc or given sitc. For if we look around we seeboth of these abilities. Only undcr unusual one community here, while notfar away a circumstances docs fire destroy the ability very different one may occupy an other-of such trees to quickly repopulate burned wiseidenticalsituation.Perhaps in one situation the forest is an ancient and un-land. even-aged assemblage of Englemann spruce HOW FIRE HELPS and subalpine fir, with scattered old lodge- One of the most fascinating adaptations pole pines; next door is a dog-hair thicket of pionecr species to fire is the persistcnt of young lodgepoleswith fire-blackenedclosed-cone habit of lodgepole pine, jack snags standing in their midst. What we are pine,andcertain other conifers. These witnessing is proof of a dramatic vegetation treesare readily killed byforest fires change related to a powerful natural envi-either crown fires or severe ground fires. ronmental factorfire. But their cones are borne highinthc Studies in forest ecology in the last 60crown, and remain attached andclosed for years have taught us muchabout suchyears, storing huge quantitiesofviable vegetation changes, and some of this knowl-seed. edge has already become part of the lore When fires swcep through the forest, of wilderness enthusiasts and amateur natu-they kill the trees and scorch both crowns ralists. But even professional land managersandcones.But temperaturesinsidethe have more to learn before the full meaningcones usually do not reach lethallevels, and of this natural drama becomes recognizedtheresinsthat sealthe cone scales arc in Wilderness and Park programs, becausemelted. After the fire the cones open and we still ignore some of theimplications. release the seeds, which fall upon ashes and Forests are born of change, and they dieexposed soil,temporarily freed of com- through change as well. Plant and animalpeting plants. communities are dynamicever-changing, These are ideal conditions for the young ever-growing, maturing, and dyingto beconifers, and most of our forests of lodge- succeeded bysomeothercommunitypolepine,jack pine,and black spruce adapted to new circumstances. And yetoriginated in this manner. Next time you there i: a fascinating order to these changes,admire the vast forests of lodgepole pine for similar sequences of events are repeatedin Yellowstone Park or the Bob Marshall again and again. Wilderness, or Lie jack pine and black

58 .64 spruceforestsoftheSuperior-Queticoents and moisture was greatlyreduced. The canoe country, remember,these beautifulscattered veterans provided seed in good forests arc thc products of past fires. seed years, and thc denuded area gradually And these fires did not destroy the soil,seeded in to thc original species. A ncw and nor rob the land of itsfertility. In fact, innearly even-aged forest was formed, per- northern regions and cooi mountains therehaps interrupted by groves of unburncd or is a gradual accumulation of needles, leaves,fire-scarred older trees. mosses, and rotting woodduring thc life Thus arose the famous pineries of the old of a forcst that actually ties up essentialNorth Woods, the great ponderosa pine, plant nutrients and covers the soilwithlarch, Douglas-fir, and Sequoia forests of such a thick layer of humus that tinyconi-thc West, and the pineries of the Old South. fcr seedlings have difficulty gettingestab-Fire scdrs or "catfaccs" on old trees still lished. Fires consume this organic mantle,tell of this history. And thc ages of many bare the mineral-soil seedbeds, andreleaseof our present forests can still be related to thc accumulated mineral elements. thc trec-ring rccords of firc scars on these Thus firescan actuallyrejuvenate aveterans. Thus many of the mostmagnifi- forest by replacing an old decadent standcent conifcr forests in ourNational Parks with a ncw vigorous one. This ispreciselyand Wilderness Areas owe their origin and what has happened ever since the IceAgeprcscnt composition to past fires. in the lodgepole forests of the Rockies,and In presettlement times, fires were caused throughout the range of jack pine andblackboth by lightning and by the accidental or spruce in the LakeStates and the borealdeliberate firing of forests by the Indians. forests of Canada and Alaska. Early man, infact,is thought to have Red (Norway) pinc and whitepine inburncd the forests of North America in at the Lake States and theNortheast, andleast some regions for perhaps 10,000 years. ponderosa pine, sugar pine, larch, westernBut lightning was (and still is) a sufficient white pine, Douglas-fir, and giantSequoia cause of fire in manyregions; and if man in the West also reproduce afterfires, butfailed to ignite a flammable forest, sooner by a different mechanism. Becauseof theiror later lightningproduced the same result. thick bark and long branchless trunks,these This can be inferred from the evolutionary treesarcfire-resistantand can surviveadaptations to fire of many plants (for severe ground fires.But they lack theexample, the closed-cone habit of jack pine closed-cone habit, and shed their seedand and lodgepole pine), and from recordsof drop their cones soon after the cones ma-ancient charcoal in peat bogs, lake sedi- ture. Furthermore, inseveral species good ments, and glacial deposits. seed years occur only at intervalsof 2 to 5 The number of years between major years or more. firesin any one area must have varied greatly. Our best record of this todayis CONDITIONS FOR REGENERATION the trec-ring record on fire-scarred trees, fires oftenand the ages of whole forestsknown to In presettlement times ground Research of thesespecies, have originated following fires. crept through forests in the Boundary WatersCanoe Area in eliminating the undergrowth of competingMinnesota indicates that severefires re- shade-tolerant trees and shrubs thatwould forest groundsulting in the destruction of the old otherwise invade such forests. Such and regeneration of a new standusually firesalsoretarded the accumulation ofrecurred on any one site at intervalsof 50 organic matter and fuels. Eventually,how- ever, a fire hot enough tokill many of theto 300 years. old trees occurred, setting upconditions But occasionally the interval was asshort for regeneration. The area waspartiallyas 10 to 30 years, andin the West the inter- freed of tree cover; standing snagsand vals in some areas may have beenlonger scattered groves or individual trees pro-than 300 years. The interval tends tobe seedbeds characteristic of particular geographic re- vided partial shade; mineral-soil of were available; andcompetition for nutri-gions, and related to the typical age

_ 5965 post-fire forests at maturity. Light ground Many forests contain mixtures of shade- fires also burned through many stands attolerant trees, some of which reproduce shorterintervals, but these firesusuallysuccessfully in small openings created by broughtinlittlesuccessfultreerepro- the death of individuals. Forests of this kind duction. tcnd to develop a many-aged structurc if they persist for long periods without seri- "SUCCESSION" ous disturbance by fires, insccts, or wind- storms. Examples are thc hemlock, cedar, In the absence of tires, insect outbrcaks, spruce, and true fir forests of thc Cascades, or severe windstorms, most pioneerforcstsOlympics, and Coast Range in the Pacific are gradually replaced byshade-tolerant Northwest; the Englemann spruce and sub- species. This process is known as "succes-alpine fir forests of the Rockies; the maple, sion." We once thought its ultimate prod-birch, beech, and hemlock forests of the uct was a regional "climax" vegetation,Lake States and the Northeast; and the capable of reproducing itself indefinitely on balsam-fir, spruce, and cedar forests of the the same site, without the intervention ofNew England mountains, the Adirondacks, major disturbances such as fire or wind-and the northern Lake States. storms. But even these more stable forests are isno This view of forest succession often ravaged by windstorms or insect epi- longer held by most ecologists, because thedemics. The spruce budworm, for example, actual history of forest stands is usually far more complex, and often punctuated byhas recently killed most of the balsam fir intermittent disturbances. Even the shade-and much of the white spruce over millions of acres in eastern Canada, New England, tolerant "climax" species are replaced under and Minnesota. Fortunately, these forests environment some circumstances, and the also have a mechanism for replacing them- itself may change through peat accumula- selves. Thousands of tiny balsam seedlings tion, climaticshifts,erosion, changes inarc usually present on theground, and animal populations, and other events. Somemany are not killed by the budworm.Thus of the trees that are capable of growingwhen the budworm has consumed an old beneath the pines and other pioneers areforest, the next generation of young firs is the maples, eastern and western hemlock, northern white-cedar and westernred- waiting to replace it. cedar, red, white, and Englemann spruce, In the Rockies, vast areas of Englemann and several true firs. They are character- spruce are sometimes decimated bybark ized by an ability to grow under the condi-beetles. This has happened in some of our tions associated with deep shade, and toWilderness Areas in the past few decades. becomeestablished onthicklayersof But usually enough seed trees escape; and humus. these, together with a few small seedlirgs not killed by the beetles, initiate a new As forests grow old, trees gradually diestand. Insect-ravaged forests such as these and fall z.) the ground. The age at whichmay look desolate for a decade or more; this occurs varies greatly by species, localbut then the new forest appears, and life growing conditions, geographic region, and begins anew as it has for untold generations. many chance factors. Generally however, jack pine, lodgepole pine, and aspen trees Fires can denude vast areas for long are relatively short-livedmost do notlive periods if they entirely consume forests of more than 100 to 250 years. The white conifers lacking the closed-cone adaptation, pines, red pine, ponderosa pine, Douglas- or if they reburn young standsbefore seed- fir, and weitern larch may live 300 to 500 bearing ageis reached. Lodgepole pine, years or more. And the Sequoia, redwood, jack pine, and black spruce begin to bear western hemlock, western redcedar, andseed between 10 and 20 years of age, but some other western conifers may live 800many conifers begin muchlateroften age to several thousand years. These differences50 or more. Such reburns are not too com- in longevity also influence stand composi- mon, however; andusually scattered indi- tion. viduals or groves of mature trees escape.

60 66 to beSome of these animals werereally more at But changes in forest composition are disturbed areas than expected after such fires, andthe rebirth home on the edges of in the great open areas, butthey neverthe- process may takeseveral decades. less were associated with newsuccessions. Species that seem to have been rnoreabund- WHAT IS "VIRGIN" ant in matureconifer forests include the The foregoing discussion suggeststhatpine marten, certainsquirrels, and several the usual concept of a"virgin forest" isbirds. Other species, such asthe moose, misleading. Many people thinkofsuchtimber wolf, cougar, andwoodland caribou forests as only the old and venerable com- ranged widely between matureforests and munities of latge trees, andregard them as new successional stagesand arc difficult to permanent legaciesfrom thepast,that pigeon hole. somehow escaped the ravagesof firc, in- sects, and disease.We also require, and THE ELEMENTAL FORCES rightly so, that these forests neverhave The implications of naturalhistory for been logged or cleared by man.Forests wilderness and national parkpreservation resultingfrom logging, clearing, burning,programs are far-reaching.For if we are or similardisturbances are called "second serious about maintaining thenatural eco- growth," and are consideredinferior. Butsystems of these areas,then clearly the ele- the "virgin forest" must beredefined in the mental forces of the past muststill prevail. light of modern ecology, because weknowAnd when we consider pastand present that many of our finest examples arereally "protection" policies, we see im- fires, wind- resource the products of presettlement portant deficiencies. outbreaks, and similar natural storms, insect --, What have we beendoing? Perhaps most disturbances. significant, we have attempted tocontrol virgin forest is A better definition of a forest fires for 50 years or more;in most of natural that it simply be the product areas we are nowquite successful. Yet, by environmental factors and ecological proc- so doing wehave sometimes accelerated esses, as opposed to aforest resulting from successional changes over vast areascaus- herbiciding, plant- logging, land-clearing, ing the simultaneousaging of forests over ing, or similar disturbances by man.By this the establish- be eitherentire landscapes, preventing definition a virgin forest can ment of new pioneerplant and animal com- young or old,composed of large species or munities, eliminating the diversityof nature, small, well-stocked or nearly open,and and excluding the .ecologicalniches of magnificent or homely. This is afar more many forms ofwildlife. The immediate ecologically defensible concept,,for it ad-impact is far greater incertain even-aged landscapes, whether mits all truly natural and short-lived pioneerforestssuchas jack the forests originated centuries ago, orjust pine, lodgepole pine, and aspenthan in last year following a fire orinsect epidemic. long-lived forests such asDouglas-fir, red We must then recognizethat the "second pine, ponderosa pine, andSequoia, or in growth" on a new burn today maybecome shade-tolerant forests ofmaple-beech birch, forest in our great- the "venerable" old or spruce andfir. grandchildren'stime! "controlled"(mostly adapted to We havealso Many species of wildlife are the large carnivores,such as communities, while eliminated) early successional plant the timber wolf and cougar.Yet they were forests. others are characteristic of mature the only effective predatorsof the large Both kinds have a place inWilderness herbivoresthc elk, moose, anddeer. Ex- in the Areas today if they were present cessive herbivore populationsand the con- characteristic primeval ecosystems. Species sequent overbrowsmg,overgrazing, starva- of burns, open areas, shrubcommunities, herd-reduction include the tion losses, and necessary and early successional stages stories now. ruffed programs are old white-tailed and mule deer,elk, recently, tried hares,foxes, And we have also, until grouse, sharptailed grouse, insect infestations with coyotes, bears, beaver,and many more.to control forest

61 .67 pesticidcs, or by felling and burning in-Wilderness Areas still date from the prime- festedtrees. We sometimes "clean up" val period. wind-damaged forests,and exotic plants Sophisticated methods for reconstructing have been introducedeven deliberately. the primeval scene are available where such But ourfircpolicieshavethe most tree-ring rccords can be obtained. By using powerful and pervasive effects. In a sense ring counts on old fire-scarred trees, it is we arc committing our parks and wilder- possible to determine the fire history for ness areas to a grand ecological experiment, hundreds of years. And by obtaining thc by inadvertently trying to produce climaxages of forest stands over whole water- forests over vast areason a scale that may sheds,itispossible to correlate the agc never have occurred before. structure of present forests with this fire Thc consequences of this program arerecord. not only unintended, but in most cases un- Written records or old photographs and known, for ecologists can find few ex- drawings can also help, especially the early amplesofsuch circumstanceswithin U.S. Land Office survey records, explor- comparable ecosystems. This is simply not ers'diarics,old newspapers,and similar the way it was in primeval nature. Wesources. Preserved pollens, larger plant rc- clearly have this situation in the Boundary mains, and charcoal in lake sediments or Waters Canoe Area, where my own re- peat bogs have recorded plant communities search is relevant, and also in Yellowstoneover much longer periods. They can be National Park, Sequoia-Kings Canyon Na- usedto connect information about the tionalParks, and probably many otherrecent past with thc situation hundreds or areas.(I mcntion these examples becauseeven thousands of years ago. Indian and the ecological background hasrecently early-man archaeological sitesarc an im- appeared in conservation journals. See re- portant source of faunal records. And car- cent issues of National Parks Magazine and bon-14 dating now makes itpossible to Naturalist, for example.) place firm dates on many organic sediments, fossils, and archaeological finds. A SOUND POLICY Decisions must be made on ecosystem If past policies arc not resulting in theobjectives when thisassessment ofthc preservation of nature, then what is an primeval ecosystem is complete, and when ecologically sound policy? First, we must aninventory of present communitiesis have clear, specific, and biologically attain- available. The historical research and the able objectives for each area. Policy state-inventory will allow judgments about the ments should spell out the philosophy ofdegree to which present ecosystems have ecosystem management, and the biological changed from the primeval. The objectives nature of the ecosystem to be maintainedshould spell out the vegetational, faunal, or restored. andenvironmental characteristics tobe Philosophically, the focus should be on achieved. restoring the primeval environment. What But they are not to be viewed as static we are interested in is preserving the totalprescriptions for each landscape unit. They systemthe ever-shifting mosaic of plantshould simply detail such things asthe and animal communities. We cannot freeze vegetation types and successional stages to nature into a static mold. What we must do be encouraged, the approximate propor- is simply offset the disturbances caused bytions of the area that might be occupied by modern man. each type and stage at any one time, the Our concept of the ecosystem to be pre- native fauna to he encouraged, and the served or restored should be based on de-significant natural environmental factors tailed studies of vegetational and faunal that may require attention. history, and on an inventory of present plant and animal communities. Fortunately, GENERAL STRATEGY forests write their own history in tree The proportion of the area to bc occu- rings. And many forests in our Parks and pied by various successional stages is a key

62 68 dedsion. If possible, it should be based on cal vegetation control may be necessary virgin-forestageclassesor othersolid where changes have been major.) evidence of the frequency of new suc- 3. Avoid the introduction of exotic plants, cessions. animals, and fish. Eradicate exotics al- Once ecosystemobjectives have been ready present where feasible. is t!: set,a strategy toachieve these goals 4. Allow native insect and plant diseases needed. Unfortunately, strategies are not to reap their toll. Cease the application yet available for many ecosystems, and in of all pesticides, herbicides, and similar such cases the initial focus must be or rele- chemical controls. vant ecological research and technique de- velopment. 5. Do not clean up blowdowns, or insect- and disease-killed forest stands. But the basic general strategy is clear. It will simply be to replace missing vegeta- 6. Assure a natural fire regime where fire tion types or faunal elements, and to see was a significant environmental factor that important natural environmental fac- inthe primevalecosystem, by pre- torsarepresentat approximatelytheir scribed-controlled burning if necessary. natural frequencies. Men these require- Onlynatural environmentalfactors ments are met, we accept as natural the should be employed, to the maximum ex- changes in plant and animal communities tent feasible. Artificial seeding and plant- that may occur in both place and time. We ing, soil preparation, and mechanical vege- are not really trying to manage nature ortation control are justified only to offset control succession. We must not insist on major disturbances by modern man. Where a given vegetation type or animal com-seeding or planting are used, only local munity for each site. seed sources should be used. Fortunately, in the United States, many Fire policies and programs need discus- Park and Wilderness ecosystems are still sion, because fire is such a powerful envi- close enough to the primeval that drastic ronmental factor, and because it is one of changes inflora and fauna will not be the few major natural factors over which needed over much of the area. It is mainly we exert control. Today, we aregreatly the proportion of successional stages that reducing the area burned in many nature will require corrective action. In contrast, reserves where fire was once the single in much of Europe, the Middle East, andmost important factor in generating new the Far East, virtually all primeval eco-successions. In such ecosystems we really systems have been destroyed for so longhave at least six fire policy options, and a that the concept of the "naturql" ecosystem decision cannot be avoided. These options is hardly relevant. are:

ACTIONS NEEDED 1.Attempt fire exclusion, and accept the What specific kinds of actions are needed slow but pervasive changes in plant and to implement this general strategy? I can animalcommunitiesthatinevitably suggest several, and some of these are al- follow. ready endorsed by the National Park Serv- 2. Allow "safe" lightning-caused fires to ice, the Forest Service, and other agencies burn; allow also for some other wild- that manage nature reserves: firesthat cannot be cw.trolled, but 1.Re-introduce missing members of the extinguish the rest. If this results in less animal communities wherever possible. than the natural fire frequency and This includes both herbivores and carni- burned area, so be it. vores. 3. Allow "safe" lightning fires to burn, 2.Restore native vegetation where it has allow for some other wildfires that can- been badly disrupted by past logging, not be controlled, but prescribe enough grazing, agriculture, etc. (Soil prepara- additional controlled fires to assure the tion, seeding or planting, and mechani- natural Ere regime. 4.Suppress all wildfires to the extent feasi-in some auto campgrounds and other high- ble, and duplicate the natural fire regime use sites. with prescribed-controlled fires. Ireject thefifthoption, allowingall 5.Allow all wildfires to burn uncheckedwildfires to burn, both because it endangers unlesslifeor propertyaredirectlylife and property, and because with recrea- threatened, and hope that anatural tional use the location and frequency of fire regime will result. fires would be unnatural. We cannot en- danger human lives either inside or outside 6. Abandon the ideal of natural ecosys-wilderness areas, and we cannot risk dam- tems, and turn to full-scale vegetationage to commercial forests or to structures andenvironmentalmanipulation by outside. mechanical and chemical means, seed- ing, planting, etc. Attempt to produce a It is clear also that I do not favor the first desired vegetation with thetools ofoptionattempted fireexclusion. This is applied forestry. the present practice in many areas, but as pointed out before, the ecological conse- quences, are great and uncertain. THE OPTIONS A further problem, which we may al- For most areasIfavor either optionready be facing in many areas, concerns three or four, depending on the particularthe accumulation of forest fuels with fire fire control, human safety, and property-exclusion. In cool coniferous forests there safety considerations of the area. Either isa gradual accumulation of litter and would provide approximately the naturalhumus on the forest floor. And in severe fire regime, and avoid the risk of lettingdrought this organic matter can become a wildfires get out of hand before control ismajor fuel.Also, asforests mature, the attempted. total standing volume of flammable ma- The second option, allowing for "safe"terial increases, and often there is more dry lightning fires and some escapes, but notdead wood in old stands. using prescribed fires, may also be accept- Someforestscertainly reachedthese able where it would yield close to thestages under primeval conditions, and I do natural fire regime. In isolated mountainnot mean to imply that old forests are un- areas this may be a valid policy if there isnatural. But if we attempt fire exclusion in little possibility of fires escaping to landsan ecosystem consisting of maturing even- outside the wilderness or park. aged forests, we may force a totally un- natural preponderance of old stands upon The last option, mechanizedforestry, the landscape. If a wildfire does then escape seems to me to be inconsistent with theduring severe fire weather, the potential for basic philosophy and objectivesof oura real conflagration is present. Its ecological National Parks and Wilderness Areas. It is,consequences may be most unfortunate, to however, urged as the only realistic andsay nothing of safety problems. practical choice by some foresters and by many of the forest industries, who point out that a commercial harvest of timber RESEARCH NEEDED could be obtained as a byproduct. Timber But it must be emphasized that in most cutting is now practiced in parts of theareas we are not yet ready to introduce Boundary Waters Canoe Area, in Algon-prescribed fires of the kinds required eco- quin and Quetico Provincial Parks in On-logically, or on the scale needed to dupli- tario, and in several other large Parks incate the natural regime. Much experimenta- Canada and other countries. But in none oftion will be needed to achieve technical the cases with which I am familiar is thereexpertise in firing and control methods, in a serious attempt to duplicate primevalgaging weather and fuel factors, and in vegetation conditions after cutting. Un-understanding the fire prescriptions neces- fortunately, this option, without commer-sary to achieve the ecological effects of the cial incentives, will have to be resorted tonatural wildfire regime. 'The size of areas

64 70' to be burned, the frequency ofburning,be excessive inputs of soil nutrients and and the burning techniques are all matterssediment into lakes and streams. of choice that require research. There is no need, and indeed it may be impossible, to SMOKE NOT SMOG burn every year. One might allow major Let me give a few reasons why I think burns only once every 10 to 20 years. This studies will depend on the natural fire frequencythese fears are unfounded. First, weather. show that forest fire smoke is chemically as well as on burning different from urban or industrial smogs. There has already been much research inSmogs contain large amounts of sulfur and prescribed burning, and many applicationsnitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, ozone, are being made. But for ecosystemapplica-and peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN). Forest- tions in the virgin wilderness, we are talk-fire smoke contains far less of these injuri- ing about the introduction of severe groundous compounds. It is composedmainly of fires or even running crown fires in maturecarbondioxide,watervapor, smaller forests. These fires must in some cases beamounts of carbon monoxide, small quanti- severe enough to kill most orall of theties of olefins and ethylene, and particulate trees within the bum. Of course,only amatter. It does add some pollutants, but it very small percentage of the park orwil-simply does not pose the same threats to derness would be burned at any one time.human health or vegetation. The aim would be to slowly re-establish the primeval distribution of forest age classes Furthermore, urban and industrial smogs and vegetation stages. We have little rele-arc emitted continuously, and in the areas vant experience with prescribedburning toof our densest populations. But firesin achieve this. Wilderness would occur only on a few suitable burning days, and then only in Research to develop the needed expertiseyears when burning wasfeasibleand in both prescribed burning and fire ecologyneeded, and in remote wildlands. The most is now under way adjacent to the Boundaryserious urban smogs occur where the local Waters Canoe Area and in Sequoia-Kingsatmospheric circulation permits accumula- Canyon National Parks. These studies aretion of toxic gases.Fires in wilderness new, and much more workisneeded. would contribute to these local problems Meanwhile, as we await the development burning,only where a Wilderness occurs within the andacceptanceof prescribed same "airshed". This is not common. ecologists and managers can proceed with inventories of present plant and animal Most of the mineral elements released in communities, and with historical researchthe burning of forests are not lost through to document the primeval ecosystems.For-runoff. They are simply recycled back into tunately, we do have some time yet, be-the plant and animal ecosystem. If this were cause most successional changes in vegeta-not so, fires would have depleted thefor- tion are slow. ests of North America long ago. The truth And meanwhile the public must con-is that many northern conifer forests owe tinue to exercise great care with fire in ourtheir vigor to this periodic recycling of Parks and Wilderness Areas. Smokey Bearnutrientsit is part of nature, and it has has perhaps oversold his messagehe shouldoccurred countless times in the past. be telling us that some fires can help the Although some past studies have pro- forest and create new homes for wildlife.vided data on this question, we are just But we must leave prescribed burning tonow really getting the facts.The available the experts, and prevent all man-causedstudies suggest that there are some nutrient wildfires. releases to streams following fires, but these Air and water pollution and soil erosionreleases may be no larger than those ac- are being suggested asobstacles to the usecompanying commercial timberharvests. of fire in ecosystem preservationprograms.Furthermore, fires in nature do not remove Fireopponents suggestthatintolerablelarge volumes of nutrient-containing wood, smoke would result, and that there wouldbark, and foliage from the ecosystem as

65 71 docs commercial tree harvesting. And fires able conditions, we can expect them to innatureor prescribedfires generally continue to do so in the future. would occur on any one watershed only at Today there are still areas of de facto long intervals. wilderness outside designated Wilderness Areas, National Parks, and other nature EROSION RARE reserves, especially in the West and Alaska. The ecosystems of some of these areas are The popular notion is that massive soil stillfairly intact. But as our population erosion usuallyfollows forest fires. Butrises and pressures on the land increase, the personal observations over many years in that thisdesignated reserves may become virtually many regions have convinced me the only lands where relatively complete rarely occurs in natural forests. (A dramatic ecosystems can be tnaintained. exception is the chaparral type in Southern California.) On very steep terrain it may LOOK TO EARTH occasionally happen for short periods, but even there prompt revegetanonof the Let me also stress that our major nature burns usually stops soil movement withinreserves must be kept large enough tode- a year or two. On steepslopes, the combi- fend as viable ecosystems. They must be nation of clearcutting, careless road con-large enough so that reintroduction of fire struction during logging, and slash-burning isfeasible, and also so the impacts from aftcr logging .may cause scrious erosion. commercial forests,cultivated lands, and (And this is poor forestry, too!) But this industrial areas will not impair them. The should not be equated with the effect of home ranges of significant animals and birds fires in the virgin wilderness. Again,ifmust be protectedadequatelyespecially disastrous erosion had followed most fires the rarc or endangered species with large in nature, the virgin wilderness of North home ranges, suchas the timber wolf, America would not have contained thecougar, grizzly, caribou, and baldeagle. beautiful coniferforestsstillpresent inWe have no firm guidelines for minimum many fire-dependent ecosystems. ecosystem size. I suspect the answerswill vary for each area and eachproblem. But One may also ask whether fires in Parks obviously, where the arca is too small to and Wilderness Areas would not deplete protect from serious external impacts, we atmospheric oxygen. But this argument is are in trouble. Recentproblems with water invalid, too. A tree will consume just aslevels and the jetport near the Everglades much oxygen when it dies and decays from National Park are cases in point. causes such as wind breakage,diseases, or insects, as when it is consumed by fire. The I am sure that several of the suggestions rates of oxygen consumption aremuch in this article will provoke deep questioning different, but the amounts arc identical.in many minds. You will ask if somehow Sincc all trees are mortal, it really matters there aren't simpler ways to preserve nature, little to the earth's oxygen balance whether or to manage ourNational Parks and trees die gradually in an agingforest, orWilderness Areas. I sympathize with you, suddenly in afire that covers a limited because I have undergone the same soul- region. The new forest on the burned areasearching myself. And you may ask, is the will again be producing a large nct outputpreservation of nature really that impor- of oxygen within a few seasons, while the tant? It sounds like a big job; it will take old climax forest may not produce anymore research, moretime, more money, more than it consumes. and more people trained in ecology. Can we afford to devote somuch time and But regardless of these arguments, oneenergy to this problem? thing is clear. Fire was part of the natural environment in many of our most cher- My answer is YES, we must! We are not ished nature reserves. If we are to trulytalking about preserving a few Parks and preserve natural ecosystems, we mustallowWilderness Areas to be used as giant play- fire to be part of the system. And if suchgrounds. We are talking about keeping our natural events in the past produced accept-perspective on human life in relation to the

66. ... 72 earth's ecosystems. And we may even be lifethatisincreasingly confined to our talking about the survival of mankind! Forremotest lands and nature reserves? if we are ever to understand the living The answers to these questions are clear ecosystems of the earththe only life inenough to most of us by now. We part our solar system as far as we knowthenwith theselast remnants of thenatural we must keep some remnants of this natural world at our peril. And the choiceis system before us. And for a long time yet!simply a matter of priorities.If we can Have we, in our wisdom, already learnedafford billions to recover a few bits of allthat our children will ever want tosterile dust and barren rock from the moon, know about the structure, functioning, andperhaps we can also afford a realistic and evolution of the natural world? Is it possi-ecologically sound program to preserve a ble that they may yet need some of thefew examplesofthelifesystemsof genetic diversity of the plant and animalPLANET EARTH! UNDERSTANDING THE VISUAL RESOURCE

by FLOYD L. NEWBY, Division ofRecreation, Bureau of Land Management, U. S. Department of the Interior,Washingt,m, D. C.

ABSTRACT. Understanding our visual resourcesinvolves a com- plex interweaving of motivation and cognitive processes;but, more important, it requires that wc understandand can identify those characteristics of a landscape that imhence theimage formation process. From researchconducted in Florida, three major variables were identified that appear tohave significant effect upon visual preferences: (1) visual order, (2) visualcomplexity, and (3) edge relationships. The interaction of thesevariables produces spatial definition, which promotes or retards a senseof physical, visual, and psychological access. Without anunderstanding of the mech- anisms and principles involved, landscape managementto promote environmental intcgrity is strictly a hit-or-missproposition.

IN A TIME when we are beingalmost Man's perception of hisvisual world overwhelmed with cliches about envi-must involve not onlyindividualistic and ronment and ecology, we must rccog-transitory motivations but also thoscfea- nize that man is truly a visual animalwithtures of an environment thathave potential respect to his environment. Helearns more, to shape basic imagery.It is these features throughthat challenge us to understand, tointer- reacts more, and appreciates more for his visual system than through anyotherpret, and to manipulate them as a means in our visual re- satisfyingbasic psychological and social sense. Concern for quality the sources has assumed an urgencyin the needs in a complex world society. Thus priorities of public issues. challenge has become one of understanding the processes and mechanisms ofperceptual In light of the developing urgencyand experiences. rationalization of the significance of the visual environment to work, health, and PERCEPTION enjoyment, it is amazing that so littlehas OF THE VISUAL RESOURCE been known about how the environmentis actually experienced. Almost as compensa- Perceptual experience involves intricate tion, a proliferation of public and private relationships between what is seen and the programs has evolved toregulate, preserve, individual doing the seeing. The standard and enhance the appearance ofelements incliché for these relationships is that"Beauty the visual environment. My researchhas is in the eye of thc beholder".There IS been concerned with some of thefactorslittle argument when dealing with superla- that possibly contribute to the broadertive examples of visual landscapes, noris question of how man visualizeshis envi-there any great disparity when identifying ronment. what is chaotic and ugly. The real problems exist within the am- A search for meaning within the visual biguous middle range of the natural beautyworld has been the natural product of continuum. Within this range are foundman's experience with his environment. He the majority of landscapes to which mancreates his images based uponwhat he sees, is exposed throughout his lifelandscapesand what he perceives is a functionof the that support or destroy the imageryofclarity of the information beingpresented. movement from here to there.These inter-The mechanismsofvisualinformation vening landscapes have potential to en-transmittal and the constraints of reception hance, detract from, or do nothing totheare the major problems.Why information experience of man moving through anreception differs between individualsis a environment. If a landscape does infactmajor concernifpredictivecapabilities possess such potential,then perhaps beautyconcerning the aesthetic responsepotential can be attributed to morethan merely aof various landscapes is to be developed. set of preconceptionsuniquely held by each individual. PERCEPTUAL SCALE Perception of a visual display is exten- sive and expansive. It radiates acrossscien- Perceptual imagery is a dynamic mani- tific,philosophical, andartisticconceptfestation conditioned by man's sensed re- borders to the extent that virtually anylationship tohis environment. Thisis a science or art makes a contribution tothepsychological variable thatrelates orga- understanding of the perceptual process.nized substance to interpersonalmotivation Of particular importance is theinteractionand behavior. For instance,while walking, of the sciences with the traditional arts.man senses the textureof the walking sur- Perceptual psychology and landscape-de-face, the warmth or coolness of the sur- sign theory are perhaps the morefruitfulrounding air, the constrictions and releases contributors to an understandingof thisof changing space, and the alternating pat- phenomenon. terns of light andshadow; he becomes tactile qualities ofhis driving-immersed inthe With the explosive increases of proximate surroundings. for-pleasure occasions, perception in mo- tion is of particular concern to managers The personnel or immediate space ofthe of potential resources as well asexistingindividual is drastically altered when he is visual resources. In simple fact, the over-involved in an automobile drivingexperi- expanding transportation system iscreatingence. Scale relationships areexpanded and visual resources out of lands that weredetailed perception is reduced. Mass, space, previously inviolate to John Q. Public.Thecolor, and movement interact as substitutes hinterlands have been opened, andthefor the sensual intimacyexperienced at public is incensed over both realand im-pedestrian scale. agined destruction of landscape integrity. When you are driving, informationis Expectations born out of thedesensitizingpresented at a rate that is both stimulating mechanisms of urban living are notbeingandstressful.Patterns andrelationships realized, nor can they if we fail to under-between visual components are more ac- stand the psychological andvisual impactscessible, but perception of visual detailis of land manipulation. negated because time and position do not An environment must be accessible, notencourage visual orpsychological lingering. only in physical terms, but also inpsycho-At automobile scale, vision can be expan- logical and visual terms. It must notdenysive or enclosing in terms of what canbe but rather encourage participation,involve-seen. At this scalethe simple may be trans- such attributes,formed into the complex, based purely on ment, and choice. Without 'The an environmentaldisplay becomes nothingthe rate of information presentation. more than areflection of everyday lifephenomenon of vision in motion acts toin- space with its monotonousand nonmoti-tegrate and transmutesingle visual entities vating character. This is a situation tobeinto understandable and coherent patterns avoided. of light, mass, and space. Tne paradox of perceptual scaleis that, provideslessinformationforpositive imagery than a display possessingorganized as movementisaccelerated, the relation- ships within and between visualelements and coherent relationships between parts. is The parameters of organization thusbe- become more apparent. If the apparency &sired image is to be hampered by discordant organizations,thencome critical if the positive imagery does not develop.Creation availableatalllevelsofdiscriminating of mass or space, which isinappropriate capability. for a particular movement scale, may re- sult in adding nothing to avisual experi- Visual Order ence; or it mayrestrict image formation. as an Image Determinant Nonrelevant visual formation mayproduce Order in the visual world refers to the visual stress or encourage monotony,both existence of some similarity of physical of which areundesirable from a land- characteristics among the parts or of some manager's standpoint. discernibly harmoniousspace relation among them (Litton1965). A landscape A roadside landscape's positiveaffective having positive visual value has it because (emotional) response potential is afunc- a person ofordinary experience can see the tionof anobserver'smovement scalecompositional relationships of known and under- through or across it. Without an recognized things. Normally an individual standing of the relationship between anwill tend to seek for or try tolocate a observer, his manner or mode of movementsense of rightness andcontinuity in his and the organization of a visual resource, visual surroundings. Because of his ten- anticipatory assessmentofobserverre- alterations is strictly dency to order and organize virtually every sponse to landscape aspect of cultural learning, manhas come hit-or-miss, a luxury we cannot afford. to expect a degreeof established order within his visual world. PARAMETERS Visual order is recognized through per- OF VISUAL ORGANIZATION ceptual establishment of relationshipswithin display. The basic tenets of perception incorpo- and among the elements of a visual Actual organization requires that eachele- rate the interaction ofman's senses into a context or to an system whereby he isable to adapt to ament conform toits changing environ-observer's expectations, which may or may world of constantly have a difficult time mental conditions. Man in motion mustrely not be realistic. People become very heavily on thevisual system to adapt relating to the unfamiliar, and they to the rapidity andoverabundance of in-bored with too much of the familiar. formation being presented to him. The If the elements of the environmentrelate steps that lead an observer tointerpret ato each other, theyexhibit a degree of visual entity in a particular way involve aorder, and the intricacies of a visualdis- complex interweavingofaffectiveand play are more likely to allow anobserver cognitive processes. If the organizationalto perceive an imagebased on the intensity characteristics of his visual world are notof that order. This is especially truewhen readily apparent, he manufactures, selects, man is in motion.A visual display without or rationalizes thematerials of image forma- some semblance oforder requires excessive tion, provided sufficient time and motiva- time to perceive, and theobserver will seek tion are available. out general formsrather than time-consum- ing detail. In essence, visual order encour- A question arises about whether or not lingering, whereas visual it is desirable to allow image ,formation to ages perceptual develop uncontrolled or on the whims ofchaos produces stress and alienation. observers. In many instances, a positive re- and onc that Visual Complexity sponse is the desired response Constraint is deemed socially acceptable in termsofas Opportunity or environmental involvement. If a visual dis- Complexity relates to the intricacy ofthe play is difficult to organize perceptually,itrelationships, which affect the rate with which information can be perceived. Obvi- Edges refer to perceived or implied di- ously, complexity increases with the num-viding lines between landscape elements: ber of elementsthat can be identified.they are lines in which surfaces meet and These elements are space-defining compon-individual identity becomes apparent; they ents such as vegetation,topography, andare those critical positionsdepicting rela- water. How an individual processesthe tionships between parts. But even more available information will be a function ofimportant, edges serve a variety of func- his visual experience and the organizational tions: they serve to simplify or complicate legibility of the visual elements. organization by virtue of their number and configuration; andtheycreateorder Each individual has his own level orthrough their convergence into a perceptu- degree of complexity tolerance, which isally viable array. Thus the degree of order dynamic in the sense that it shifts upwardand the level of visual complexity within a as perceptual grasp isrefined. Some famili- landscape are set by the edges found within arity must be present to retard stress; but a the system. degree of the unusual, the unknown, or the unperceived must exist to prevent boredom. The effect of edges upon image forma- Accordingly, simplicity in an environmenttion is dynamic and changes in response to can be a deterrent to visualpleasure, par-perceptual need and movement scale. For ticularly if flow experience or movementthe most part, edges are not used as move- is restricted. If a movement system allowsment systems; but theydo, by virtue of the observer to match his speed to his level their defining role, dictate how visual ac- of perceptual complexity, the potential forcess can be accomplishedfor maximum positive response is considerably enhanced.contrast and variety of experience. Increased rate of movement provides stimu- lus complexity in time to an inadequate or low stimulation complexity in space. PERCEPTUAL ORGANIZATION IN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT Apparently an optimal amount of com- plexity exists for each individual, which An individual has a propensity to see serves to maintain perceptualinterest at aonly those things that are consistent with high level. Through the processes of selec-his established frame of reference. In light tion, humans tend to demonstrate a prefer- of a growing awareness by the public and visual enceforcomplexvisualenvironments resource managers concerning our rather than simple obvious ones, particularly resources, it is vital that weunderstand the under conditions of increasing order ormechanisms of image formation. If a sensi- visual accessibility. My recent research intivity for scenic amenities is developed, the Florida gave definite support to the thesisimportant variables of visual organization that perception of complex visual stimulican be modified or molded to preserve depends as much or more upon the quanti- both the integrity of the resource and the tative (complexity.) and qualitative(order) experience an observer harvests from that characteristics of the stimuli as it does upon resource. motivational and behavioral characteristics Because the majority of landscapes are of the observer. categorized from flow experiences on high- ways, the factors of order,complexity, and Edges as Visual Organizers edge effect are integral to planning land- There is need to emphasize effective cir-scape alterations. Theinteractions of these culation in and around- a given visual land-variables produce spatial definition that en- scape so that its order and complexity maycourages or discourages physical,visual, be revealed in a positive manner. Regard-and psychological access. To understand less of whether perception results from anthese interactions, we must look to con- observer's static or flow experience, land-cepts from design, perceptual psychology, scape elements are organized andidentifi- ecology, and the benavioral sciences. Such able br virtueof what designerscall analysis can identify opportunities and con- "edges. ' straints conditioned by the basic and social

_ needs of observers as well as the environ-commodities. However, the fact that re- mental integrity of the landscape. source managers arebecoming sensitive and responsiveto environmentalinteractions At present there is no cookbook approachopens new avenues fordeveloping a posi- for understanding the visual resource, nortive approach tothe assessment of the are there definitive proceduresfor insuringaesthetic response potential inherent in all that scenic amenities become harvestable visual resources(Newby 1971).

Literature Cited

Litton, R. Burton Jr. Newby, Floyd L. A SUMMARY REPORT TO THE U,S. FOREST 1971. PERCEPTUAL ASSESSMENT OF FORESTED ROAD- ItVICE ON LANDSCAPE MANAGEMENT TERMINOL- SIDELANDSCAPES. Doctoraldissertation,Univ. OGY. Univ. Calif. Dep. LandscapeArchitect. Mich., Ann Arbor. Berkeley, EXTERNAL BENEFITS OF NATURAL ENVIRONMENTS

by LARRY W. TOMBAUGH, Staff Associate, National Science Foundation, Washington, D. C., formerly Project Leader, USDA ForestServiceCooperative Forest Recreation ResearchUnit, Raleigh, N. C.

ABSTRACT. Existing methods of assessing economic benefits aris- ing from certain physical enviroaments left in a relatively natural condition do not include estimates of external benefits. Existence value is one such external benefit that accrues to individuals who have no intention of ever visiting the area in question. A partial measure of the existence value of National Parks has beenfound. Additional research in this area should yield information important to land-use decision making.

MY ASSIGNMENT for this Sym-to thesequestions are important to the posium is to discuss research progressrational formulation of pu!)lic policy in- in the identification and measure-volving alternative uses of natural resources. ment of external benefits arising from land Externalities can be classifiedas:(1) areas left in a relatively natural condition. external benefits, or economies, arising from production; (2)external benefitsarising The concept of "externalities," the ge-from consumption; (3) external costs, or neric term for a variety- of specific kinds ofdiseconomies, arising from production; and market failures, occupies an important posi- (4) external costs arising from consumption. tion in modern welfare economics. If ex-In my brief stay at the Cooperative Rec- ternalitiesarepresent,theequilibriumreation Research Unit at Raleigh,I was approached by the workings of a competi-interestedinspecifictypesofexternal tive market mechanism will not necessarilyrecreation benefits within the first category be a position of maximum efficiency orthose arising from production. economic welfare. Social costs or benefits Robert Dorfman (1964), in his book The will not equal private costs or benefits. The Price System, offers a clear example of this market will produce either too small or tootype of external benefit. Dorfman points large an output of some goods and services.out that the Salton Sea, in southern Cali- Various kinds of externalities are oftenfornia, is one of the country's most produc- assumed to be associated with outdoortive inland fisheries. A high nutrient level recreation, and this is partially the justifica-is maintained through the tremendous input tion for providing certain recreational serv-of fertilizers from the many farms of the ices in the public sector. But what are theseImperialValley. The farmers, in other external effects? Can they be measured inwords, pay for the fertilizer; and the fisher- terms that permit comparison with othermen enjoy part of the benefits without kinds of benefits and costs? The answersbeing made to contribute to the costs.

v/6 This situation leads to a misallocationof here only to complete the discussionof resources. If the farmers act aseconomicexternalities. This is not to minimize their men, they willapply fertilizer until animportance, since almost all forms of pollu- additional dollar's worth will justproducetion are examples of external costs. But my an additionaldollar's worth of crops. Ifresearchthe topic of this paperwas con- other inputs are being used efficiently,this cerned only with external benefits of pro- equating of marginal costs withmarginal duction. returns will maximize their net revenues. Obviously, the farmers would not want to EXTERNALITIES spend an extra dollar forfertilizer if that IN ECONOMIC ANALYSES application would add only 98 cents tothe Much government activityisdirected value of the crops. But suppose itincreased toward correcting for various kinds of the dollar value of fish yield by 5cents? externalities so that a reasonably efficient At the margin, the applicationwould addallocation of resources is obtained within a more to outputthan to costs. Unless theparticular distribution of income. Analysts application is made, an inefficientsolutionof public policy alternatives are thus faced will result. Under a price system,the in-with the problem of identifying these ex- dividual farmer will pay no attention totheternal effects where possible. In some cases, impact of his activities on thefishermen. actual measurements within areasonable A similar example corld be drawnfrom degree of accuracy can be obtained.In recreation if a situation could befound inothers, the externality can only betreated which the mere provision of aparticularqualitatively. The reliance that can be recreation area or facility providedbenefitsplaced on information provided by eco- to non-users as well as to users.Wildernessnomic analysis increases as the proportion is often thought to producethis kind ofof total benefits and costs included in the external benefit. analysis increases. also Outdoor recreation has long been recog- Outdoor recreational services are particularly often claimed to produce externalbenefits nized by economic analysts as a resulting fromintractable problem. For a vanety of rea- of the second typethose perceived existence of consumption of the services or participationsons, including the Ruth Mackmany kinds of externalbenefits, the public in outdoor recreation activities. played a dominant and Sumner Myers (1965),for instance,sector has traditionally "benefits which resultrole in providing outdoor recreational op- argue that there are goods from the advantage to all people,whetherportunities. Prices, which for most outdoor recreation, of livingindicate the relative willingnessof con- or not users of been generated. in a country where more ratherthan fewersumers to pay, have not people are educated in the waysof theAnd willingness to pay for goods and serv- ices is generally considered to be an appro- out-of-doors." Then,priate measure of economic benefits. Suppose this hypothesis is correct. market if the individual is required to paythe full Because of the absence of reliable recreation experiences, hesignals, and faced with growingnumbers costs of outdoor involving will adjust his participation sothat his per-of resource allocation questions ceived benefits per unit of costfor anoutdoor recreation, economists havedi- just equalsrected considerable attention to thedevelop- additional hour of recreation the demand for the benefits per unit of costfor additionalment of ways to measure services. But ifcertain kinds of recreationalopportunities. units of other goods and be benefits from the additional hourof recrea-Estimates of willingness to pay can individual butderived from economic demand curves. tion accrue not just to the date are to all of society, anunderallocation of timeNone of the methods developed to devoted to recreation will occurin theboth theoretically sound andreadily adapt- private market. able to practical applications. Much more research is needed. External diseconomies, or costs of pro- in duction and consumption, arementioned But suppose we could put our faith one of the existingmethods. Would itkind of good) that accrues to individuals actually reveal the full willingness to pay,having no intention of ever visiting the site or the total economicbenefits, of a particu-or using the good in question.These people lar recreational opportunity? The answerare willing to give up resourcessimply to is no, as long as external benefits are pres-know that the area, feature, or good exists ent. All the knownmethods of assessingin a particular condition. As mentioned demand are based on some kind of responseearlier,this type of external benefitis of actual users to changes in real orsimu-frequently claimed to be associated with wilderness and outstanding natural features. latedprices.Externalbenefitsare not included. Yet external benefits are compon- Option value wasfirstdescribed by ents of total willingness to payand shouldBurton Weisbrod (1 964). la principle, his ideally be included in economic analysesarguments apply to all goodscharactcrized when they exist. by: (1) a demand that is infrequent and Important research questions are:(1)uncertain; (2) high casts of expanding pro- What external effects do arise fromtheduction once output is curtailed; and (3) production and the consumption of out-an absence of perceivedclose substitutes. door recreation services?, and (2)how canMaay National Parks, wildlife species, and they be measured? Many typesof externalcultural features fall into this caregory. An underallocation of resources to these goods benefitswillundoubtedly alwaysdefy hypothesized by Mackmight occurifaprivate producerat- measurement. Those he and Myers provide an example.Theretempted to maximize his profits, even if seems to be no way to measurethe eco-could operate as a perfectly discriminating nomic benefits that accrue tosociety atmonopolist and thus capture the consumer large because the citizenryis generallysurplus of each user. informed about the out-of-doors.But some Weisbrod's argument depends on the progress in identifyingand measuring spe-existence of persons who are unsureof cific kinds of externalities is bound tohelptheir future demand for the goods. Someof clarifythinking aboutgains and lossesthese people may, in fact, never express a associated with alternative uses ofnaturaldemand. In other words, an individual may environments. have some expectation of visiting, say, a particular National Park sometime inthe future, but in actuality may never get EXISTENCE VALUE there. Yet if people with these expectations AND OPTION VALUE of future demand behave rationally,they Researchwill be willing to pay something tomain- My work at the Cooperative the Unit at Raleigh was concernedwith twotain the option of using the goods in particular external benefits arisingfrom thefuture if they so desire. "production", in a loose sense, of identifi- Weisbrod calls this willingness to pay able units of relatively naturalenviron-for the standing services of many typesof ments. These two typesof external bene-goods option value. He uses SequoiaNa- fits are: (1) existence value and (2)optiontional Park as an example of a "good"that value. meets his requisitecharacteristics in the extreme and for whichoption value may The concept of existence value has beenrepresent a substantialproportion of total recognized for some time, although thebenefits received. If this is the case,efforts term has not yet beenused in the literature. of Sequoia based on John Krutilla (1967) has usedthe terinto estimate the benefits thewillingness of actual users to pay would "bequest motive" to express roughly understate the total benefits of Sequoiain existence value because same idea. I prefer its existing condition. it is less specific in its connotationsabout motivations; i.e., it does not imply ahand- Economists ai Resources for the Future, ing down to later generations.WhateverInc., have recently developed a more rig- the term, I am talking about theexternalorous way todemonstrate the possibility benefit of natural environments (or anyof an option value in excess of consumer

75 81: surplus. To me, the deductive evidence infishing new parks or maintaining existing favor of option value for certain kinds ofareas in a relatively natural state. goods is quite convincing. I hasten to add, Members of the National Parks and Con- however, that some other economists whoservation Association provided the data for have considered the subject do not sharemy research. The membership roles of the this view. Association were systematically sampled to obtain information on the magnitude of EMPIRICAL WORK individual contributions and on addresses of contributors. Other information, such as My research on external benefits wasestimated probability of future use, was directed to the question whether empiricalobtained from a questionnaire mailed to support for option value and existencesampling units. value could be generated. Ideally, monetary measures for both would be developed in Four percent of the sample donated order to assure comparability with othermoney to the National Parks and Conserva- resource values. But markets do not usuallytion Association while having no intention exist for external benefits because, in aof ever visiting a National Park. These large group, it does not pay any one indi-contributions, it seems to me, can be inter- vidual to reveal his true preferences for thepreted as expressions of existence value. good or service. The problem is that noWhatever their motives, these people are one can be excluded from enjoying thewilling to voluntarily give up resources to benefits. Once a wilderness is preserved,help assure the existence of an environ- the satisfaction of knowing that it existsmental feature that they will most likely accrues to everyone. If one individual werenever see. These people apparently benefit asked to pay for this benefit, he wouldfrom knowing that National Parks exist, likely refuse, since no one can keep himyet their benefits will never be registered in from enjoying it. But perhaps some ap-visitor counts or in entrance fees. Some proximations can be found. degree of existence value is also likely re- flected in the contributions of other mem- It is my opinion that many conservation/bers of the Association, but it could not be preservation organizations serve as focalidentified as such. points for the voluntary expression of vari- ous kinds of external benefits arising from It may be argued that 4 percent is hardly natural environments, wildlife,or otherworth bothering with. But it should be objects of the groups' attention. They canremembered that there are real incentives be viewed as quasi-markets for that serv-to not express preferences for external ices. Consider the National Parks and Con-benefits at all. In light of the revelation of servation Association, for example. Its pri-preference problem, it is surprising that any mary responsibility, as stated in its monthlyexistence value as defined in this study publication, is to help protect the nationalcould be identified. Contributions as a re- parks and monuments of America. Manyflection of totalwillingness to pay are people willingly and voluntarily give upprobably further reduced because the out- resources to help assure that this responsi-come of the efforts of the National Parks bility is met. Admittedly, contributors areand Conservation Association are likely less seeking to get parks established and pro-than certain. tected through the political process rather Option value is more difficult to assess than through the market. In this way, theyand to isolate from other forms of willing- can avoid paying the full opportunity costsness to pay, such as existence value and of the resources involved. Nevertheless,consumer surplus. As a first attempt, con- their contributions must be a partial re-tributions were related to the expressed flection of the utility expected to be gained.probability of future use of National Parks. It makes sense, then, to consider these vol-The hypothesis, as suggested by Cicchetti untazy payments as partial measures ofand Freeman, was that the total value of benefits of National Parks to be comparedcontributions should exceed the total ex- with the true (opportunity) costs of estab-pected value of consumer surplus when -,

demand is uncertain. The differencewouldof alternative uses of these land units are be option value. A positive difference waslikely to exclude important social benefits indeed found. But, because of a numberofif they are restricted to benefitsmeasured difficult definitional and conceptual prob-in terms of economic responsesof actual lems, the results are still inconclusive. users. Additional researchdirected toward that emergedthe assessment of specific externalbenefits The general conclusion natural from my research was that existencevaluesof land units now in a relatively associated with certain outstanding naturalstate and being consideredfor development environments do exist. Economicanalyseswould likely pay big dividends.

Literature Cited

Cicchetti, Charles J., and A. MyrickFreeman, III.Mack, Ruth P., and Sumner Myers. 1965. OLTMOOR RECREATION. In MEASURINGBENE- CONSUMER SURPLUS AND OPTION VALUE IN THE pp. Resources for the Fu- FITS OF GOVERNMENT INVESTMENTS.429 ESTIMATION OF BENEFITS. RobertDorfman(ed).BrookingsInstitute, ture, Inc., Washington, D. C. Washington, D. C. Dorfman, Robert. 1964. THE PRICE SMIEM. 152 pp.Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N. J. Weisbrod, Burton A. 1964. COLLECTIVE-CONSUMPTION SERVICES OFIN- Krutilla, John V. DIVIDUAL-CONSUMPTION GOODS. Quart. Jour.Econ. 1967. CONSERVATION RECONSIDERED.Amer. Econ. Rev. 57: 777-786. 78: 471-477. INVENTORYING RECREATION USE

by GEORGE A. JAMB, Project Leader in Recreation Research, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station, Forest Service, U. S. De- partment of Agriculture, Asheville, N. C.

ABSTRACT. Part I is a general discussion about the estimation of recreation use, with descriptions of selected sampling techniques for estimating recreation use on a wide variety of different sites and areas. Part: IIis a brief discussion of an operational computer- oriented information system designed and developed by the USDA Forest Service to fully utilize the inventories of recreation informa- tion available from over 21,000 recreation elements (sites and areas) of the National Forest System.

INVENTORYING need to know a great deal about are be- coming more numerous and more complex THIS PAPER is composed of twoparts. because more people engage in more activi- Part I includes a general discussionties more frequently on more developed about theestimation of recreationsites and more classified areas with more use, with descriptions of tested sampling kinds of facilities costing more money and techniques for estimating recreation use onoccupying more land and more water un- a wide variety of different sites and areas. der more intensive management while more Sufficient detail is given so that interested stringent budgetary requirements demand persons will be able to decide which tech- more specific information to satisfy more nique or techniques might be most suitablepublic interest in more types of programs for their particular needs. It is likely that coordinated with more agencies involved other excellent sampling techniques havein more efforts. been designed and tested by other federal, state, university, and private investigators, Inventories are an essential and expensive as well as foreign nations; but for one requirement of all business ventures. In- reason or another information about them ventories of recreation use, users, and the is not readily available. physical resource serve many useful pur- Part II is a brief discussion of an opera- poses and are vital to recreation-oriented tional computer-oriented information sys- federal,state,andmunicipalagencies, tem designed and developed by the USDA individuals and private organizations, con- Forest Service. This system has been geared gressionalcommittees,highwaydepart- to fully utilize the inventories of recreation ments, chambers of commerce, newspapers, use which have been carefully, and pains- travelagencies,economic andmarket takingly gathered. analysts, research scientists, writers, and a The need to gather reliable information host of others. about our recreating publicthe kind and Recreation planning and financing are amount of use that occurs and the placesbased on the planner's access to reliable where this use occursis urgent and critical. data about the total use of an area, the use It will never subside. The things that we of various facilities provided, the nature of the visitation pattern, and an understandinggather and report recreation information in of the socio-economic-ethnic characteris-common terms. tics, behavioral patterns, and motivations of Itis neither practical nor desirable to the recreatingpublic. Management andobtain a complete inventory of use and policy decisions can be improved greatly ifusers on most sites and areasby counting the total planning process is based on re-all the visitors and recording their activities. liable and current information. The cost of this Herculean task would be Good inventories of use, and of theprohibitive and all but impossible where physical resource that provides such use,recreation use occurs overlargeforest are essential for establishingcleanup andareas. Sampling is the logicalapproach for maintenance schedules; for predicting rateobtaining estimates of the desired parame- of facility depreciation and resource deteri-ters. If properly drawn, the mple pro- oration; for determining relationships be-vides the necessary information for making tween supply and demand and theneed forsound estimates ofuse and recreational providing additional activities and facilitiesactivity. Sampling cost and the precision of and enlarging existing areas; for determin-the technique used must be commensurate ing the number, kind, design, and locationwith planned use of the data; that is, the of future areas; and for alleviating existingleast expensive method that will produce conflictsbetween use and users. Soundsufficiently reliable results should be used. budget planning, allocation of funds and Nor is it advocated that all sites be sampled. manpower, and economicanalysis dependIn most cases, sampling can be applied to upon complete and up-to-dateinformation.selected representative sites; and the esti- And any effort to predict future use of the mates can be utilized as yardsticks to use on Nation's land and water areas, regardless ofother unsampled sites. location or ownership, must be based on a Use-sampling techniques might employ comprehensive picture of current condi-one or more of several methodsof data col- tions that help to identify trends and pat-lection, including mechanical and electronic terns of use. counting devices, optical scanners and cam- Much of the basic recreation-use data oneras, telephone and mail surveys,existing or which past management decisions werespecial records, observation, self-adminis- based were obtained by experience and ob-tered questionnaires and permits, and inter- servation. Many of these use estimates wereview surveys. These in turn can be further very likely good; othersprobably wereclassed into three principal types of enu- misleading. Under the increasingly com-meration systems:(1) self-counting,(2) plex current situation, such "guesstimates"direct-counting, and (3) indirect-counting. will not suffice and must be replaced by Examples of self-counting systems,in information thatisprecise, reliable, andwhich the recreationist provides use infor- uniform. In fact, federal recreation agenciesmation about himself, include campground were direc.:zd by legislationin 1964 (Landregistration books and boards; charge areas and Water Conservation Fund Act, PLwhere permit-vendingmachines,meter 88-578) to improve their estimates of visitorboxes, or automatic gates are installed; and use as rapidly as time,funds, and talentself-registration questionnaires and forms. permit. One significant accomplishment wasDirect-counting systems include census and the development of a rationale and proced-sample counts, television and camera ob- ures for the uniformreporting of outdoorservation, aerial observation and photogra- recreation data on a nationwide basis. (Aphy, mail and telephone surveys, and sim- Uniform Method for Measuring and Re-ilar procedures. Indirect-counting systems portingRecreation Use On .the Publicinclude such devices as electronic-eye and Lands and Waters of the United States,mechanical counters; self-activated or time- 1965; prepared by RecreationAdvisorylapse photographic equipment, remote sens- Council Study Committee NumberTwo;ing devices, and such related indicators as 56 pp.) These proceduresprovided indi-water consumption and volumeof refuse. vidual agencies with a frame of reference Recreation use on developed sites(in- and a set of guides that permitted them tocludingcampgrounds,picnicgrounds, 95 organization sites, hotels and resorts, com- ESTIMATING USE mercial-public-service sites, recreation resi- ON DEVELOPED SITES dences, observation sites, swimming sites, Citation: James, George A., and Thomas H. playground-park-sports fields, and recrea- Ripley.1963. INSTRUCTIONS FOR USING tion visitor centers) represents one of the simpler and less-costly sampling situations TRAFFIC COUNTERS TO ESTIMATE RECREA- TION VISITS AND USE. USDA Forest Serv. because the sites are of small size, vehicular and foot access to the sites are generally Res. Pap. SE-3, 12 pp., illus. SE. Forest good, and recreationistsas well as the Exp. Sta. Also: James, George A. 1966. activities in which they engage can easily INSTRUCTIONS FOR USING TRAFFIC COUNT- be observed. Considerable research, begin- ERS TO ESTIMATE RECREATION VISITS AND ning in the early 1960's, has been directed USE ON DEVELOPED SITES. (revised). USDA towards designing and testing sampling Forest Serv. SE. Forest Exp. Sta., 12 pp.; techniques for estimating intensive use that DOUBLE SAMPLING, FSH 2309.11 RIM occurs on such developed sites. HANDBOOK (Section 124.72), April 1970, Amend. 16. Less intensive use on dispersed areas such What It Does: Designed to produce esti- as generally undeveloped country, large mates of amount of use, by activity, on bodies of water, recreation roads and trails, unsupervised developed sites, this tech- natural lakes, ponds, reservoirs and other nique makes it possible to update esti- impoundments, and rivers and streams is mates from vehicle counts only during a generally difficult and costly to estimate. several-year period following calibration. Such use is usually thinly scattered on land The sampling technique, called double and water areas, which may be several sampling, was first developed and tested hundred squaremilesinextent, highly in 1961. It has been used to estimate use mobile, and constantly in flux. Examples of on approximately1,000 USDA Forest recreation activities in dispersed areas in- Service developed sites. cluding hunting, fishing, boating, hiking,How It Works: Each developed site and mountain climbing, and driving for pleas- f;ach recreation-use period for which es- ure. timates are desired must be sampled for a minimum of 12 days, each 12 hours The following section contains a listing long. Traffic counters are placed at each of selected sampling techniques that have entrance of each site to be calibrated. To been used successfully to estimate recrea- obtain the estimates, a ratio is developed tion use on both developed sites and dis- between the desired statistic (visits, use persed areas. Coverage includes literature by activity, total use) and traffic counts citation, a brief discussion of what the by simultaneously measuring both on technique does and how it works, cost each sampling day. On days when some- (where available), and general comments. one is not on the site counting people and All the sampling techniques discussed deal recording what they do,thetraffic strictly with the problem of developing a counter alone provides the basis for use complete and accurate picture of current estimates. The regression formulas de- conditions, not with the larger question of veloped during the first year of site cali- futureprojections. The sampling tech- bration can be used to provide estimates niques discussed are satisfactory for short- during the next several-year period from term projections, but we need to know a vehicle counts only, provided relation- great many more basic facts about our ships between axle counts and associated society and its behavior before long-term uses are strong and there are no major projections can be made. changes in the site. (A bibliography on recreation use sam-Cost: Average cost per site for first-year pling techniques is available upon rattiest calibrationisapproximately ;650 for from the Recreation Research Project, labor and supervision, and approximately USDA Forest Service, Southeastern Forest $75 each for pneumatic traffic counters. Experiment Station, Asheville, N. C. 28802.) Ifrelationships between use and the traffic-flow pattern are strong, estimates percent of trueattendance at a confi- can be updatedfor a 3- to 5-year period dence level of 67 percent. following calibration, thus reducing sam-How It Works: The methodconsists of pling costs to approximately $150 to$200 three steps: grouping campgroundsinto per year. sets, calibration, andestimation of attend- Many developed site groupin:can ance. Calibrationconsists of counting at- best be handled for sampling purposes as tendance ineach campground in the "sampling complexes" consistingof two group (on a minimumof 20 randomly of sites.For example, selected days throughout the seasonfor or more kinds correlation-regression and 30 randomly AlexanderSpringsRecreationArea, consists selected clays for ratio analysis);testing Ocala National Forest, Florida, ratio of szveral kinds of contiguoussites; i.e., for relationships by correlation or campground, picnic ground, swimming analysis; selecting indicatorcampgrounds; sites, and boating site. It is lessexpensive and computing equationsfor estimating attendance. The method can beused to to sample a sitecomplex as a whole than sites for a to sample its component partsseparately. update use estimates on all sampling several-year period followingcalibration Total use indicated from the bellwether process should becomparable in either by measuring only one or two case. campgrounds. Cost: Initial cost for calibratingali camp- Conmzents: This technique canprovide good ler than estimates of use by activity, butdoes not grounds is high, but generally number of cost of othersampling methods that re- provide a true estimate of individual visitsbecausevisitors may enter and quire estimating attendance at leave a site several times during agiven campgrounds. Sampling cost per camp- counts ground will vary with thenumber of sampling day. The technique they can be them as new visits each timethey enter, sites included in the set, but of number prorated over a several-yearperiod. and thus provides an estimate provide good of entries, not a preciseestimate of num-Comments: The method can the technique estimates of daily and seasonalattendance, ber of visits. Success of estimates of kind depends upon an accuratetraffic-count but does not provide record. Frequent checking andadjust- of use. Standard procedureshave not traffic counters is essential. been devised for applyingthe method. ment of all specific procedures A slide-lecture presentationhas been pro- The authors say that describethis must rest onexamination, and possible ducedcommerciallyto models for sampling technique. modification,ofstatistical conformance with field conditions.

Citation: Bury, Richard L.,and Ruth Mar-. Citation: Wagar, J. Alan.1964. ESTIMATING golies. 1964. A METHOD FOR ESTIMATING NUMBERS OF CAMPERS ONUNSUPERVISED CURRENT ATTENDANCE ONSETS OF CAMP- CAMPGROUNDS. USDAForest Serv. Res. GROUNDS ...A Pilot Study. USDA For- Note PSW-42, 6 pp. Pa- Pap. NE-18, 16 pp. NE.Forest Exp. Sta. est Serv. Res. of camp- cific SW. Forest and RangeExp. Sta. What It Does: Estimates number ers on severalunsupervised campgrounds What It Does: Providesestimates of daily from one or precision from information collected attendance (and corresponding a group ofunsupervised campgrounds. of estimates) for a test setof several successfully FPilot-tested measured The method was campgrounds from attendance in 1961 with onecampground on which in only one bellwethercampground. number of campers was Total daily attendance for a test setof season-long available, and eightunsupervised camp- 23campgrounds was estimatedfrom of them r ounds. attendance measured in only one counted Estimates of dailyHow It Works: Campers were in a 1961 pilot study. each evening on approximately18 ran- and seasonal attendance werewithin 10

81 domlv selected dates on one or more bined. The final step is to determine the unsupervisedcampgrounds.Mostof effectivenessofoneor moretraffic these counts must coincide with records counters in estimating total seasonal use from at least one unsupervised camp- for all sites combined. The method can ground on which full counts are made also update use estimates on all sites for throughout the season. Regression and a several-year period following calibra- ratio estimation procedures are used to tion. produce estimates of number of campers Cost: Average cost per site for first-year on all unsupervised campgrounds in the calibration isapproximately $325for area. labor and supervision. One observer can Cost: Estimated at approximately $75 to calibrate two sites at one time. Most cost $100 per campground. Cost will vary, reduction in sampling is not immediate, depending on number of campgrounds but comes after the first-year period of available for calibration. Where season- calibration. The economic gain liesin long records of number of campers using the fact that traffic counters need not be unsupervised campgrounds are available installed, maintained, and read periodi- from self-registration or ticket sale rec- cally on any but the indicator site during ords,considerablereductionindata- the next few-year period. collection costs may be realized. Comments: The technique providesuse Comments: The sampling technique pro- estimates for almost any kind of devel- duces estimates of number of camper- oped site; i.e., the set of sites need not all nights only, not estimates of hours of use be campgrounds. The method provides by activity. It can produce precise esti- an estimate of number of entries, not a mates of number of campers. The 1961 true estimate of number of visits. pilot study produced estimates within approximately 10 percent of actual num- ber of campers at a confidence level of 95 percent. Citation: James, George A. 1967. INSTRUC- TIONS FOR USING TRAFFIC COUNTERS TO ESTIMATE RECREATIONUSE SIMULTANE- OUSLY ON TWO NONCONTIGUOUS DEVEL- Citation: James, George A., and John L. OPED SITES. Unpublished report, available Rich. 1966. ESTIMATING RECREATION USE from Recreation Research Project, South- ON A COMPLEX OF DEVELOPED SITES. USDA eastern Forest Experiment Station, Ashe- Forest Serv. Res. Note SE-64, 8 pp., illus. ville, North Carolina 28802. SE. Forest Exp. Sta. What It Does: Designed to produce esti- What It Does: Produces estimates of visits mates of amount of use, by activity, on and use (by activity), and has use up- unsupervised developed sites,it makes dating features, for a test set of developed provision for updating estimates during sites from traffic-count records obtained a several-year period following calibra- from one or two locations. In a 1964 tion from vehicle counts only. Good pilottest, good estimates of use were estimates of use were obtained on ap- obtained for eight developed sites from a proximately 12 sites in a 1966 pilot study. vehicular traffic-count record at one key How It Works: Procedures are the same as location. for the double-sampling technique, but How It Works: Use estimates (by visits, by two developed sites are calibrated during acthity, etc.) are obtained by determin- the same sampling day. On each sampling ingtherelationshipbetweentraffic day, the observ:: ..pends approximately counts and the desired statistic by simul- 6 hours on each of two sites, rather than taneously measuring both on several 12 hours on one site. The two skes must developed sites. Analytical procedures, bewithin approximately15minutes described by James and Ripley (1963), travel time of each other. produce season-long estimates of use forCost: A single 'observer can calibrate two individual sites and for .,allsites corn- sites at one time, thus reducing sampling

88 ares.,vm -

costs by approximately 50 percent over able as a reprint from University micro- the double-sampling technique. films, $5.55). What It Does: A test of various self-admin- istered questionnaire techniques to deter- mine their reliability in collecting infor- Citation: James, George A., and Gary L. mation about park-user characteristics, Tyre. 1967. USE OF WATER-METER REC- use patterns, attitudes,and opinions. ORDS TO ESTIMATE RECREATION VISITS AND How lt Works: Use parameters were ob- USE ON DEVELOPED SITES.USDA Forest tained by random-systematic sampling Serv. Res. Note SE-73, 3 pp. SE. Forest procedures, by a combination of volun- Exp. Sta. tary "hand-in" questionnairetechniques, What It Does: Produces estimates of amount and by interviewing nonrespondents at of use, by activity, on unsupervised de- eight sample state and regional parks in veloped sites and makes provision for Michigan. The accuracy of voluntary updating estimates from water consump- questionnaire information was high, and tion records only during a several-year estimates of good precision were obtained period following calibration. for the entire park-using population. How It Works: Procedures are the same asCost: Approximately $11,000(plus con- for the double-sampling techniquede- tributed time)to carry out elaborate scribed previously. tests in eight state and regionalparks, Cost: Average cost per site for first-year including field work, analysis, and report calibrationisapproximately $650 for preparation. labor and supervision, and approximatelyComments: Results indicate that by chang- $150 for the water meter. If relationships ing questionnaire design, content, and between use and water consumption are retrieval methods, questionnaire responses strong, estimates can probablybe up- and data reliability can be significantly dated for a 3- to 5-year period following increased. Agencies with contact-station, calibration, thus reducing sampling costs controlled recreation areas can get good to approximately$150 to $200 per year. user information on acontinuous basis Comments: Water use on developed sitesis at relatively low cost. generally correlated highly with recrea- tion use. Estimates of use based on water- use records cangenerally be expected to Citation: Wagar, J. Alan. 1969. ESTIMATION be more accurate than thosebased on OF VISITOR USE FROM SELF-REGISTRATION vehicular traffic counts. Thoughinitial AT DEVELOPED RECREATION SITES.USDA cost of a water meter ishigher than that Forest Serv. Res. Pap. INT-70, 27 pp. of a pneumatic traffic counter(approxi- Intermount. Forest and Range Exp.Sta. mately $150 vs. $75), total site-calibration What It Does: Produces estimatesof total cost might be less becauseonly one water visitor use from self-registration dataob- meter is generally needed persite, or site tained from visitors. In a1967pilot complex, regardless of the number of site study, estimates of total use were as pre- entrances. Compared totraffic counters, cise as those obtained from anearlier water meters are less subject tovandalism, method that required six times the man- requireless maintenance, and are not hours in sample counting. Estimates are affected by snow or ice. provided for (1) a site the seasonit is sampled, (2) the same site in subsequent years when nosampling is done, and (3) similar to Crapo,Douglas,and Michael for a site never sampled but Citation: nearby sampled sites. Chubb. 1969. RECREATION AREA DAY-USE is ob- INVESTIGATIONTECHNIQUES: Part1, AHow It Works: Use information Study of Survey Methodology.Mich. tained from visitors throughself-registra- State Univ., Dep. Park and Recreation tion(predictor variable)and on 24 Resources Tech. Rep. 6, 125 pp.(Avail- randoMly selectedon-the-hour counts

83 89 during the recreation season; 12 for day- ers from thedouble-sampling technique time, 12 for evening. Regression estima- in that only 20 randomly selected, on- tion procedures are usedto produce the-hour counts are taken instead of 12 estimates of total use and use by activity. daylong sequences of counts. A traffic The method can update use estimates for counter is uscd to record the vehicles a several-year periodfollowing calibra- actually present at specific times rather tion from self-registration information. than one that records the total flow of Cost: Average cost for first-year calibration traffic during a period of time. is approximately $75 per site. The updat- Cost: Estimated at approximately $100 to ing feature reduces cost to approximately $125 per site for field work, supervision, $25 to $30 per year over a several-year travel, and servicing of traffic counters. period for collection of self-registration The largest costis the electric traffic cards, data preparation, and computer counter, though not presently available commercially, which is expected to cost analysis. from $200 to $500. Comments: The method can provide goodComments: The net-count visitor sampling estimates of use at low cost. Information method could be highly effective for obtained through self-registration includes selected situations but, as mentioned, it is ZIP Code of individual or group, thus contingent uponcountingequipment making it possible to determine visitor that is not commercially available at this origin and travel distance between site and visitor origin for self-registration time. sites where the fee system is enforced. Citation: Cordell, Harold K., George A. James, and Russell F. Griffith. 1970. Es- Citation: Wagar, J. Alan, and Joel F.Thal- TIMATING RECREATION USE AT VISITOR IN- heimer.1969. TRIAL RESULTS OF NET FORMATION CENTERS. USDAForest Serv. COUNT PROCEDURFS FOR ESTIMATING VISI- Res. Pap. SE-69, 8 pp. SE. Forest Exp. TOR USE AT DEVELOPED RECREATION SITES. Sta. USDA Forest Serv. Res. Note INT-105, What It Does: Designed to produce esti- 8 pp. Intermount. Forest & RangeExp. mates of amount and kindof recreation Sta. use at visitor information centers,this What It Does: Produces estimates oftotal makes provision for updating estimates visitor use for the usual activities, for for a several-year period following cali- occupancy of camp units bydaytime and bration based on several easily obtained nighttime, and for camping equipment indicators. by types. The method was testedwithHow It Works: Information is obtained on good results for three seasons at a 27- 12 randomly selected sampling days con- unit campground, and for one season at cerning number of visitors and use, by a recreationcomplex consisting of 117 activity, which occurs inthe visitor camping units, plus picnicking, fishing, center building, along trails,and in the boating, a lodge and cabins, and atrail parking lot. Regression-estimation pro- head to an adjacent primitive area.Future cedures produce use estimates based on usefulness of the method depends on the such indicators as number of people en- availability of suitable, reasonablyinex- tering the exhibit hall, vehicle counts, pensive counter equipment which is not and bus ticket sales. presently commercially available. Cost: Total cost of the 1969 samplingeffort How It Works: The net count system re- was $1,700. The updatingfeature makes lates randomly scheduled countsof visi- it possible to spread the benefits and costs traffic counts for over several years.Total cost prorated tor use to mechanical will average ap- the same times, and applies theresulting over a 5-year period relationships to the season-longtraffic- proximately ;340 annually. count record to obtain anestimate ofComments: The method yieldsgood esti- season-long visitor use. The methoddif- mates of seasonal use,by activity, for

17! almost any kind of visitor informationWhat It Does: Produces estimates of at- center,including usethatoccursin tendance at winter sports areas; makes theaters, in parking lots, along trails, etc. provision for updating attendance esti- mates for a several-year periodfollowing calibration based on business records of tow-lift tickets or restaurant receipts. In Citation: Elsner, Gary H. 1970.CAMPING a 1961-62 pilotstudy, estimates of total USE-AXLE COUNT RELATIONSHIP:ESTIMA- attendance over a 2-month period were TION WITH DESIRABLE PROPERTIES.Forest within 8 percent of true attendance at Sci. 16: 493-495. the 67-percent level of confidence. What It Does: Describes a refinementforHow It Works: During a calibration season, increasing the precision and value of use an observer countsthe number of persons estimates based on the double-sampling and total number of vehicles on ran- technique described by James and Ripley domly selected days. The average length- (1963 ). The method, based on ageneral of-stay and average number of persons nonlinear function, increases the cc,m- per vehicle arederived from these. These plexityofofficecomputationsonly are converted tovisitor-days or visitor- slightly. hours of use and are correlatedwith How It Works: The generalmodel for routinely collected daily figures of num- predicting campground use fromaxle- ber of lift and tow ticketsissued, res- count data includesthree desired prop- taurantreceipts,andreceiptsfrom erties: (a) zero intercept, (b) fixed upper equipment rental obtained from resort limit, and (c) decreasingcampground operators.Regressionandcorrelation use with increasingaxle count. estimation procedures are used to pro- Cost: Average cost per site forfirst-year duce estimates of attendance. days, is calibration, based on 12 sampling Cost: The technique is relativelyexpensive approximately $650 for labor and super- because one full-time person isrequired vision, and approximately $75 eachfor (and exit,if visitor- estimates at each entrance pneumatic traffic counters. Use hours are desired) during samplingdays can be updatedfor a 3- to 5-year period of the calibration season. Attendance can following calibration, thus reducing sam- for a several- $200 be estimated inexpensively pling costs to approximately $150 to year period afterthe estimation equations per year. are derived. Comments: Estimating use bythe nonlinear thanComments: This techniqueprovides esti- function requires more information only, not estimates the ordinary regressionformulations. It mates of attendance number of of use by activity. The authors saythat is necessary to know the primarily to camping units at each campground,and the pilot study was useful of the re- illustrate the form of results, toidentify requires close initial estimates levels maining parameters. Makingthese initial problems, and to suggest general estimates can be time-consumingif the of attainable precision. analyst haslittleexperience with this particular function. Citation: Cushwa, Charles T.,and Burd S. McGinnes. 1964. SAMPLING PROCEDURES AND ESTIMATES OF YEAR-ROUNDRECREA- ESTIMATING USE TION USE ON 100 SQUAREMILES OF THE ON DISPERSED AREtZ GEORGE WASHINGTON NATIONALFOREST. N. Conf. Citation: Bury, Richard L., andJames W. Amer. Wildlife & Natur. Resources Trans. 28 (1963): 457-465. Also:Cushwa, Hall. 1963. ESTIMATING PAST AND CUR- McGinnes, and RENT ATTENDANCE AT WINTERSPORTS Charles T., Burd S. Thomas H. Ripley. 1965. FOREST REC- AREAS ... A PILOT STUDY.USDA Forest Pacific REATION ESTIMATES ANDPREDICTIONS IN Serv. Res. Note PSW-33, 7 pp. GEORGE WASHING- SW. Forest and Range Exp.Sta. THE NORTH RIVER AREA,

85 TON NATIONAL FOREST, VIRGINIA. Va. Agr. Citation: James, George A., and Robert A. Exp. Sta. Bull. 558, 48 pp., illus. Harper.1965. RECREATION USE OF THE What It Does: A technique for generating OCALA NATIONAL FOREST IN FLORIDA. USDA estimates of dispersed use on large units Forest Serv. Res: Pap. SE-18, 28 pp., illus. of land. In a 1961-62 pilot study, good SE. Forest Exp. Sta. estimates of number of visits'and use, byWhat ltDoes:Producesestimates of activity, were obtained for a 100-square- amount and kind of use, both mass and mile section of the George Washington dispersed, which occur on areas as large National Forest. In addition, considerable as entire National Forests.

information was obtained about socio-How ItWorks: Two samplingmodels. economic characteristics of theforest were employed to measure visits and visitors. hours of use, by activity.. The double- How It Works: Use information was ob- sampling technique (op. cit.) was used tained by personally interviewing forest to estimate .use on three developed sites. visitors as they departed the area along Simple stratified random sampling, which roads and trails during each of 648 ran- entailed interviewing visitors as they left domly selected sampling periods. The 1- the forest at established interview cheek- year period for which use estimates were points,was employedto measure all desired was stratified by day of week other use. The two sampling techniques, (weekend days and holidays, and week- usedsimultaneously, worked -well. In days) and season of year. Exits were addition, the interviews yielded consid- stratified into three major groups: paved erable information about socio-economic roads, unpaved roads, and trails. Length characteristics of forest visitors. of time of sampling unit was adjustedCost: The intensive year-longsampling inversely to expected flow of traffic, and effort cost approximately $15,000. varied between 1 and 4 hours. StratifiedComments: The sampling effort provided a random-sampling estimation procedures necessary followup test of the already were used to produce year-long estimates pilot - tested stratified random - sampling of visits and use. technique (Cushwa and Meginnes 1964) Cost: Although less than 1percent of ill for.estimating use on large areas. Al- samplingopportunitieswere sampled, though the model produced good esti- costs were high because of the large mates of use, a serious limitatiim was high number of sampling opportunities avail- cost and inability of the model to update able and the large amount of travel in- estimates in future years. In subsequent volved ininterviewingvisitors.Total study, James and Henley (1968) investi- cost of the study is estimated at approxi- gated this feature. mately $8,000. Cost will depend upon size of the area selected, duration of the study, and level of accuracy desired. Citation:James, George A. 1968. PILOT Comments: Study results revealed that a TEST OF SAMPLING PROCEDURES FOR ESTI- stratified random-sampling model (with MATING RECREATION USE ONWINTER- no prior knowledge of how to optimize SPORTSSITES. USDA Forest Serv. Res. sampling effort) .can produce good esti- Pap. SE-42, 8 pp. SE. Forest Exp. Sta. mates of total and component recreational.What-lt Does: Produces estimates of visits uses. In addition, the study detected sig- and use, by activity, (including difficult- nificant relations between users and uses to-measure skiing .use)at winter-sports as a basisfor providing decisions for sites. Makes provision for updating .use present aid future recreatiotial manage- estimates for a several-year period fol- ment. The pilot study made no provision lowing calibration based on vehicular for testing relationships between use and traffic-count records and such conces- use indicators on which estimates might sioner records as restaurant and ski-lift be updated annually for a several-year ticket sales. period following calibration. How It Works: The recreation season is sampled on approximately 18 randomly

86 92 **9.0.1

selected days. Daily and season-long rec- are conducted on approximately 20 days ords are obtained of restaurant and ski- during the use season for which estimates lift ticket sales and vehicular traffic count. are desired. Vehicle counts are obtained Regression procedures produce use esti- mechanically from one or more key mates for such variables as number of roads to establish relationships between visitors; amount of skiing and snow-play use, by activity, and traffic on which use; and amount of use occurring in estimates might be updated infuture restaurants, lodges,equipment - rental years. Use on important developed sites shops, parking lots, etc. A short question- within recreation area boundaries is es- naire (self-addressed, franked postcard) timated by thedouble-sampling tech- isadministered todetermine average nique. hours of skiing per day per skier and Cost: Cost of the study, not including cost other variables of interest. of traffic counters and signs, was $13,700. Cost: Total cost of the 1966-67 pilot study Use estimates can be updated annually was $1,865,notincludingthetraffic for a several-year period, thus reducing counter ($700) installed at the site en- average annual cost to approximately trance. Estimates can be updated an- $3,000. nually for a several-year period following Comments: The sampling model was used calibration, thus reducing average annual successfully on three large areas during cost to approximately $375. 1967, 1968, and 1969. Improved sampling Comments: Each winter-sports site repre- pro Tdures and reduced sampling inten- sents a unique sampling situation and the sity lowered calibration costs to approxi- sampling technique must be modified to mately $6,500 on each site. Although not fit each site. Pneumatic traffic counters pilot-tested, the technique can be used to do not work in snow and ice; and more estimate use on snowmobile areas. expensive counters, such as magnetic loop or electric-eye, must be used toobtain accurate traffic-flow information. Citation: McCurdy, Dwight R. 1970. A MANUAL FOR MEASURING PUBLIC USE ON WILDLANDS-PARKS, FORESTS AND WILDLIFE REFUGES. S. Ill. Univ. Dep. Forest. Pub. Citation: James, George A., and Robert K. 5, 48 pp. Henley. 1968. SAMPLING PROCEDURES FOR What It Does: Produces estimates of dis- ESTIMATING MASS AND DISPERSED TYPES Oi persed use on large tracts of land. RECREATION USE ON LARGE AREAS. USDA How It' Works:. Estimates are generated by Forest Serv. Res. Pap. SE-31, 15 pp. SE. a stratified random-sampling model, strati- Forest Exp. Sta. fication including time of day, day of What It Does: produces estimates of dis- week, and season of year. Roads within persed (and massed) use on large units the 'areaarepatrolledon randomly of land. Makes provision for updating use selected days and times; vehiclesare estimates for a several-year period fol- counted; and questionnaires (containing lowing calibrationbased on vehicular a stamped, self-addressed envelopeand a traffic-count records. In a 1966 pilot test letterexplainingthepurpose of the on the Pacific Ranger District, Eldorado study) are placed on the vehicle wind- National Forest, in California, use esti- shieldsof areausers.Completed and mates and sampling errors were deter- returned questionnaires form the basis mined for 37 recreational activities on for use estimates. Questionnaires should Forest Service land and for 33 activities be used every 3 to 5 years so that recrea- occurring on "other" land within District tional trends can be accounted for in the boundaries. estimates. Formulas are included in the How It Works: A stratified random sam- publication for producing estimates of pling technique is used which incorpo- use. rates road checkpoints at which exitingCOSt: COSt is minimal if a. patrol system is recreationists are interviewed. Interviews already in use by the managing agency.

87 93 Comments: The author recommends that ESTIMATING USE the method be used in conjunction with ON WILDERNESS AREAS the double-sampling technique describedCitation: Lucas, Robert C. 1964. RECREA- by James and Ripley (1963). TION USE OF THE QUETICO-SUPERIOR AREA. USDA Forest Serv. Res. Pap. LS-8, 50 pp., illus. Lake States ForestExp. Sta. Citation: James, GeorgeA.,Peter H.What It Does: Describes a sampling pro- Wing le, and James D. Griggs. 1971. Es- cedure for estimating amount and type USE ON LARGE of use, overnight accommodations used, TIMATING RECREATION and distribution of use on a large area, BODIES OF WATER. USDAForest Serv. Res. (in press). SE. Forest Exp. most of it a roadless canoeing area. Pap. SE- How It Works: A modified roadblock sys- Sta. tem and interview approach measured What It Does: The sampling model pro- use directly at points ofconcentration on duces estimates of recreation use on large approach routes, rather than over the bodies of water, including estimates of entire area. A nonrecording-type pneu- number of persons, use by activity, type matic traffic counter was installed at each of boat, number and kind of fish caught, of six major access checkpoints to obtain etc. Makes provision forupdating use a record of vehiculartraffic. Motorists estimates for a several-year period fol- were interviewed on 14 randomlyselected lowing calibration. days at four checkpoints and on 7 days How It Works: Five systematic flights (in at two additional lightly usedpoints. light, single-engine aircraft)are made Estimates were generated from the com- over the water area oneach of 10 sam- position of traffic on sample periods ap- ple days. On each flight, the aerial ob- plied to total traffic recorded by the server makes an instantaneous countof traffic counters for the entire season. For all boats on the waier. Boaters are inter- example, if 5 percent of outbound traffic viewed at random times and locations as occurred during sample periods, the sam- they return to landing areas. Vehicle ple data were multiplied by an expansion counts are obtained on one or morekey factor of 20.0. Error terms were not roads. Simple linear-regression estimation calculated for use estimates. procedures are used to generate estimatesCost: Approximately $3,000 for salaries, of use. travel,and counters. Tabulation and analysis cost about $1,500. Cost: Cost of sampling two lakes in theComments: Details of the samplingdesign pilot test, by aerial and ground observa- and estimation procedures are available tion techniques, was $4,400. Cost pro- in mimeographed form upon request to rated over a 5-year period for which use the North Central Forest Experiment estimates can likely be updated will Station, St. Paul, Minnesota. The system average approximately$880 annually. worked well in the study area, but sev- The largest cost is for use of aircraft. eral unusual conditions contributed toits Cost can be reduced substantially where success: almost all theroads dead-ended several water bodies can be observed on near the wilderness-type area; nonrecrea- each flight, or where the water body is tional traffic was a small part of thetotal; of such size and shape that ground ob- nighttraffic was light and could be servers (using binoculars)can count omitted from the sampling effort without number of boats. serious bias; and traffic speeds onthe Comments: The technique was used suc- .roads were low and thus drivers could cessfully during 1969 on two large reser- be easily and safely stopped by onefield voirs in Tennessee and Pennsylvania. interviewer.

88 P4 4- 4!.!1,4rtf

Citation: Wenger, Wiley D., Jr. 1964. AWhat It Does: The general survey objec- TEST OF UNMANNED REGISTRATION STA- tive was to assess the patterns of use in TIONS ON WILDERNESS TRAILS: FACTORS IN- the Waterton Lakes National Park and FLUENCING EFFECTIVENESS. USDA Forest to determine characteristics of park users. Serv. Res. Pap. PNW-16, 48 pp., illus.How It Works: Eight unmanned,self- Also: Wenger, Wiley D., Jr., and H. M. registration boxes and signs were placed Gregersen. 1964. THE EFFECT OF NONRE- in the interior of Waterton Park. Use of SPONSE ON REPRESENTATIVENESS OF WIL- trails was calibrated by projections of DERNESSREGISTRATION INFORMATION. recordeduse(self-registration forms) USDA Forest Serv. Res. Pap. PNW-17, based on an assumed 75-percent response 20 pp., illus. rate. Additional information on trail use What It Does: Objectives of the 1961-62 was collected from field observationand study were to determine if unmanned discussions with wardens, naturalists, and registration stations might be employed group camp leaders. effectively to obtain information fromCost: Allotment of time for the survey recreationists on wilderness trails, and to amounted to 1 day each week for ap- test different types of registration boxes, proximately 11 weeks for data collection forms, and signsto determine which and servicingofregistrationstations. combination produced the best response. Total cost was approximately $6,500, How It Works: Recreationists were inter- including all field sampling phases, data viewed personally on randomly selected analysis,andreport preparationand days and locations, uptrail from the reg- publication. istration station, after they had had anComments: The survey demonstrated that opportunity to respond to the signed unmanned self-registration stations can request to register. Response rate and provide useful information about wilder- quality of information varied greatiy by ness use and users, and served as apilot type of box, registration form, and word- study for subsequent trail-use surveys on ing of sign. The publication contains Banff/Yoho National Parks. Error terms recommendations concerning placement could not be calculated because use esti- of stations, type of registration box, reg- mates were based on an assumptionthat istration form, and wording of sign. three out of four entering groups com- Cost: Not available. plied with registration. Useful informa- Comments: Though Wenger did not con- tion was obtained concerning character- vert registration data into use estimates, istics of the park visitors. he concluded that self-registrationin- formation could be used effectively for use-estimation purposes. The study wasCitation: Thorsell, J. W. 1968. A TRAIL USE an important contribution to thewilder- SURVEY, BANFF AND YOHO NATIONAL PARKS, ness use literature and anessential first 1967. Canada Nat. Parks Serv. Planning step in the design of later studies relating Recreation Res. Rep. 33, 57 pp., illus. to estimation of wilderness use. What It Does: Describes methodology for estimating amount, distribution, and sea- son of use and determiningcharacteristics Citation: Thorsell, J. W. 1967. WATERTON of trail users. LAKES NATIONAL PARK VISITOR USE SURVEY, How It Works: Unmanned self-registration 1966: PART II, WILDERNESS RECREATIONAL stationswere placedat55locations USE. Canada Nat. Parks Serv.Planning within the parks. To determine visitor Recreation Res. Rep. 24, 57 pp. Also: response to the trail registers, six stations Thorsell, J. W. 1967. RECREATIONAL USE were observed from a distancewith IN WATERTON LAKES NATIONAL PARK.M.A. binoculars without the knowledge of the thesis,Univ. Western Ontario,1967, visitors during a total of 95 hours. A 188 pp. (Reference is basis of Chapter V separately conducted survey of roadside of thesis.) campers and motel guests was alsotaken

9 .1V pt 41../CrLC.r.7c.rrin. PertVi

to provide a comparative samplewith The technique proved to be a valuable the main study. method for collecting information on Only 35 percent of the visitors regis- park visitors. tered at the unmanned self-registration Cost: Depending on the type of park sur- stations,a much lowerratethanin veyed, the cost per completed question- Wenger's 1961-62 study. Thorsell par- naire (which includes all costs for the tially attributesthis to the long form entire project) ranged from 24 cents to used, which contained 19 queqions. To $1.42. An overall cost of slightly over $1 obtain estimates of use, registration sta- per completed questionnaire appears to tions were classified into three rate-of- be a realistic estimate of the expenditure. response groups and registration totals Over91,039 completedquestionnaires were multiplied by the inverseof the were obtained. assumed rate of response. Comments; The technique proved to be a Cost: Response rates of visitors to unman- valuable method for collecting informa- ned registration stations, on which use tion on park visitors. The Canadian Na- estimates were based, were determined tional Parks Service recommends that from 95 hours of binocular observation. theself-administeredsurveymethod, Four persons spent 3 months operating based on the revised (1970) questionnaire and maintaining the 55 registration sta- format, be utilized continually to main- tions, 45 of which were placed well in tain standardized, comparable, and up- the interior of the park. Total cost was to-date knowledge of park use and user approximately $18,000, including all field characteristics in the National Parks of sampling phases, data analysis, and report Canada. preparation and publication. Connnents: The author states that as a re- sult of the study, problems inherent in Citation:Lucas,RobertC.,HansT. trail and back-country management can Schreuder, and George A. James. 1971. now be defined more easily and astand- ard base is now awilable from which WILDERNESS USE ESTIMATION:A PILOT TEST OF SAMPLING PROCEDURES ON THE future studies will be able to detect trends MISSION MOUNTAINS PRIMITIVE AREA IN in use. MONTANA. USDA Forest Serv. Res. Pap. INT- (in press). Intermount. Forest and Range Exp. Sta. Citation: Kovacs, T. J. 1970. SELF-ADMINIS-- What It Does: The primary objective of TERED PARK VISITOR SURVEY TECHNIQUE. the study was to develop and test a Canadian Outdoor Recreation Demand sampling design to provide estimates of Study. Canada Nat. Parks Serv. Dep. current wilderness use and to establish Indian Affairs and Northern Develop., relationships between use and several in- 23 pp., illus. dicators that might be utilized to update What It Does: Describes the park visitor estimates in future years, within specifi- survey technique utilized in theCanadian able levels of precision. Interview and Outdoor Recreation Demand Study de- self-registration forms provided consid- signed to identify and determine the erable information about characteristics nature of use inall types of parks in of the wilderness user. Canada and to reveal the characteristicsHow It Works: The basic sampling design of the users. was stratified randomsampling, with How It Works: Employs the self-adminis- stratification including day of week, sea- tered questionnaire method to collect in- son of year (summer/fall),and expected formation about park visitors. Question- use of trails. Variablesof interest were naires, distributed to a random sample of measured by means of a personally ad- visitors at park entrances (at 345 parks), ministered questionnaireininterviews were retrieved byvoluntary deposit in with groups entering and leaving the collection boxes placed near park exits. trail during 110 randomly selected 2-day sampling units. Supplementary (covari-How It Works: The study was afollowup ate) information was obtained by estab- to the 1968 pilot study onthe Mission lishing registration stations on each trail Mountains Primitive Area, and sampling and giving entering groups achance to procedures were similar. Informationob- how- register and fill out a wilderness registra- tained during the 1968 pilot study, tion card. Mechanical counters,placed ever, made it possible toreduce costs heavily used trails substantially because of improved sample on some of the most in- and accessroads, providedadditional allocationandreduced sampling covariate information. tensity. Cost: The calibration cost of $11,500 canCost: Cost of the test was $4,800, notin- be prorated over a several-yearperiod cluding cost of the prototype electric-eye because of relatively strongrelationships counters. With regressionequations gen- between registration and interviewinfor- erated during calibration year, the initial mation. Assuming that relations between cost of $4,800 can beprorated over a use and registrationinformation remain 5-year period based onself-registration constant, estimates of use can beupdated information alone. Average annual cost annually for a 3- to 4-year period based for use estimates thus becomes approxi- on self-registrationonly, without inter- mately $1,200, including an annual cost viewing entering visitors. Average annual of about $250 for servicing unmanned cost for use estimatesthus becomes ap- registration stations. proximately $3,000. Comments: The sampling technique pro- Comments: The study resulted in a useful duced use estimates of good precision, sampling tool for obtaining estimatesof based on interview and self-registration currentrecreationuseonwilderness information. The electric-eye counters areas. The samplingmodel, however, is did not produce a satisfactoryrecord not yet recommendedfor general use that could be used for estimation pur- because of high cost and weaknesses that poses.Notwithstanding cailureof the must be corrected.The study yields studytofurnisha completetestas information that should make it possible planned, it still offers valuableevidence to substantially reduce costsand to im- that unmanned registration stationsand provesamplingefficiencyinfuture personal interviews of entering groups studies. can provide preciseestimates of wilder- ness use. Other thanthe relatively high price tag involved, it can be said atths time that a sound sampling techniqueis Citation: James, George A., and HansT. available for estimating wilderness use. Schreuder. 1971. A 1969 PILOT TEST OF SAMPLING PROCEDURES FOR ESTIMATING RECREATION USE OF THE SAN GORGONIO WILDERNESS IN CALIFORNIA.(Proposed for MANAGEMENT OF "Journal of Leisure Research.") RECREATION INVENTORY INFORMATION What lt Does: Pilot test of asampling model for estimating the amountof dis- The rapid expansion in recreation use, accompanied persedrecreation use that occurs onsites, and facilities has been wilderness areas. Prototypes of an ex-by comparable growth in themagnitude perimental electric-eye trail counter wereand complexity of handling the vastvol- .placed on all entrancesto determineume of data thathave become available. their effectiveness in estimating useandConsider the procedures used by theUSDA inven- todeterminewhetheramechanicalForest Service to handle recreation count of all persons (andstock) enter-tory informationcollected from the lands ing and leaving the area might success-and waters that it administers.The very size of Forest Service operations,coupled fully determine user compliance with in multi- self-registration. with the complexities involved 9ri resource management for wood,water,pertinent facts, (2) by assembling informa- forage,wildlife, and recreation, made 'a tionin reportsor in other meaningful comprehensive inventory system impera-arrays, and (3) by organizing information tive. so that interrelationships are disclosed. For administrative purposes, the land and RIM isa system designed to yield an water msource base of 186 million acres is almost limitless variety of resource informa- divided into nine Regions, 130 National tion in any array to meet both internal and Forests, and 767 Ranger Districtsan areaexternal needs and requests; and it makes equivalent in size to the land surface of possible the rapid production of lists, sum- France, plus most of Great Britain. Moremaries, and analytical comparisons that can than 97 percent of this land and water com-improve the quality of managerial decisions plex, which is located in 42 states, is avail-affecting the allocation of funds and utiliza- able and used for some form of outdoortion of resources. RIM is designed to re- recreation. The developed sitecomplextrieve any characteristic or combination of alone has the capacity to accommodatecharacteristics ever stored in the system. more than 1 million persons at one time for RIM has been in operation since 1965, a wide variety of recreation activities. and its operational data banks currently The Washington Office Division of Rec- include: reation and the Southeastern Forest Experi- 1. BASIC ADDRESS (location, identity, ment Station joined forces in 1965 to de- size, capacity, access, etc., of all sites velop a Servicewide recreation management and areas by name and serial number) system. Known as RIM (Recreation In- formation Management), the system isa 2. FACILITY INVENTORY (kind and computer-oriented approach to the accu- amount of recreation facilities and im- mulation, storage, manipulation, compari- provements in place) son, retrieval, and display of information3. CONDITION SURVEY (degree that about PEOPLE, PLACES, AND THINGS each facility and physical improvement over periods of time. The Division of Rec- meets existing standards,the costof reation, acting with Regions and National routine maintenance, and the cost of Forests, determines the kinds of information any action required to correct unsatis- needed. A RIM Project, headquartered at factory or unacceptable conditions) Asheville, North Carolina, provides tech-. nical advice on how to collect and manage4. DIRECTORY(information about inventory information, and, using computer campgrounds and picnic grounds, in- facilities at the University of Georgia and cluding type of facilities provided, na- at Huntsville, Alabama, carriesout the ture of opportunities available, fees, etc.) data-management process. 5. RECREATION USE (quantity, timing, The RIM System provides current and and location of recorded use on a site- meaningful information on the identifica- by-site and area-by-area basis) tion, location, condition, and use of each recreationsite and area in the National All data banks are updated annually to Forest System, currently consisting of over provide a perpetual inventory of up-tc-date 21,000different population elements.Itinformation. stores this information in quantities that Future RIM data banks will include: (1) would be impractical to manage by manuala PROGRAM file, which will be an in- methods, and virtually eliminates the bur-ventory and record of facts about potential densome and costly compilation of infor-sites and areas to assist managers in plan- mation at all levels above the actual source ning futuredevelopments;(2)aIIIS- of data. In effect, it relieves the resourceTORICAL file, which will relate passage manager from data-manipulation chores andof time tophysical and environmental frees him for the important job of USINGchanges on sites and areas; (3) a SATEL- information by (1) furnishing a reservoirLITE file to create satellite data bahks with of information upon which managementservices closely associated with recreation; can draw for a current disclosure of theand (4) a RESEARCH file, which will be rre-44,4myryvvrrt.w.tr,-,vwsze4 ftt

a source of basic datafor studies relatingcomes from estimatesdeveloped for each to biological-physical relationships,cost/ individual site and area. Use outputs are benefitrelationships, supply/demand, usearrayed to reflect the total amount of use projections, user satisfactions, and others. on a particular site or areaand the quantity Additional information and detailed in- of each type of activity that occurred in structions for implementing the program that place. Approximately 20 different rec- are found in FSM 2311;RIM Handbookreation use summaries and tabulations are (FSH 2309.11); and Recreation Informa-produced annually (onacalendar-year tionManagement,In-ServiceTraining basis) and include kinds and volume of use Guide, Forest Service, U.S. Department of (by activity) and where it occurred (by Agriculture, March 1968, 127 pp. individual site and area) Servicewide, by RIM recognizes some 30 kinds of rec-Region, by Forest, by District, by popula- reational elements where use takes place; tion element, by State, by Congressional i.e., campgrounds, picnic grounds, swim- District, by county, by river basin, by size ming sites, winter-sports sites,wilderness and capacity of developed site, use by areas, zrails, waters, etc. Data arestored in minority groups, and other categories. An the system for each of the approximately example of use information available from 21,000populationelements by approxi- RIM is shown in table1,a Servicewide mately 52 activities (camping, hiking, hunt- summary of estimatedNational Forest rec- ing, fishing, etc.). Use input into the system reation use for CY 1970.

Table 1.EstimatedNational Forest recreation use, Servicewide Summary, 1970 Public use Activity Visitor-daysl Percent Camping 46,454,100 26.9 Picknicking 7,494,800 4.3 Recreation travel: Automobile (33,801,900) Scooter & motorcycle (2,139,700) Ice & Snowcraft (1,950,400) Other machines (130,400) 38,022,400 22.0 Boating Powerboats (3,086,800) Other boats (1,405,200) 4,492,000 2.6 Games and team sports 578,100 .3 Waterskiing and other water sports 743,100 .4 Swimming and scuba diving 3,459,100 2.0 Winter Sports: Skiing (5,515,800) Other (1,029,800) 6,545,600 3.8 Fishing 15,239,100 8.8 Hunting 14,308,400 8.3 Hiking and mountain climbing 5,592,300 3.2 Horseback riding 2,387,800 1.4 Resort use 4,082,900 2.4 Organization camp use 4,312,500 2.5 Recreation residence use 7,553,800 4.4 Gathering forest products 1,362,600 .8 Nature study 952,800 .6 Viewing, scenery., sports, environment7,299,300 4.2 Visitor Informaaon (exhibits, talks, etc.) 1,673,800 1.0 Total 172,554,500 1Recreational use of N.F. land and waterthat aggregates 12 person-hours. May entail 1 personfor 12 hours, 12 persons for 1 hour, or any equivalentcombination of individual or group use, eithercontinuous or intermittent.

93

1.4'89 4 The 1970 use estimate of 172.5 millionment in operation and reduction in cost of visitor-daysis composed of a mixture ofthese devices is important. Perhaps the most statistically reliable estimates (where testedurgent need lies in substantially reducing sampling techniques were used) and othersampling cost of tested and new models. estimates based on observation, experience,The cost of several excellent modelsis and comparison. The quality and reliabilitycurrently too high for general use. of Forest Service use estimates have in- Another very real obstacle is the highly creased substantially during the past several-scattered nature of work in this field, and year period because carefullycontrolledthe considerable difficulty staying abreast and statistically sound sampling procedures of new developments. It is difficult even have been used on more and more sites and for the researcher in this field, and perhaps areas each year. Overall improvementofnext to impossible for most others. Thereis use estimates will continue as researchde-need to coordinate efforts of the numerous velops better and cheaper sampling tech-persons and agencies working in thisfield niques andasthese,inturn,provide to avoid duplication of effort. estimates of use on a larger proportion of There is perhaps a need to createa population elements. central clearinghouse for publications and reports on use sampling techniques emanat- ing from federal,state,andmunicipal CONCLUSIONS agencies, universities, foreign governments, We have come a long way during the and others. A small panel of interested per- past 10 years in recreation-useestimation. sons might be appointed tokeep up with Many of the sampling models, modified asall developments. A standardized reporting needed to meet local situations, have uni-format, possibly in the form of a loose-leaf versal application. Research on samplingnotebook, might be considered for purposes techniques is continuing, and the overallof updating, revising, and amending tested reliability of data in future years will besampling models. I propose the preparation progressively improved as it becomes possi-of a "cookbook of use sampling techniques" ble to apply statistically sound samplingthat would contain detailed instructions for techniques to an increasingly larger pro- implementingtestedand recommended portion of total recreation use. samplingtechniques.Thesesuggestions Yet none of the current sampling tech-would not be easy to implement, but I niques is without need for improvement, firmly believe that the importance of the and much remains to be done. Continuinginformation clearly warrantsa genuine effort is needed to design and test neweffort in this direction. techniciues and to improve techniques al- Hopefully, the brief description of the ready in use. In addition, there are severalForest Service RIM System will suggest, kinds of sites and areas for which no sam- especially to recreation managers and plan- plingexperienceisavailable.Sampling ners with large andcomplex holdings, other models must be developed and tested tosystems that will enable them andtheir cover the gamut of sampling problemsthatagencies to maintain a continuing descrip- exist. Because mechanical, electrical, andtion, with a satisfactory level of precision, photographic telemetry offers considerable of past, present, and future information and promise for recording several kinds of relations-hips between people, places, and hard-to-measure recreation use, improve- things.

References Bury, Richard L, and James W. Hall. TENDANCE ON SETS OF CAMPGROUNDS.A Pilot Study. USDA Forest Serv. Res. Note PSW-42, 1963. ESTIMATING PAST AND CURRENT ATTENDANCE Exp. Sta. AT WINTER SPORTS AREAS. A pilotstudy. USDA 6 pp. Pacific SW. Forest and Range Forest Serv. Res. Note PSW-33, 7 pp. Pacific Cordell, Harold K., George A. James, SW. Forest and Range Exp. Sta. and Russell F. Griffith. Bury, Richard L., and Ruth Margolies. 1970.ESTIMATING RECREATION USE AT VISITOR 1964. A METHOD FOR ESTIMATING CURRENT AT-

94 "77.7,,r777. ,..,..trrrni-rxxr77.7r .

INFORMATION CENTERS. USDA Forest Serv.Res. James, George A., and Gary L. Tyre. Pap. SE-69, B pp. SE. Forest Exp. Sta. 1967. USE OF WATER-METER RECORDS TO ESTIMATE RECREATION VISITS AND USE ON DEVELOPED SITES. Crapo, Douglas, and Michael Chubb. USDA Forcst Serv. Res. Note SE-73, 3 pp. SE. 1969. RECREATOIN AREA DAY-USE INVESTIGATION Forest Exp. Sta. TECHNIQUES: Part 1, A Study of Survey Method- ology. Mich. State Univ. Dep. Park and Recrea- James, George A., Peter H. Wingle, tion Resources. Tech. Rep. 6, 125 pp. (Available and James D. Griggs. as a reprint from University microfilms,$5.55.) 1971. ESTIMATING RECREATION USE ON LARGE BODIES OF WATER. USDA Forest Serv. Res.Pap. SE- Cushwa, Charles T., and Burd S. McGinnes. (in press). SE. Forest Exp. Sta. 1964. SAMPLING PROCEDURES AND ESTIMATES OF YEAR-ROUND RECREATIONUSE ON100 SQUARE Kovacs, T. J. 1970.SELF-ADMINISTERED PARKVISITORSURVEY M ILESOF THE GEORGE WASHINGTON NATIONAL TECHNIQUE. Canadian Outdoor RecreationDe- FOREST. N. Amer. Wildlife & Natur.Resources mand Study. Canada Nat. Parks Serv.Planning, Conf. Trans. 28 (1963): 457-465. Dep. Indian Affairs and Northern Develop., Cushwa, Charles T., Burd S. McGinnes, 23 pp., illus. and Thomas H. Ripley. Lucas, Robert C. 1965. FOREST RECREATION ESTIMATES AND PREDIC- 1964. RECREATION USE OF THE QUETICO-SUPERIOR TIONS IN THE NORTH RIVER AREA, GEORGE WASH- AREA. USDA Forest Serv. Res.Pap. LS-8, 50 INGTON NATIONAL FOREST VIRGINIA. Va.Agr. Exp. pp., illus. Lakes States Forest Exp. Sta. Sta. Bull. 558, 48 pp.,thus. Lucas, Robert C., Hans T. Schreuder, Elsner, Gary H. and George A. James. 1970. CAMPING USE-AXLE COUNT RELATIONSHIP: 1971. WILDERNESS USE ESTIMATION: A PILOT TEST ESTIMATION WITH DESIRABLE PROPERTIES.Forest OF SAMPLING PROCEDURES ON ME MISSION MOUN- Sci. 16:493-495, TAINS PRIMITIVE AREA IN MONTANA.USDA For- James, George A. est Serv. Res. Pap INT- ((in press).Intermount. 1966. INSTRUCTIONS FOR USING TRAFFIC COUNTERS Forest and Range Exp. Sta. TO ESTIMATE RECREATION VISITS AND USE ON DE- McCurdy, Dwight R. VELOPED SITES(revised). USDA Forest Serv. 1970. A MANUAL FOR MEASURING PUBLIC USE ON SE. Forest Exp. Sta., 12 pp. WILDLANDSPARKS, FORESTS AND WILDLIFE REFUGES. James, George A. S. Ill. Univ. Dep. Forest. Pub. 5, 48 pp. 1967. INSTRUCTIONS FOR USING TRAFFIC COUNTERS Thorsella. W. TO ESTIMATE RECREATION USE SIMULTANEOUSLY 1967. W ATERTON LAKES NATIONAL PARK VISITOR ON TWO NONCONTIGUOUS DEVELOPED SITES.Unpub- USE SURVEY, 1966: PARTII, WILDERNESS RECREA- lishedreport, available from RecreationRe- TIONAL use. Canada Nat. ParksPlanning,Rec- search Project, Southeastern Forest Experiment reation Res. Rep. 24, 57 pp. Station, Asheville, North Carolina 28802, Thorsell, J. W. James, George A. 1967.RECREATIONAL USEIN WATERTON LAKES 1968. PILOT TEST OF SAMPLING PROCEDURES FOR NATIONAL PARK. M.A.thesis,Univ. Western ESTIMATING RECREATION USE ON WINTER-SPORTS Ontario, 1967, 188 pp. SITES. USDA Forest Serv. Res. Pap. SE-42, 8 pp. Thorsell, J. W. SE. Forest Exp. Sta. 1968. A TRAIL USE SURVEY, BANFF AND YOHO Nk James, George A. TIONAL PARKS, 1967. Canada Nat. Parks Serv. 1970. DOUBLE SAMPLING, USDA Forest Serv. Planning, Recreation Res. Rep. 33, 57 pp., illus. FSH 2309.11RIM HANDBOOK(Sect.124.72). Wagar, J. Alan. Amend. No. 16. 1964.ESTIMATING NUMBERS OFCAMPERS ON James, George A., and Robert A. Harper. UNSUPERVISED CAMPGROUNDS. USDA Forest Serv. 1965. RECREATION USE OF THE OCALA NATIONAL Res. Pap. NE-18, 16 pp. NE. Forest Exp. Sta. FOREST IN FLORIDA. USDA Forest Serv. Res.Pap. Wagar, J. Alan. SE-18, 28 pp., illus. SE. Forest Exp. Sta. 1969. ESTIMATION OF VISITOR USE FROM SELF-REGIS- USDA James, George A., and Robert K. Henley. TRATION AT DEVELOPED RECREATION SITES. 1968. SAMPLING PROCEDURES FOR ESTIMATING MASS Forest Serv. Res. Pap. INT-70, 27 pp. Inter- AND DISPERSED TYPES OF RECREATION USE ON LARGE mount. Forest and Range Exp. Sta. AREAS. USDA Forest Serv. Res. Pap.SE-31, Wagar, J Alan, and Joel F. Thalheimer. 15 pp. SE. Forest Exp. Sta. 1969. -1.RIAL RESULTS OF NET COUNT PROCEDURES FOR ESTIMATING VISITOR USE AT DEVELOPED REC- James, George A., and John L. Rich. REATION SITES. USDA Forest Serv. Res. Note 1966. ESTIMATING RECREATION USE ON A COMPLEX INT-105, 8 pp. Intermount. Forest . & Range OF DEVELOPED SIM. USDA Forest Serv.Res. Exp. Sta. Note SE-64, B pp., illus. SE. Forest Exp. Sta. Wenger, Wiley D., Jr. James, George A., and Thomas H. Ripley. 1964. A TEST OF UNMANNED REGISTRATION STA- 1963. INSTRUCTIONS FOR USING TRAFFIC COUNTERS TIONS ON WILDERNESS TRAILS:FACTORS INFLU- TO ESTIMATE RECREATION VISITS AND USE.USDA ENCING EFFECTIVENESS. USDA Forest Serv.Res. Forest Serv. Res. Pap SE-3, 12 pp., illus. SE. Pap. PNW-16, 48 pp., illus. Pacific NW. Forest Forest Exp. Sta. Exp. Sta. James, George A., and Hans T. Schreuder. Wenger, Wiley D., Jr: and H. M. Gregersen. 1971. A 1969 PILOT TEST OF SAMPLING PROCED- 1964. THE EFFECT OF NONRESPONSE ON REPRE- URES FOR ESTIMATING RECREATION USE OF THE SAN SENTATIVENESS OF WILDERNESS REGISTRATION IN- GORGONIO WILDERNESS IN CALIFORNIA. (Proposed FORMATION. USDA Forest Serv. Res. Pap. PNW- for "Journal of Leisure Research.") 17, 20 pp., MIS. Pacific NW. Forest Exp. Sta.

95 MULTIPLE-USE MANAGEMENT FOR RECREATION IN THE EAST

by ROBERT L. PRAUSA, Branch Chief, Recreation Management, Eastern Region, Forest Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Milwaukee, Wis.

ABSTRACT. An overview of the complex management problems that confront the administrator of National Forest lands in the eastern United States, with emphasis on the conflicts that occur and will intensify as a result of the many demands for different kinds of recreation opportunities on National Forest System lands. The need to identify and measure the kinds of recreation opportunities these lands can provide is brought out, together with their relationships to lands of other ownership providing other kinds of recreation opportunities.

COMPLEXITY AND DIVERSITYA worker is not anxious to end air pollution characterize the Eastern Region of theif it also means an end to his job. The United States. Within each physio-affluent suburban dweller wants more and graphic province there are wide variationsbetter highways, not only to speed his in soils, topography, vegetation, water, andtravel to and from work, thereby giving climate. Such variations lead to great dif-him more time to recreate, but also to help ferences in patterns of land use and in thespeed him away from congested areas for mixture of manufacturing, mining, anda quiet weekend of solitudebefore hurry- commerce as well as the outdoor recreationing back to the city with its pollution, opportunities these lands afford. ulcers,noise,dentedfenders,nameless neighbors, and X-rated movies. The East is also characterized by a com- plex and diverse populace. The trend to- ward migration from rural to urban living THE FOREST LAND is perhaps greater in this region than any- Throughout the heterogeneous mix of where else. Certainly the East has greaterdevelopment and cultures lie the National life-style contrasts than any other sectionForests of the East. They occupy only 2.6 of the country. Every major city has itspercent of the land area in the region. affluent suburbs and its ghettos. Some of theTwenty statesare included within the rural countryside is made up of pleasant,bounds of the region, and 13 of them have prosperous farms just one drainage re-National Forest lands. One of the most moved from a "tobacco road." significant statistics having a bearing upon Obviously people living in these varyingthe management of these National Forests cultures have differing needs and wants.is that over half of the population of the The ghetto dweller is not nearly as inter-United States lives within this area (fig. 1). ested in opportunities for outdoor recrea- Almost every state within the region tion as he is in bettering his living conditions. owns and manages some forestland. Four Figure 1.Population centers in the Eastern Regionof the Forest Service. Each circle shows a population of at least100,000 people the larger the circle, the greaterthe population.

(Minnesota, Michigan, New York, andthese lands provide recreation opportuni- Pennsylvania) each have more than 1 mil-ties for the millions of people living in the lion acres, most of which is forested. To-area. gether with local governments, the states Over the years, the Forest Service has in the East control approximately 12 per-tried to be all things to all peopleespe- cent of the forested land. This comparescially in providing outdoor recreation. We with the 6 percent of forested landmakingfound a need for large and highly devel- up the National Forests.Nine percent, oroped campgroundsso we built them. We half again as much, is owned by forestresponded to the need for wilderness op- industries, but 70 percentthink of it,portunities to the extent we had lands with nearly 3/4 is in private ownership of tractsthe characteristics of wilderness. We have oflessthan 500 acres held by somedone our best to keep pace with the de- 2,000,000 different owners. mand for winter-sports activities. Power What these statistics mean is that thereboating surged in popularity in the late is a crying need for coordinated resource 1950's and 60's, so the Forest Service moved planning of all forested lands in the East.to satisfy demands forrecreation oppor- This is especially true when related to howtunities for power boating, water skiing, CL"Vert.1.-.rarton-

and related sports. The list ofrecreation merchandising has been particularly notice- activities people engage in on the National able in winter recreation activity participa- Forests goes on and on. tion rates. At the October 1968 North- eastern Snowmobile Conferencein Boston, Actually, the fact that National Forest the International Snowmobile Industry As- lands have such diverse characteristicsis sociation revealed that five states have 70 the main reason why they are found attrac- percentof theNation's snowmobiles: tive by so many people interestedin soMichigan, Minnesota, New York, Wis- many different kindsof recreation. consin, and Maine, in that order. Contacts with sales personnel for this industry reveal that the same proportion still exists; andif A TIME OF CONFLICT anything, sales rates for these five states are But we are rapidly approaching a timeslightly higher than in the rest of the of conflict between these varied interests. Nation. We are in the throes of conflict between the harvest of commodity resources and MULTIPLE USE the so called "social amenities" provided on The National Forests are managed under our wild lands. In speakingbefore a group the principles of multiple use and sustained of top-level Forest Service planners and yield to insure utilization of the various managers, Dr. Brad Hainesworthreferred renewable resources, in a combination that to multiple use as "the managementofwill best meet the needs of the American conflicts'.I think this is a very apt de-people, without impairment of the pro- scription. ductivity of the land. If we were to over- Certain kinds of recreation activity con- simplifythedefinitionofmultiple-use flict with the habits of wildlife; so recrea-planning, we could characterize it as an tion activities must be curtailed orad- allocation of resources to use combinations justed. Unrestricted clearcuttingconflicts by intuition, judgment, and physicalchar- with aesthetics and requires adjustmentsin acteristics ascertained by inventories. harvesting methods. And the list goes on. It is in the inventory phase that we find Hardly a management task can be under- the greatest deficiencies. Though wehave taken that does not result in a conflict with sound inventories of commercialtimber, one or more of otherbenefits or uses ofsoil surveys on many areas, andgeneral National Forest lands. locations of potential recreation-develop- Since the early 1900's major changes inment sites, there are manyserious gaps in the landscape of the East have beencaused our basic resourceinventories, especially by the construction and mining industries. capacities of the land to providedispersed New housing, water impoundments,air-recreation opportunities. This paucityof ports, highways, shopping centers,factories,data is serious and could contribute toin-. etc., have made substantialimpacts on the accuraciesinplanningor management forested and other rural lands in this highly decisions that are improper and irrevocable. concentrated area of population. Also, the As demands for products andservices region has more surface mining thanotherfrom National Forest lands increase, we regions. Yet the proportion of cropland find ourselves faced with what Dr.Marshall reverting to woodland is higher than any- Goldman of Wellesley Collegedefines as where else except in parts of theSouth. an "environmentaldisruption". Dr. Gold- Shorter working hours, greater affluence,man attributes partof our difficulty to the and improved transportation systemsallowfact that Americans have often been unsure more and more people toparticipate inof the goal they were pursuing.Some are outdoorrecreation. Theseparticipationseeking purity of air and water; some are accelerated through mer-concerned only about air; others onlyabout rates are further waterwithout understanding that the en- chandisingeffortsof manufacturers of sporting equipment, owners of resorts,andvironment must be considered as a coor- real-estitedevelopers. The influence of dinated whole.

98 1C4 /%1,711L,1T

In other words, the ecological sysiem ising to this drive, it is important for land self-contained. The output of a process managers to carefully plan all usesof wild- becomes the input of a subsequent opera- lands. In speaking at a recreation seminar tion. When one of the outputs is releasedin Spokane, Washington, last March, Re- in such quantities that it cannot be ab-gional Forester Jay Cravens commented on sorbed adequately as an input by otherhow the recent controversy over timber- processes, we would normally end up with harvesting practices on the Monongahela an environmental disruption.Avoiding such National Forest in West Virginia was a environmentaldisruptionsrequiresthe dramatic example of the changing attitudes greatest skill and perception inpracticing about resource development. He went on multiple-use management. to say that the most significantfeature of This brings us back to Dr. Hainesworth's this West Virginia experience was the way definition of multiple use being the man- the public "cracked our bureaucratic in- agement of conflict. I have alreadyreferred stallation," reaffirming their right to de- utilization mand action. And through this experience to one of the conflicts between sensitive to of a commodity resource and social amenity we have also learned that being public concern does not necessarily lead to values.In my opinion,these conflicts between the use of land by people forcompromise of professional expertise. On recreation and the harvesting of commodity the contrary, in most instances, it tends to resourceswill be temporary. They can andsharpen it. will be solved through more careful land- We must be concerned not only with use planning and byadopting techniques how commodity resources are managed on for harvesting commodity resources that forested lands in relation to the use of these are acceptable to thepublic. lands for social amenities, but also with the factthatfull development of National Forest lands and waters for recreation op- PEOPLE VS. PEOPLE portunities in the East may not be in the But there is another conflict that will bebest public intcrest. much more difficult to resolve. This is what I like to refer to as the people-versus-people conflict. It concerns the conflicts brought WILDERNESS about by growth and diversity of various recreation uses of wild lands. Bennie Swift There is only one small classified wilder- of the National Wildlife Federation said a ness in this regionthe GreatGulf in New few years ago, "The recreationist is rapidly Hampshire. The Boundary Waters Canoe overgrazing his pasture and is becoming a Area, although an element of the Wilder- greater menace than logging". ness Preservation System, is not a truewil- Rapidly increasing numbers of residentsderness in that motors have been in use are purchasing small acreagesin rural areasthere for decades and, even now, are per- to serve as weekend retreats fromnoise, airmitted on much of the area; and much of pollution, and the routine daily urban life. the area has been and is again being logged. Many professional and business people whoThere are no other tracts of National became interested in ecological develop-Forest land in this region having character- place a high valueistics that qualify them as potential wilder- ment of their properties Wilderness Act. on the amenities of thewoodland environ-ness as defined by the ment. This desire for a contrastwith the However, I believe that the majority of daily way of life is reflected elsewhere the populace in the East would be satisfied throughout the populace, and more andwith much less than a "pure wilderness more people are interestedin escaping toexperience". In writing in the October 1970 what the manager may term a "dispersedissue of Current History, Ken Davis de- environment". People want to get awayfined wilderness as a frame of mind. Re- from the visible effects of man's actions. gardless of the precise definition, in the This is what accounts for much of themind of the visitor these are still wilderness anti-timber harvesting feeling. In respond- experiences. With a few exceptions, the '14 tatr: PI I b. a 4, .1',VMP lc, VJP.110Alb, .111MIWhe1, eNvercarrourv umnua,..-

few remaining tracts of land havingtheists. Also, it will be important to planfor characteristics to provide this kind of rec-people's use of land and water toavoid reation experience are within theNational conflict or minimize it as much as prac- Forests of the East. It behooves us to pre- ticable. There are already examplesof such of the serve the properuse-capacity of such lands conflicts within the Eastern Region and not to automatically and carelessly re- Forest Service. spond to public pressure for more camp- One concerns the use of the PineRiver grounds, more boat ramps, more roads, andon the ManisteeNational Forest in Lower other improvements. Michigan. This stream attracts canoeistsof swiftly An example of one development thatI all ages because the current moves think would be a misguided effort tosolve without being dangerous, and the scenery the Southis very attractive. Furthermore,there are a recreation problem concerns lo- Branch of the Potomac River in the Spruceeight canoe liveries with 600 canoes Knobs-Seneca Rocks National Recreation cated along the upper reaches of the stream. Area. The stretch of this stream fromtheThe net result is that, on almost anyweek- Smoke Hole to where it leaves the Forest, end of the summer, the canoeing useof the is impossible for a near Petersburg, isextremely scenic andstream is so heavy it fine for white-water canoeing. The onetrout fisherman tofish it during daylight campground located in Smoke Hole canyon hours. This would not be too serious except mainly brown isliterally bursting at the seams everythat the Pine River produces weekend during the summer. Those who trout, which the avidfisherman seeks in obtaining a camp unit for the early morning or lateevening fishing are successful in hours, and the conflicts so far are notin- a summerweekend usually arrive by Thurs- day evening. surmountable. Now, it would be possible to solve this problem of overuse by developing addi- tional campgrounds along a road,down- stream. And these campgroundswould be afkakpolinws swe .r.. Ow la Cap kola Caw used just as heavily as the present onein Smoke Hole Canyon. But in my opinion, opportunities for a "quality recreation ex- perience" would be sacrificed throughsuch development. Another example where a response to demand for development could be amis- take is along the WancamagusHighway in the White 1Mountain NationalForest in New Hampshire. This is a scenicdrive that thousands of recrea- E attracts hundreds of MIS- NM* MAI I ISIMI ee. tion visitors each year, especially inthe fall when the leaves have turned color.There 41111 are now sixcampgrounds along the high- BE CANS way. It is close tobeing overdeveloped at axal I reWlirrloiroe the present erne. Anyadditional develop- Me es, IT:Inv 7,...1won,t"."74.0..r"". d. begin to erode away the dr sir. FF..4 ment will certainly .6.6 0.11 emeletiOw eia. %Odd. Iwarf.a. origmally AN._ .....410.11%. 14. scenic quality that this drive was rdhtottkli.:=1.46:6.1 designed to enhance. 0....(14, 4.14er.

OVERUSE It is also necessary to guard against over- Figure 2.No empties to returmjust throw use by hikers,cyclists, snowmobilers, in- 'em in the water or leave 'em onthe beach! discriminate campers, fnhermen, and canoe- Ads like this do not discouragelittering.

100 .1- Another example of people-versus-people mitted only on designated trails and ad- conflicts is in the Boundary Waters Canoejacent lakes, there was no evidence of real Area (BWCA). Many people go to thisconflict between various users of the area unique area expecting to have a wildernessor between this mechanized useand re- experience. Upon arriving there they findsource productivity.However, there is still not only hundreds of similar canoeparties, room for more refined studiesof the effects but motorboats and much other evidence of snowmobiles on the environment. of man's presence. The BWCA is one area A few people have expressed concern where the conflict of people versus people about timber harvesting by selection-system began over 40 years ago. cutting in overmature stands in Sylvania. Figure 2 shows an ad run by Consolidated However, one small sale was completed Can Corporation in Hunting and Fishinglate in 1970; and a person can now traverse Magazine in 1936, in which they extolledthis area and not even be aware that it has the virtues of beer in cans and showed how recently been cut. convenient they are because once used they Having viewed the status of Sylvania may be simply tossed away.Note that one during the past year, I am convinced that picture in the ad shows a man in a boatit is a fine example of management. There throwing the can into the water. Beginning are some things that,using hindsight, we this year, visitors to the BWCA were pro- would do differently if we could begin hibited from even having cans or glassagain. But none is reahy serious although containers in their possession. they are noted and are used in adjusting management of not only Sylvania butalso other areas. DILEMMA In the Sylvaniaarea on the Ottawa NEED FOR PLANNING National Forest, the Forest Service has been The problems are really complex. And faced with the dilemma of trying to satisfywhat about the solutions? Very simply, the on one hand the desiresof the preserva-answer is good planning.Furthermore, to tionists who want no development of theachieve good planning, there are two re- hand the local resi- area and on the other lated basic necessities:coordination with dents and other recreationists who wouldplans for states, other agencies, and private like to see full and complete developmentlands; and the gathering of better data. including roads, highly developed sites, resorts, etc. Our final plan of management Earlier I mentioned the great diversity was not intended tobe a compromise, but of land ownership in the Eastern States. All the result is an area where most recreationthese lands provide some form of recrea- visitors can satisfy their particular needstion for varying segments of the populace. without conflict with one another. Devel- Many of them are being developed to en- opment is concentrated alongthe northern hance recreation opportunities. Such devel- and western edges of the area (fig. 1), leav- opment on state, county,and municipal -itig the major acreage undeveloped except lands has accelerated rapidly in recent years for canoe-access camps, hiking trails, and as government appropriationshave become portages. This plan seems tobe workingavailable under the Land and Water Con- servation Fund Act, grants and loans from out well. the Department of Housing andUrban There are other confiicts that must beDevelopment, and similar programs. dealt with in the management of Sylvania, The recreation opportunities that lands and personnel on the Ottawa National in other ownerships can and do provide are Forest are doing a yeoman job of meetingsignificant, and the management of the these conflicts. The original managementNational Forest system must complement plan indicated that snowmobiling wouldbe permitted in the area. Many of the groups and not unnecessarily duplicate these op- who would like to see only nonmotorized portunities if the total recrcation demand use of Sylvania objected tothis. However, is to be met. after 2 years when snowmobiling was per- The conflicts between users indicate that

101 tr.'? forest acres are nonexpandable. What rec- source,includingmeasurementofthe reation should the Forest Service providequality of land and water to provide recrea- and for what people? Since the Nationaltion opportunities. Also, we simply cannot Forests have the little remaining undevel-do effective planning without some meas- oped forested lands in the East, it seemsurement of the capacity, both social and readily apparent that management effortsphysical, of these lands and waters to pro- should be directed toward maintaining thevide quality recreation. Optimum mix of capacity to provide the optimum amountproduction from all forest resources in any of dispersed recreation opportunities. size of ecosystem is not static and requires the best possible scientific management. First,as a general rule,developments The last ten years have provided more should be installed only to enhance thesemeaningful recreation research than ever dispersed recreation opportunities. Most ofbefore; yet these efforts are barely keeping the lands owned privately or by state andpace with the increase intraditional recrea- local governments are along the majortional activities, not to mention activities routes of travel or in the vicinityof citiesnot even contemplated 20 years ago.Mod- and towns. Consequently they lend them- ern technology is producing newforms and selves better to the development of recrea-means of recreation fasterthan research tion facilities for the transient visitor. Butcan provide data with whichtheland this is not the total answer, because all landsmanager can meet thesedemands for rec- obviously do not fit this convenient mold.reation opportunities. Therefore, the answer is coordinated plan- ning between landowners, analyzing the Snowmobiles, all-terrain vehicles,light- uses the lands are best suited toprovide andweight motorcycles, and similar recreation then, as the young folks say today, "gettingvehicles are causing conflicts that will re- it all together." quire carefully considered management de- cisions. Hovercraft arc on the horizon, and Second, we need better statistical andthey may be the recreation vehicle of the inventory data. We simply do not have anfuture. Yet too many of the decisions being adequate description and measure of themade today in relation to these new recrea- resources. In some areas thereis a goodtion pursuits are made on the basisof in- timber inventory; we are beginning to getadequate study and research. Wesimply a reasonably goodpicture of the wildlife population and habitat; a better soils in- do not have facts. ventory is under way, and waterquality is As the saying goes, "We've come along being pinpointedat least in suspectedpol-way, baby." Butrenewed efforts are neces- luted waters. But there are many gaps insary if we are to meetthe challenges ahead. the availability of resource data. The reassuring thing is that no oneis giv- ing up. This symposium and othersimilar efforts will help to make it possible forthe DATA NEEDED administrator of the future to meet prob- One of the greatest voids in availablelems and opportunities morefully assured data is a description of the recreation re-that his management will besuccessful. i.lk. ,.... ,.`i,,91-..` ,- :..' ',i,-.

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Characterizingthe t Tr ' }ATSfr Recreation User ,;Y '

Department of the Interior, NationalPark Service

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yfl THE CAMPER by GERALD L. COLE and BRUCE T. WILKINS, respectively Associate Professor of Resource Economics, Department of Agricul- ture and Food Ecowmics, University of Delaware, Newark, Dei.; and Assistant Professor of Natural Resources, Natural Resources Department, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

ABSTRACT. Camping is one of the fastest growing outdoorrecrea- tion activities in the United States. The role of public agencies in providing camping opportunities is outlined. A iirofile of socki- economic characteristics of campers is discussed, together with some of the reasons why they camp. Management implications are offered for public-agency personnel, basedupon current trends in the camping market and the decision about what kinds ofcampers should be attracted to public campgrounds.

RAPID GROWTH and change havemay increase to 173 million by 1980, a 78- been characteristic of many forms ofpercent increase (ORRRC 1967, 20). outdoorrecreation. Few activities have surpassed camping in rapidity of growth, absolute increase in numbers, and A PUBLIC CONCERN changes in equipment. One is tempted to add, "and in changes in the type of person Camping has some elements that we be- participating"; but time-series research inlieve make it particularly interesting when consideringtheinvolvementofpublic camping is too scant to permit that. agencies in outdoor recreation. One of In 1965 a national survey indicated thatthesehas already been notedcamping more than 14 million persons 12 years andequipment has changed radically in the older camp compared with fewer than 11past several years. million 5 years earlier (ORRRC 1967, 23). This 35-percent increase in 5 years sur- Years ago, the common camping equip- passed the rate of increase of most activi-ment was the tentbut no lon,ger. Today ties studied. The 14 million persons repre-in most large campgrounds vehiclestrail- sented 10 percent of the studied population ers,recreation vehicles,tent-trailers,or in 1965, and indications are that growthpickup truck campersare the most com- has continued. We believe that over 10mon form of shelter. With these vehicles percent of our Nation's population campedcome demands for hookups for water, this past year, and that this proportion willelectrkity, and even sewage disposal The continue to climb in the next decade. vehicles used and hookups desired have dramatically altered site facilities requested The Bureau of Outdoor Recreation sue-at campgrounds. This has impacted nearly Clthat substantially more camping willall public recreational agencies, for those one in the future. They suggest thatagencies involved in outdoor recreation the 97 million camping occasions in 1965have typically provided tent sites and tent

/0 los /10 1.1110 facilities. Thus changes in camping equip-campers at Boy Scout camps, his approach ment place unusually extreme pressures onwould be to study Boy Scout campers, not public agencies. all campers. One might consider the importance to This view can be extended to campers in the Forest Service or State Parks of similarless organized situations. Any organization radical changes that have occurred in ski-providing camping opportunity may de- lift design. Those changes have not had asvelop a unique clientele. If we view data great an impact on agencies, foronly oc-from the Northwest (Burch 1965; Burch casionally do you provide ski-lifts as partand Wenger 1967) or the Midwest (Brown of your recreation program. But histori-1969; Lucas 1970) or the East (Carruthers cally your agencies have provided not only1966; Roenigk and Cole 1968), we see the lands for camping, but also the facili-unique aspects throughout. It is this ac- ties; so additional pressures arise when newtivity, locational, and facility differential facilitiesareneededto meet changingthat Shafer (1969) highlighted in discussing equipment demands. the average camper. Another variant of camping from many other forms of outdoor recreation is re- SOCIO-ECONOMIC lated to equipment and "style" of camping CHARACTERISTICS OF CAMPERS the vast range of campsites that may be needed to accommodate the varying in- From camping studies in the Northeast frequentlyand elsewhere, a profile of camper charac- terests of people. This interest is teristics can be assembled. Some caution reflected in the equipment they take camp- must be used because most of thecamping ing. studies have been biased by being based Consider the range of opportunities peo-upon on-siteinterviews rather than on ple seek in camping compared with otherinterviews with campers at their place of recreation activities such as swimming. Itresidence. Thus the resource base of a is difficult to envision a range in swimmingparticular campground or other attractions areassufficientto encompass the rangein that area has influenced the typesof represented by wilderness campers usingpeople represented in the sample. natural materials for shelter to the person in a lavish travel vehicle with its own elec- Residence trical system, stereophonic sound, and tele- vision. This wide range in style of camping As a result of the increasing urbanization is rapidly revealed when one attempts toof the U.S. population, one would expect talk of "campers". to find a majority of campersresiding in It seems appropriate to identify whomurbanized rather than rural areas. However, we are speaking of when wespeak ofBurch and Wenger (1967) and Roenigk campers, or at least to identify those we areand Cole(1968)concluded that a dispro- excluding. A camper means one who camps,portionate share of campers reside in sub- specifically one who spends the night in theurban areas, and center-city residents are open or in a structure notclosed on allunderrepresented in the camping popula- sides, or in a structure moved at least twicetion. Place of residence has a high correla- a year. Thus trailers, renters,and those justtion with other socio-economic character- sleeping under the stars, users of lean-tos,istics; namely, income and occupation. As and other similar persons incorporate oura result, it is difficult toestablish a cause- view of "campers". and-effect relationship between residence and camping. We will focus only on the .unorganized camper in this paper.Campers belonging Another factor should be mentioned: to groups that providetheir own campsoriginal place of residence versus present such as Boy Scouts, private summer camps,place of residence.Persons who were and the like form a discreet groupingofbrought up in rural areas and were exposed campers best studiedthough examinationto outdoor activity have beenfound more of the group. If one wants to knowaboutlikely to be wilderness-type campers, ac- Wenger (1967),campersversusthe generalpopulation. cording to Burch and Carruthers (1966 ) and Roeniglcand Cole reporting on a ForestService study in the only an urban(1968), in comparative studies inthe Finger Northwest. Persons with Lakes area of New York,the Poconos in experienceduring their childhood were Mountains in be easy-access type campers;Pennsylvania, the Catskill more likely to New York, and in Delaware,indicated that thatis, they utilizecampgrounds located Thus the impact ofthe mean level ofeducational attainment along major highways. was more than 12 years.Burch and Wenger place of residence oncamping participation study, found with numerous factors. (1967), in a Forest Service is interrelated that 31 percent of themale campers had some collegeeducation, while only about Composition ofParty 16 percent of theState's adult male popula- It has long been assumedthat camping istion had attained thatlevel of education. activity, and recent studiesbearAlmost 27 percent of the camperheads of a family post-graduate work, outthisconclusion.Inthe Northeast,household had done Buxton and Delphendahl(1970) and Roe-compared with only 5 percentof the State's nigk and Cole (1968)found that over 90adult male population.Bond and Ouellette percent of thecamping parties werefami- (1968) reported that campersin Massachu- lieseither individualfamilies or familiessetts had ahigher level of educationthan camping with friends.The mean size of theamong thegeneral population. camping party rangesbetween four and Further analysis revealsdifferences in five persons. Thuscamping is primarily aeducational achievement among groupsof family activity among youngadults andcampers. In theForest Service study it was heads of households up toapproximatelyconcluded that educationalattainment was 50 years of age withchildren present in the highest among camperswho used both family. Nonfamily groupsof friends ac-easy-access andwilderness facilities, and counted for less than 10 percentof campinglowest among camperswho exclusively parties. used the easy-accessvariety. Roenigk and Cole (1968) found inDelaware that the Income educational level among campersin for- significantly higher than Campers tend towardhigher incomesested areas was among campers atseashore campgrounds. than the generalpopulation. Buxton and Delphendahl (1970), in astudy in Maine, Buxton and Delphendahl(1970) found one-half of their re-that 53 percent of therespondents had indicated that over per- spondents had annualincomes of more thancompleted 1 year of collegeand 37 $10,000. In studies inthe early 1960's incenthad graduated from4years ofcollege. New York and Delaware, overone-half ofOnly 5 percent ofthe campers in the incomes of more thansample had less than ahigh scbool educa- the respondents had similar to those $8,000. tion. These findings are derived in a nationwidestudy done for the Studies to measureincome differences Resources Review between groups of camperspreferring dif-Outdoor Recreation ferent types of facilitieshave shown thatCommission in 1962. there is no significantdifference in income levels. Thus preferencefor of facili-Occepation ties and areasforexample,tYrrestedarea A disproportionateshare of campers versus beach area orremote wildernesscome from amongthe professional-techni- versus easy-accessalong a highwayindi-cal categories andother raponsible posi- cates that there are noilicome differencestions, including managersand sales persons. between these groups. A person's occupationalstatus is closely correlated with haeducational level. Since educational Education campers tend tohave a higher level than the generalpopuhtion, this is to A pattern also isemerging with regard to Buxton and Delphendahl level of educationalattainment amongbe expected.

_ (1970) reported that in Maine 46 percentthe interest in the remote camping area is of the respondents were professionals oramong the age group 45 to 64. managers compared to only 25 percent of Persons with no children were propor- thatoccupational groupingamongthetionately under-represented among camp- adult male population. Campers who wereers. From among age group 25 to 54 the farmers, laborers, or service workers werepresence of childien in the family appears under-represented in the camping popula-to be an important factor in predisposing tion compared to the overall population. one to camping. Hypotheses may be estab- This may be related to minimal leisure timelished about the relationship of children in or income. the family and camping. Perhaps parents in Burch and Wenger (1967 ) found thatthis age group want their children to have farmers who camped were more likely tothe outdoor experience, whereas when the prefer wilderness areas whereas the per-children are grown or when no children sons with no rural experience were moreare present, adults participate in other forms likely to camp in the easy-access locationsof outdoor recreation activity and use sub- wheretherewere moreconveniences. stitute forms of lodging while on vacation Roenigk and Cole (1968) found a higherand weekend trips. percentage of professional, technical, and An important conclusion by Burch and managerial people campingin forestedWenger (1967) is the strong possibility areas compared to seashore areas. In thethat campers tend to shift from one camp- seashore area a significantly higher per-ing style to another during their life cycle, centage of craftsmen, foremen, and labor-and that perhaps the young to middle-age ers was found. family groups who prefer wilderness camp- ing may later change to convenience camp- ARO of Campers ing as they grow older. Participation in various forms of outdoor recreation activity is related to the age ofLongth of Vacation the participant. The Maine study (Buxton Length of vacation has often been cited and Delphendahl 1970) is illustrative of the as an influence on camping participation, age distribution found among campers. The because of its influence on -leisure time. age distribution of all persons included inHowever, Burch and Wenger (1967) found the sample indicated a relatively low pro-that shorter vacations were not particularly portion in the 13-to-24 age group, mosta deterrent to camping participation. In likely due to a high level of interest infact, campers with only 1 week of vacation otherrecreationalactivitiesamong thewere over-represented in their study, while young persons. Thirty percent of the camp- persons with 3 weeks or more of vacation ers in the Maine study were under 12. time were under-represented. Apparently Burch and Wenger (1967) concludedthe 2 week period of vacation was the most that married males in the age range 30 toprevalent, and camping participation by 44 were most over-represented in the sam-that :group was about as could be expected ple of campers compared to the male agein relation to the proportion of the popu- distribution of Oregon's population. Aboutlation. 50 percent of the married campers were in Bond and Ouellette (1968) and Roenigk that age group compared to only 34 per-and Cole (1968), in studies inle North- cent in the State. east, indiuted that campers tend to be very Age distribution also was found to bemobile; and even though they might have associated with type of camping in Oregon. to 2 weeks or more of vacation, they For example, campers 65 and over weremove about between campgrounds during over-represented in the easy-access camp-that time. Another influence in addition to ing areas, while campers in age group 30 orvacation time is weekend activity. The less were under-represented. Quersely,combination of weekend trips and mobile campers over 65 were under-representedvacation trips with moves between camp- among the wilderness campers, as most ofgrounds resulted in a median length of stay ?evrer5,... e!t-Itt

DelawareAmong current users there is ademand for of approximately 3 nights in the tables, and study and in the Massachusettsstudy, evenflush toilets, hot showers, picnic some type offireplace or access to a central though over 70 percent of the campers that may be enjoyed during were found to be onvacation. area for a fire the evening. Campers in general appear to berelatively WHY PEOPLE CAMP well satisfied with the facilitiesthey en- The reasons why people camp arecloselycounter and the particular typeof camp- associated with the type of camping areaground they find. Of course thisis heavily they choose and the experiencethey expectinfluenced by their decision as towhere to to find there. Burchand Wenger( 1967) camp, based uponprior experience or rec- concluded that campers whochose theommendations fromfriends who have wilderness areas desired to haveinterchangecamped at this particular location.Campers with members of their own camping partywere asked to indicatetheir preference for but were attempting toavoid associationprivate versus publicly ownedcampgrounds with other campers. In contrast,those whoin both theMassachusetts study and the chose the easy-access camping areas were Delaware study. In both cases campersin- in search of social interchange,which could dicated that they preferredpublicly owned be found in making newfriends fromcampgrounds. However, numerous reasons among campersin more crowded areas.were cited for apreference among either This helps to explain the apparent campertype of ownership. satisfaction with small and morecrowded Reasons most often cited in theMassa- campsites, which are oftenfound in privatechusetts study for publiccampgrounds in- campgrounds, versus the morespacious andcluded: (1) they were lessexpensive and often more inaccessible or remotesites lo-had more uniform rates;(2) they had cated in public campgrounds,including larger and well-spaced campsites,which National Forests and someState parks. minimized the feeling ofovercrowding; Roenigk and Cole(1968)comparedand (3) they hadprofessional personnel campers whochose the ocean-beach areasand exhibited a greaterdegree of excellence with camrrs who chose theinland forested relative to management andfacility main- areas. Theforested-area camper was more tenance. likely to choose the area for aweekend of Reasons cited for favoring private camp- relaxation while theocean-beach camper reservations could andgrounds included: (1) was there toenjoy fishing, swimming, be made, and the lengthof stay permitted other more active sports. was longer: (2)private campgrounds pro- The reason a person campsis also closely vided more luxury facilitiesand orgamzed associated with the facilitiesthat he expectsrecreational programs; (3)they had a to find. A definite patternthat has emergedfriendly or less regulatedatmosphere; and from studies by the ForestService in the(4) camperpreferencefor supporting pri- West, as well as numerousstudies in thevate enterprise wasalso noted. definite Northeast, indicates that there are Though persons in theDelaware study facilities that existing campers expectto if they are to befrequently stated a preferencefor public find in a campground campgrounds, the onlyavailable sites were happy with their stayand if dley are to campgrounds, so most increase their length of staybeyond 1 oroften in private campers inthat study used those camp- 2 days. grounds. Tops among the facilitiesexpected are swimming areas, eitherfresh water or salt water. Themajority of campers tend to MANAGEMENT IMPUCATIONS participate in some typeof swimming or is Though we find thesecharacteristics of other water-relatedactivity. Thus it interesting, we feel that evident that a campgroundneeds to becampers extremely have a widethe more importantquestion remains: How located on or near the water to the management of appeal to campers intoday'smarketshould these influence 115' campgrounds by public agencies? We. arepersons having powerwhen they support timorous in attempting to respond to thata proposal it usually wins (Wilson 1966). question because we do not have the man-They tend to be better educated upper- agement responsibilities so many of you do.income persons. To accommodate their This makes us particularly vulnerable to needs and interests, we would need accom- criticisms of being impractical, but has themodations for substantial trailers (paved advantage of permitting us to more easilyroadsand broad roadwayswithtrees raise what coukl be perplexing and dis-trimmed well back). Electricity and in- comforting questions. dividual water hookups would seem a pri- The first implication to managers wouldority item. Bathrooms should have flush seem to be that any kind of a campgroundtoilets, and hot showers would be desirable. will be used by some persons! We see asA boat mooring or a marina should be the most important management questionnearby; so should golf courses and a swim- not What do people seek from camping?ming area, preferably with a diving board but rather Why does your agency supplyand large beach frontage. These would camping opportunity?There could be seemimportantinprovidingdesirable many reasons. Indeed most agencies prob-camping sites for those in the power struc- ably have several objectives in mind whenture. establishingacampground.Beforean Perhaps an agency would be bold enough agency decides what sort of facilities andto say that their objective was to insure piogram will occur at the campground, itthat an opportunity for camping be made seems important to decide what purposesavailable for all people. If this were the they hope to achieve by providing campingcase, we would suggest that most of the opportunity. A number of possible pur-agencies' efforts would be directed not at poses exist. Let's look at a few of these andthe physical facilities but rather at poten- the potential management implications re-tial campers. Surely sewer lines, showers, sulting from these varied objectives. and paved roads do not seem essential in It is frequently suggested that campingmeeting the objective of providing camp- :3 provided by public agencies to offer in-ing opportunity for all people. If we want expensive lodging areas. If this were theto insure an opportunity for all people, we prime objective, a location nearheavilymust meet several criteria. We must have a traveled roads would seem to be indicated.site where one can camp; but more, we Facilities could be fairly rustic; privies andmust be certain that people know of this dirtroadswouldsuffice.Laundromatsopportunity and even more specifically, would be useful, perhaps necessary. know exactly where they can camp. Fur- Some agencies indicate not only inex-ther, we must be certain that people can pensive lodging as an important role but inget to the campground, and finally we must be azured they have the equipment neces- addition identify a rationale of permitting list we individuals to get closer to nature. If thissary to camp. If we reflect on this is a purpose, then certainly flush toiletsqtuckly see how few public agencies have would not be needed, but nature talks andactively attempted to meet the objective of trails would. Electricity would not beinsuring that an opportunity for camping needed, but interpretive centers would be be made available for all people. essential. Swimming pools would be a We know of no public land-manage- hindrance, but planting of wildlife foodsment agency that has made aserious at- would be of great benefit. tempt in this direction. By serious we mean A different objective and one seldomtheir having devoted extensive resources heard explicitly stated would be to pleaseand efforts to achieving the various com- the "power structure". No agency spellsponents noted above. Let's look athow this out as an objective; but to stretch oursome agencies do attempt tohandle aspects imaginations, let's see what we would do ifof this objective, and perhaps in this way this were an important objective. The wc can envision what a public agencymight power structure can bethought of as thosedo if this were their objective.

136 For illustration,look at the organized Where is the public agency that rents the Boy equipment at low cost or perhapsprovides camping groups. For example, families? Ap- Scouts of America haveinvolved millionsit frcc of charge to welfare They own lati,is proachcs to this are made by someagencies of boys in camping. How? lean-to's, or at leastidentify lands that scouts can uscthat provide trail-side shelters or for camping; thus they insurcthe oppor-but clearly this is not anadequate response also donc byto the nccd. We arc notarguing that this tunity. This, of course, is equipment to virtually all of thc agenciesrcprcsentcd atis thc best way to supply this conference. Further, theScouts exten- low-income families, nor that it is appro- of these facili-priate for thc agencies representedhere to sively publicize the existence if an agcncy ties and of their availability toScouts. Manydo so. We arc arguing that, Federal and State agencies, too,providesays they arcattempting to provide camp- extensive notification of theavailability anding opportunity for allpeople, such efforts location of thcir camping areas. would be a necessary aspect inattaining that objective. The Scouts, however, fini a particular have thc The objective actually selected as appro- problem in insuring that persons priate for an agency's campgroundwill in- opportunity to get to thecampsites. Most If our drive; and fewfluence most management decisions. Scouts are too young to objective is to provide low-costfacilities or areas arc close togood public transporta-opportunity for everyone, thcn veryclearly tion; so there is no way to get tothe camp- levelin fact one thisfees should bc set at a low ing area. The Scouts have overcome might argue that zero costwould be most particular problem by providing transpor- that very few buses, in otherappropriate. Note however, tation, in some cases through facilities would be provided,and these cases throughorganized car poolsparents In addition, recognizes thatwould be extremely rustic. driving boys. That agcncy some mcchanismfor rationing use of areas if thcy say they are going toprovide all with that it is awould very likely become necessary Scouts an opportunity to camp, these low costs. This mighttake the form sham, a fake, to suggestthis can be done Clawson (1968 ) for thoseof advanced registration. without providing transportation has suggested a numberof reasons why this members of the potentialclientele who have many bene- provide transportation.form of regulation might cannot themselves fits to the user. You may feel that this is not aproblem Attempting to implement anobjective of faced by the public agencies;but if so, it isproviding the opportunityfor camping to apparent that wehave not brought up thevirtually all people wouldpresumably gain important differences between campersandwidespread support from thepublic if our the general public. Fewpeople from wel-appraisal of attitudes commontodayis fare families are found atcampsites. Onecorrect. Elevatingdisadvantaged groups has could argue that this is becausethose peo-been identified as anappropriate govern- ple do not enjoy camping.We doubt thatmental activity. A wide vanetyof public anyone would bebold enough to makeprograms exist to carryout this function. such an unsubstantiatedassertion. Some of the programsfnr low-income groups woulddoubtless bc interested in What is quite clear is that manyfamilies, with land-manage- ghettos, haveworking cooperatively particularly from our urban ment agencies to seeif recreational oppor- no way ofgetting to pt..blic campsites. through there, theytunitiescouldbe enhanced Further, if they were to get judicious use of fundsfor equipment or would be unable to meetthe final criteria abovehaving thc necessarytransportation. we mentioned isthat some equipment. Again, the BoyScouts recog- Our general conclusion campers can beattracted to almost any nize that many segmentsof their public do particularly true if we equipment, so theycampground. This is not have the necessary increase the value received provide it through communalfashiontheare willing to owning tents or cookingby providing extensivefacilities and serv- troop or pack ices and yet charge anextremely low cost. gear. Wc believe thc morc important question isresponse to that question will be markedly not How do wc attract thc camper? butintinenced by the public, the supervisor, What camper do we wish to attract? Theand thc man on the ground.

Literature Cited

Bond, Robert S., and Gerald J. Ouellette. Carruthers. John Arthur. 1968.CHARACTERISTICS or CAMPERS tN MASSA- 1966. CAMPERS or nix rtnta LAW, POCONO cHusErm. Mass. Agr. Exp. Sta. Pub. 572. 23 pp. AND CATSKILL REGIONS. MS. thesis, Cornell Univ. Brown, Tommy L 141 pp. 1969. A nun- or rwix CITiES vsxas or THREEasu-son, Marion. MINNESOTA STATE PARES AND TWO MINNEAPOLIS- 1968. PimAtoxr mom. RANCH; me ntrxxstvar ST. PAUL MUNICIPAL PARKS. MS. report, Univ. MANAGED WILDERNESS. Amer. Forests 74 (5): Minn. 119 pp. 20-23. Burch, William R., Jr. 1965. THE FLATWORM OF CAMPING: RESEAROI Lucas, Robert C. INTO THE SOCIAL MEANING OF OUTDOOR RECREA- 1970. Una EVALUATION OF CAMPGROLNDS ON TWO TioN. Amer. J. Sociol. 70: 604-612. MICHIGAN NATIONAL FORESTS. USDA Forest Serv. Burch, William R., Jr., and Wiley D. Wenger. Rcs. Pap. NC-44. 15 pp. N. Central Forest Exp. 1967. THE SOCIAL OIARACTERISTICS OF PARTICI- Sta.. PANTS IN THREE STYLES OF FAMILY CAMPING. Roenigk, William P., and Gerald L. Cole. USDA Forest Sen. Res. Pap. PNW-48. 30 pp. 1968. A morn./ or DELAWASE CAMPERS. Del. Agr. Pacific NW. Forest and Range Exp. Sta, Port- Exp. Sta. Bull. 370. 14 pp. land, Ore. Bureau of Outdoor Recreation. Shafer, E.. L., Jr. 1967. Our000a atamAnott mums. 24 pp. U. S. 1969. THE AITRAGE CAMPER WHO DOESN'T EXIST. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. USDA Forest Serv. Res. Pap. NE-142. 27 pp. Buxton, Stanley F., and Johannes Delphendahl. NE. Forest Exp. Sta. 1970. CAMPERS AT LILT RAT STATE PARE-5CX30- Wilson, Evrett, K. ECONOMIC OIARACITAISTIal AND ECONOMIC IMPACT. 1966. SoCIOLOCT: Rum, aotts, AND ICELATEal- Me. Agt. Exp. Sta. Bull. 687. 28 pp. sups. 730 pp. Dorsey Press. Homewood, M.

1 HIKERS AND OTHER TRAIL USERS

by ROBERTCLUCAS, Principal Geographer and Project Leader inWilderness Management Research, Intermoumain Forest Range Experiment Station, Forest Service, U. S.Department of Agriculture, Missoulagont.

ABSTRACT. Trail users seem negkete4. Trail systerrs arelimited, largely relics of fire control rather than designed for recreation; and total trail miles art probably declining. On thcother hand. participation in various kinds of' trail-oriented recreation issub- stantial and growing. Most activity is for shortperiods of timc close to participants' homes. A varied and diffuse trail system,with an emphasis on opportunities nearurban areas, is needed. The re- search base for plani.mg needs to be strengthened-

PrHERE ARE MANY kinds of trail Earlier,the Outdoor RecreationRe- ions: hikers, horseback riders, bicy-sources Re!iew Commission(1962)stated: clists. motorcyclists, ski tourists, snow- "It is something of a tribute to Amer/CMS sham, snowmobilers, and all-terrain-vehicle that they do 2S much cycling and walking (ATV) ridersand there probably will beas they do. for very little hasbeen done to some others. Definitionsof "trail users-getencourage these activities, and a good bit, fuzzy. Some of these trail users spread outif inadvertently, to discourage therm" from trails into general cross-country travel Oppornmities for trail travel must be off trails, while others are found both on about as liallited relative to interest as for rural trails and on city sidewalks, and stillany major sort ofoutdoor recreation. othets use roads in addition to trails. There ate Only at little Over l00,000 miles (BOR 1966). What do we know about these users thatof trails in the United States could help us plan trails and trail systems? This is less than 1 yard of wail per US. How much use is there? What kinds of citizen, and only about 50 yards per use? What are the trends? What sortsofmac. Alaska aside. England andTtalres people paiticipate, and what are their atti- together have more miles of rural foot U.S. tudes about trails and trail use? paths and bridleways than the whole (Countryside Commission 1970).Most of the US. trails are relics of past programs, THE NEMECTIO INCER mainly fireprotection, rather than the product of any recreation planning. And, The more one studies the hiker and otherdespite the 1968 National 'Trails Spurn trail users, the more the word "neglect" Act (P.L. 90-543), there stall are few active seems to fit the situation.This is not tny programs to create trulyrecreational trails. feeling alone. President Johnson said inhis 1965 Natural Beauty Message:"The for- There Mt many advent trends. Total gotten outdoorsmen oftoday are those whotrail mileage in the US. is probably declin- mileage is hke to walk, hike, ride horseback,bicycle."ing. Over half of the US. trail

113 11 9 on National Forests, where trail mileage has Hiking, which was defined as "walking dropped over one-third since 1945 as roadsof a substantial nature in which a pack replaced trails and aerial fire-fighting tech-containingprovisions and/orshelteris niques led to abandonment of some trails.carried by at least onc member of thc Suburban and cxurbansprawl, limited-party." had almost 10 million estimated accms highways, new large airports.andparticipants 12 or older in 1965. or about otherland-use changshaveprobably7 percent of thc population in that age eliminated hiking opportunities. especiallyrange. The average participant hiked 5 onunofficialunmaintainedpaths.Thcdays during the year. places where I hikcd as a boy have become Two other related categories of foot shopping centers, homes, and barren flood-travel were also covered in thc survey. control dikes. Growing population pres-"Walking for pleasure" involved about 68 sures have resulted in many more"NOmillion people or 48 percent of the popula- TRESPASSING" signs. tion, with participants averaging 15 days Hiking may be neglected because it doesper year waltzing. "Wlking for pkasurc" not produce any income (Sargent1969) was defined as "any walk where thc pri- and because it is inconspicuous as a resultmary purpose is pleasure, which has not of being dispersed. In contrast, campingbeen hnc ludcd undcr hiking or nature walks and skiing are concentrated, conspicuous,and uhich lasted 30 minutes or more." and often 13roduce income_ Hikers also arc"Nature walks" were "walks for the spe- not as well represented byvoluntary orga-cific purpose of observing plants, birds, or nizations as arc many other types of rec-animals and often including the collection reationists. The hikers either tend to beof specimens." Nature walks had 20 million absorbed innationalwilderness-orientedparticipants, 16 percent of thc population; gmups or involved in hikingclubs thatand participants averaged 16 days in this promote a particular trail or region,suchactivity. it is impssible to add the partici- as thc Appalackan Trail.In either casepation rates for these threefoot-travel there is radically no national pressureforactivities because many of the same people hikingopportunitiesoutsidewildernessparticipated in two or all three. Occasions arCIS. can be added. however;and they total The neglect applies to research, also.about 1.4 billion for 1 year. There are only a lundful of stud\ies of trail None of the definitions of thrme activities usen or trails, and almost allof these con-specify anythinsteabout where or on what cern the traveler inestablished wilderness,kind of land activity takes place. A not the general hiker, horseman,and so on.substantial proportion of the hiking, per- Because research is so bilked, many of myhaps 10 to 15 percent, apparently takes remarks will be subjective judgments andplace in established wilderness in the N-- speculations. tional Forests or in the backcountry wilder- A national trails symposium has been an-ness of the National Parks, based on some nounced for June 1971, and will have beenrough calculations with agency use re- hekl by the time you read this. Perhaps it and another 15 to 20 percznt of all will kindle enthusiasm for trails andwill iking is on National Forest trails outside help overcome the neglect they nowsuffer.wilderness. The National Forests reported 6 million visitor-days of hiking for 1970, IltAlt U51 most of it outside wildernes. The 1965 Survey of Outdoor Recreation People were asked about the sorts of (DOR 1967), especially the unpublished de-occasions on which they participated in tailed information, is the main source ofeach activity, and this intonnation suggests estimates of participation. This survey cov-something about place. Most hilth (42 ered US. citizens 12 years old or older. Itpercent) VMS on 1-day outings from covered the summer period in depth, butwhich means it must he within a few hours gathered only limited data for the othertravel of where the hikers live. About 20 seasons of the year. percent of the Mon were squeezed into"a 11million people (8 fewavailable hours" (although thisraises BOR survey, over thc consistency of such percent of thc population)rode horscs in some doubts about each. brief hikcs and the definitionthat requires 1965, for an average of almost 7 days Horse ownership has been climbingrapidly a pack on thcback). Another 20 perccnt of trips and all over thc U.S. in recent years.Again, we the hikes took place on vacation of thc rid- 18 percent on overnight trips. know nothing about thc nature ing, how much is done onpersonal horscs, In two Michigan NationalForests, 40how much at riding academics, resorts, etc., percent of thc campersreported hikinghow much is on trails, in arenas, onsub- (which probably included muchof whaturban streem or on the back 40.Riding is the BOR called "walkingfor pleasure"),much more of a short-timeactivity than camp- and two-thirds of thc campers at hiking andwalking. "A few available grounds without trails nearbyasked forhours" accounted for 48 percentof the traits(Lucas 1970);so we should not un- rides. and 1-day outings coveredanother derestimate thc value of trails in areas more 28 percent. Most of thcriding must be Eunters distant from population centers. done close to home. Whereopportunities also make good use oftrails ( antes etal. camping. how-- Wilder 1969). exist for overnight horse 1964); James et al. 1969; ever, itis popular. It is common onthc We do not know how longthcsc hikes Nlichigan Hiking and Riding Trailfrom were, in time ormiles, or how many in-Lake Michigan to Lake Huron(Cajucom volved overnight camping.Obviously, most 1970)and, of course, it is common in most of them were fairly short, partof a day, western wildernesses,and perhaps predomi- and involved only a fewmiles of hiking.nant over hiking in afew. Even in designated wilderness, manyhikes million study of recreational Bicycling is also big business: 23 are short. An intensive riders (16 percent of thepopulation), and use in thcMission Mountains Primitive Most of this is on 1971) 21 days per participant. Areain Montana(Lucas etal. from home of all visitors leftcity streets, but vacations away showed over 80 percent accounted for 10 pereent ofthc reported the are2 the &Me daythey entered, al- trips estimates showedbicycling, and overnight recreation though pmvious official for 6 percent; so at least somebicycling 50 percent overnight use.Even much larger place .-,ut in the country wildernesses, which conjure upimages ofappears to take beyond the home neighbohood. 2-wcek pack trips, arc usedsubstantially for short trips, much more SO,relative to long There are no participationestimates, to trips, than is generallythought. my knowledge,for motorbike riders, snow- the Canadian mobilers,cross-country skiers, orother Two studies of hikers in National Forests National Parks in theRockies(Tborsellpossible trail users. The showed that around reported 2 million visitor-daysof snownio- 1967; Thom!! 1968) 1970. Equipment sales suggest 90 percent of alltrail trips (almost all bybiting in averaging 4substantialparticipation. There were re- hikers) were 1-day activities, snowmobiles as of Only 11 percent exceeded5 ported to be 600,000 to 5 hours. with 280,000 sold miles penetration. Eventhe overnight stays 1968(Baldwin 1969), for only I or 2 nights.In the that year(Briggs 1969);and by April 1970 were mostly million registered Three Sisters Wilderness, 80 percentof the there were almost half a snowmobiles in Michigan.Wisconsin, and visits(again, almost all byhikers) were only for a day(Wmger 1964).Hendee Minnesotaalone(Directional Marketing short wil-Co. 1970).Five hundred thousand motor- (1968)also reported frequent, (Anon. 1966). dernes trips to becharacteristic. cycles were sold in 1966 Minnesota (Minn. The predominance ofshort trips, usually A snowmobiTe srvitly .n fairly close to home, is even morecharac-Dep. Conserv. ; 970 jreported that almost pleasure and natureall snowmobiling wasday-use, averaging 4 teristic of walking for of the snow- walks than it is for hiking. hours per outing; 87 percent mobiling was in theparticipant'shon-g: The large amount ofhorseback riding is county, and 28 percentof it was after dark. surprising, at least to me.According to the

115 121 TRENDS IN USE evenly divided between males and females, but women and girls outnumber men and Something of a pedestrian renaissance boys by small to moderate margins in walk- may be developing, or at least somcdisen- ing for pleasure, nature walks, and bicycling chantment with the automobile. Pedestrian(BOR 1967). malls arc springing up in citics, and tempo- allthc rary closures of streets to cars havebeen Young people predominate in popular in New York. Tokyo, and else-unmotorizedaCtivitiCs.Participation drops where. sharply as age increases, according to the BOR survey (1967). For hikers, as onc ex- This renaissance is reflected in participa- ample, 19 percent of thc 12- to 17-year-olds tion in hiking and other similar forms ofhiked, 10 percent of thc 18 to 24 group, 5 recreation. Numbers of participants in thc percent of the 25 to 44 group, and only 3 1965 survey were compared to participantpercent of thc over-45 group.However, figures from a similar 1960 survey. During hikers on and around part of thc Long the 1960-1965 period thc 12-year-old and but hiking Trailin Vermont included substantially over population grew 8 percent, more older people (Sargent 1969).Bicy- by this group increased 26 percent, walk-cling and horseback riding plummet after ing for pleasure grew 57 percent (and be- thc tccns: riding drops from 24 percent for came thc leading typeof outdoor recreation horse- thc teens to 2 percent for the 45-and-over in terms of numbers of occasions), people, while bicycling drops from 60 per- back riding climbed 44 percent, and bicy- cent to 2 percent. clingsoared92 percent.Trendsare obviously going up rapidly for snowmo- Is this a reflection of declining physical biling, motorcycle riding, ski touring, andability? Only in small part, I think One so on; but there are nofigures. The skiing reason for my belief is thatwalking for magazines report a boom in cross-countrypleasure and taking nature walks, which skiing or ski touring; and thc outdoorand would bc physically difficult for only a few mechanics magazines reflect an almost ex-older people, also drop off rapidly. Part of plosive growth in snowmobiles, trailbikes, this decline probably is due to changing and various sorts of ATV's. interests and desires as a result of aging, Projections to 1980 (BOR 1967) showbut much of it is related to history rather 1965, than aging. The older people grew up in a that hiking grew 78 percent from different society. Opportunities to develop walking for pleasure 49 percent,horseback riding 44 percent, and bicycling 32 per-interests in many sorts of outdoor recrea- all recreation projec- tion were more limited than in recent years. cent. I would treat Work weeks were longer, travel was less tions cautiously. We do not knowenough less conunon, acceptable projections; but it easy, parks and so on werc now to make and most important, attitudes about leisure is clear that these activities aresubstantial, hare been growing rapidly, and art ex- and its use were more restrictive. d to continue to grow in thcfuture. Mueller and Gurin (1962) reached simi- lar conclusions for outdoor recreafion in fenwhile,Kectae thetrailsystems and open spaces necessaryfor theseactivities arc general, and presented data showing thc probably declining slowly. proportion of ixopleindifferent age groups who had learned toswim. Most young people knew how toswim; 73 per- VISITOR CHARACTERISTICS cent of- the 18 to 24class had learned, but in only 33 percent of the 65-and-overclass What sorts of people are most active who hiking and the other types of trail use?This knew how to swim. For all people stilldeclined information is important for making usecould swim, participation substantially with age, but only about half projections, for planning communications for the whole population. with potential users, for consideringpossi- as fast as it did blefees, and for evaluating needsand Some of the apparent effect of age may factors, desires. be due to its correlation with other Hikers and horseback riders areabout such as income. Income is related to par- ticipation only at lower levels for most ofhad almost twice as high a rate for naturc those activities for which we have data.walks. If we could unravel the interrelated There is an incomc threshold,anecessary social factors, race would probably turn minimum income; but beyond this level,out to have little or no associationafter participation rates arc fairly constant. The education, income, opportunity, and racial threshold seems to lic a little below national barriers had been accounted for. mcdian incomc for most activities. Horse- Education has a strong association with back riding is an exception; participationparticipation for all the trail-related forms rises steadily with incomc, reaching a topof recreation for which data Are available. of 14 percent for the $15,000 to $25,000 which leaves out the motorized users. More category. Horseback ridingis obviously education is associated with morc MOM eXpalsive thanwalking or hiking. tion in every case, and usually substantiaPar"cir- ly. Walking need cost nothing. and hikirTAll the wilcierness visitor studies show very itself very littleperhaps boots and a small high educational levels. pack. However, acCeSS tO Most hiking areas Education seems to bring out interests IS difficult Without a Cat. SOIOW income has and help people acquire abilities that lead some logical negative effect. to morc outdoor recreation activity, espe- Snowmobiles and ATV's in particularcially some of the simpler and more con- and trail motorcycles to a lesser extentarctemplative, environment-oriented activities. expensive, often more so than horses. How- Nature walks, for example, were partici- ever, the people in middleincome cate- pated in at four timcs as high a rate by gories apparently have the highest partici- college graduates as by people with 8 years pation rates, and snowmobiling seems toOr less education, and at MOMthan twice appeal largely to blue-collar workers (Di-the rate of high school dropouts. Even rectional Alarketing Co. 1970). Boaters also people with only a few years of college have this character, and boating seems toeducation had half again as high a rate as parallel snowmobiling somewhat as another high school graduates. Perhaps people who high-speed motorized recreation. art Mott CatiOUS about the naturalworld Data on the relationship of MCC to par-arc also more likely to continuetheir edu- ticipation are scanty. The 1965 BOR sur-cations, but I feel there probably is some- vey reported no importantdifferences inthing about the educational experience that rates between whitesand nonwhites forcontributes directly and importantly to bicycling or walking for pleasure. Whitesrecreational tastes.

Table 1.Pertent of population 12 or over that partpatesin hiking, and miles of public trail relative to area andpopulation, by U. S. Census regions Percent miles Miles ofMiles of trail trail per 100 per 100,0(10 Census region bilging' of trail: square miles PeoPles (rank) (rank) (rank) (rook) Northeast 8(3) 1,957(6) 2.9(3) 17(3) Middle Atlantic 5(5) 1,663(7) 1.6(4) 5(8) EastNorth Canal 8(3) 2,306(4) .9(6) 6(7) West Notth Central 6(5) 785(9) .2(9) 5(8) South Atlantic 3(9) 4,263(3) 15(5) 14(4) East South Central 6(5) 1,3(8) .6(7) 9(6) Wes South Central 6(5) 1,988(5) 5(8) 11(5) Mountain 14(1) 52,355(1) 6.1(1) 471(1) Pacific 10(21 32,027(2) 35(2) 117(2) Total, U. S. 7 98,437 2.7 48 'From loam or ammo, suramnota, BOR 1985. 'FromTRAMroaAMISOCA, DOR 1966. 'Based on 1970 census population reports.

23 Geographical factors arc also related totions should trails lead to? What kinds of participation rates. For most activities, par-users can share trails and what kinds need ticipanon rates arc a little higher for peo- to be separated? ple who live in metropolitan areas, in thc These relevant questions could bc an- CensusBureau'sStandardMetropolitanswered by feasible research. However, re- Statistical Areas (SMSA). An SMSA is de-search has been Iimited, and most of thc fined to include atleast onc city over questions cannot be answered satisfactorily 50,000. Horseback tiding is an exception,now. Even what good studies have been but the difference is small. conducted, the applicability of thc results Participation varies greatly from regionto different sorts of environments and dif- to region, also. For hiking (table 1) partici- ferent sorts of visitors is limited. pation rates vary from only 3 percent in All thc published hiker studies deal with thc South Atlantic region to 14 percent inwilderness situations, or at least substanti- thc Mountain Statm. It is impossible to un- ally wilderness environments. Similar pur- scramble regional differences in prcfcrcnccs poses show up in all thc studies, from thc from regional variations in opportunity. Adirundacks and White Mountains (Shafer Table1 shows large differences in public andMier.; /969)to the mountainous West trail mileage between regions, in terms of (Hendee a al. 1968; Univ. Calif.1962; trails as related both to arca and to people.Merriam 1963;Merriam and Ammons 1967 ) Thc Mountain States lead by far, followedand in thc Canadian Rockies(Tborsell 1967 by thc Pacific Coast, with thc Middle At-and 1968) despitethe variety of definitions lantic and Central States bringing up theand methods used in the studies. Aesthetic rear. Even if preferences were uniformvalues arc tops with hikers; the enjoyment regionally, participation would still vary asof scenery and contact with the natural a result of these disparities in opportunities. environment stand above exercise, socializ- However, four regiom that are less well-ing with othcr people. or specific activities supplied with trails than the South Atlantic such25 fishing. Therelation to the natural region have participation rates twice asworld is more an aesthetic, emotional, or high. Part of this may be related to socio-romantic link than an intellectual, educa- economic handicaps in this region and part tional relationship, although these are also to poor distribution of the trail opportuni- important. ties. A desire to temporarily get away from The Ncrtheast is relatively well-suppliedcivilization and its artifacts and social pres- and has a high participation rate. The Mid- sures alsoemerges fmm thesestudies. dle Atlantic and North Central areas are Simple trails without elaborate facilities are shorter on trails, but still have substantial preferred by most wildernessvisitors participation. (Hendee et al.1968). How much of this aesthetic orientation VISITOR ATTITUDES applies to hikers in nonwilderness environ- ments? Probably a good deal. The Vermont The objectives or motives of participants, study (Sargent 1969) showed similar char- their knowledge of opportunities, and their acteristics and attitudesbetweenhikers attitudes about resources, developments,there in a semiwild setting and visitors to other users, and policies and regulations areofficial wilderness. Furthermore, much of all potentially valuable for planning de-the wilderness hiking was the same sort of cisions. What arcvisitorsor potentialrather short day-use activity as hiking in visitors seeking? What sorts of trails would general. In addition, a great many hikers in meet different visitors' desires? What level areas that are not strictly wilderness prob- of development is appropriate in what situa-ably still perceive the environment 25 sub- tion? How easy or challenging should dif- ferent trails behow long, steep, rough,stantially wild. and so on? What sorts of country are most What about the unstudied walkers, bicy- suitable for trails, and what sorts of attrac-clists, motorcyclists, etc.? It is hard to even speculate. but that is about all we can do.established wilderness. Even in wilderness, Probably the walkers are similar to hikers. satisfaction is usually not reduced much by Certainly thc distinction between thcdefi- a few encounterswith other groups on thc nitions Of the two activities is blurred.Ex- trail, but loss of solitude at campsites does ercise might be more prominent as a pur- knock down satisfaction(Sankey 1511). pose for walking thanit is for hiking. I would speculate that thc mechanized trav- MANAGEMENT IMPUCATIONS elers arc less scenery- and nature-oriented, more interested inthe activity of riding The most obvious and general implica- thcir nuchincs as a game. anend itself, ortion is that a more effective, positive pro- conversely, in some cases moreconcerned gram of planning and managingfor trail with trail travel as a means of reaching a recreation is badly needed. Use and interest destination, usually- a fishing spot.Planners arc growing; both seem certain tocontinue need to know what the trail machine usersto grow; and opportunities arc notkeeping are seeking; it really is notobvious, and up, hut, on the contrary.probably arc such information has majorimplications foractually declining. Trail systems nccd and planning for these users. Minnesota snow-deserve more attention outside established mobilers expressed strong interestin loop wilderncks. Wilderness has its own special trails(Mir ii. Dep. Conserv. 1970),but theirrole to play, but it cannot and should not desires and use patterns needmuch more become almost the only place to hike be- study. cause of neglect of otherchances. Non- wilderness "trail recreation areas" could fill Which typos of users can sharetrails? a real void andprovide a great deal of OVer half of the hikers in three westernenjoyment for many people better and at wildernesses preferred not to meethorse- There arc obvious lower cost thai strict wilderness, and at men(Stankey 1971). the same time they could free w.iderness to problems in combining use byhikers and for which it has been horsemen, especially if use isheavy; and serve the purpose established. separation has advantages(Hendee et al. 1968; Wis. Dep. Nat.Rewurees 1969). The need is for eliversity and variety in However, a fa: more seriousincompati- trail systems (Wagar1966);long and short, bility exists between trail cyclesand hilcers hard and easy, close and far, and fordif- or horsemen(1iendee et al. 1968; Univ. ferent kinds of users. The greatest need at Calif. 1962; Merriam 1963;Clay 1966; Wis. this time, however, isforday-use oppor- Dep. Nat. Resources 1969).Some of my tunities, which mast be close to or even own research stillin progress also shows inside major population centers.This is this friction clearly. The newATV's al-clearly the kind of hiking and the sortof most surely wouldprovoke even morelocation where the demand is greatestand resentment from hikersand horsemen. The the opportunities are the mostlimited. Safe conflict appears one-sided; themechanized bicycle trails arc an important partof this travelers do not mind the foot- orhorse- need(Ritter 1966, Crafts 1966).The needs travelers, but the lattr -. dislikethe machine- of innercity people can be met atthis time users withfervor. 1 his severe friction wasin our history only byproviding oppor- also found between paddlingcanoeists and tunities close to home; thosecitizens lack users of outboard motors(Lucas 1964; the mobility to use more distant areasmuch. Lucas and Priddle 1964). Ingenuity will be needed to findplaces lititeacrublic land The reaction of skiers andsnowshoets to for trails near cities where lines and snowmobiles is unstudied; but,by exten- is available. Abandonedrail hostility toward power line right-of-ways,military reserves, sion, I would expect sharp have the machines and their usersby nonmecha- nm-down waterfronts, and so on may nized travelers. potentials. resist an Crowding on trailsis probably not a In contrast, I think we should of visitoroverfascination with grandioseNational serious problem either in terms thou- satisfaction or trail wear and tear, exceptin Trails running on for hundreds or

119 125 sands of miles. These trails have a monu- Impossible and even illegal imarn are 're- mental aura about them, and arc impressivesented, such as thc "sportsmanseated on on a map. They arc aninteresting part, but his trail cycle., shooting a prumably deaf only a small part, of the diverse system deer. Snomobilcs swoop gracefully through needed. They arc no substitute for shortera trouble-free Shangn-la wheretheress trails near population concentrations or for never a fence, no posted privateland, no trail networks in interesting places thatprotruding tips of growing trees, and no may be somewhat moredistant from popu- undernourished deer clinging precariously lation centers. Private lands, particularlyto life until spring rescues thcmagain. I timber-industry lands, are important in thisdo not sec why public recreation officials clan of opportunities, and could be more so. need to feel obligated to somehow accom- modal: anything thc engineers can concoct Hikcr trails should be designed primarily for scenic enjoyment, as an opportunity forand thc advertising men can misrepresent. aesthetic experiences. Seeking out views, Planning and building trails takes lots of vistas, the enchanting little spots, and en- time and money, but better information vironmentalvariety-should laredominate about trails could aid people to make better over engineeringefficiency. The shortestuse of existing opportunities,quickly and distance need not and generally should notat modest cost. Thc would-be hikers(and be followed. A good trail does not neces- related recreationists) aft often frustrated, sarily have to lead tO a specific destination; I think, by lack of knowledge of places to trails can be an end in themselves, although go. The problem is especially acute inlarge the opposite idea has been expressed(Brock- cities where there n littk public land avail- man19;9). Most trails can be fairly simple. able for hiking nearby. I think much more Incompatible trail uses need to be sep-could be done than lus been done to help arated more thoroughly.Low-intensitypeople find what is available. Maps and horse and hiker use can be combined many guidebooks are available for a few areas. places if necessary, but mechanical travelSome are listed at the end of this paper. I must be isolated if at allpossible(Griffith know of several good ones for VVestern 1969; Baldwin 1969; Anon. 1971).This States. Perhaps there already are trail guides makes the planning job bigger and raisesfor the environs of our major cities, but if costs, but I tlaink the benefitswould justifynot, I think they would be agood invest- the expense of separation. The alternatives Merit. seem to be either banningall mechanized Finally, more research is needed. The trail travel or allowing it to seriously impairmanagement programs for trail users are the satisfactions of all other mil users. sorely in need of greatly increased emphasis. Related to the need for separating mech-How .ver, even if funds and other resources anized wavelets, I think someone should sxtreiarovided, the uncertainties I have dis- challenge irresponsible advertising of trail here would inevitably produce major bikes, ATV's, and snowmobiles. Too many mistakes and inefficiencies. And yet these ads glorify conquering nature and ignore uncertainties are by no means imponder- the damage done. able and intractable puzzles. Researchers For example, one ATV ad says "Evenhave the ability to attack them produc- 2- to 3-inch trees topplejust driverighttively, but the research effort to date has through tzees and brush"(Anon. 1971). been too small and too scattered.The re- ATVand trail bike ads show wet meadowsturns for the Americanpeople from good being .ripped up, mud flying fromwheels research, which could be implemented in churnrg up trails, and slopes so steep they better planning and management,would are frightening beingmasteredand eroded.exceed the costs many fold.

120 Literature Cited Anonymous. Lucas, Robert C. 1966. Mtto matsROAR Off WITH A MARKET. BASS. 1970.Vita &VALI:ATM. 0F CAMPGROUNDS ON TWO Week. 12 Nov. 1966: 138-139. MICHIGAN NATIONAL MEM.USDA ForestSerf. Res. Paper NC-44. 15 pp., illus. Anonymous. 1971.LET'S HARNESS TOOK GO-ANYWHERE MA. Lucas, Robert C., and George B. Priddle. OTINES.Better Homes and Gardens 49 (1): 1964. ENVIRONMENTAL PEIICEPTVON:A COMPARI- SON or TWo WILDETIVIA5 AREAS.(Abstr.). Assoc. Baldwin. Malcolm F. Amer. Geogr. Ann. 54 (3): 428-429. 1969.THE SNOWMOBILE AND ENVIRONMENTAL (K;AUTY. Fig*Wilderness 32 (104) :14-17. Lucas, Robcrt C, Hans T. Schreuder, and George A. James. Briggs, Steve F, 11. 1971.WILDERNESs VIM ESTIMATION: A PILOT TUT 1969. A upon A: winat Isrovsrunr ts ocintr.. Int. Or SAMPLING PROCEDVIIE1 ON MOBRINmotintAnts Snowmobile Conf. Proc. :51-54. Albany, N. Y. ratstrnvtAMA IN MONTANA.USDA Forest Serv. Brockman, C Frank. Res. Paper INT-. - pp, illus. 1959. Rms....room vstOr WWI LANDS.346 ppMe.-riam, L C, jr. illus. McGraw-Hill, New York. 1963. ALAND LIE STEW( OF THEboaMARSHALL Bureau of Outdoor Recreation. WILDERNESS AMA Or MONTANA.Mont. Sane Univ. 1966. Tuns maAMERICA.USD1 Bur. Outdoor School Forestry, Forest andConSETT.Exp. Sta. Recreation Report of Nationwide Trail Study. Ball. 26. 190 pp. 155pp., illus. Merriami_ L. C, and R. B. Ammons. Bureau of Outdoor Recreation. 1967.TREvrnorast.ssCrta 1W THME MONTANA 1967. Our000s atom Anos Istvan. USD1 But AREAS.Univ. Alton. School Foresay. 54 pp. Outdoor Recreation. 24 pp., illus. Washington,Minnesota Depanment of Consaration. D.C. 1970.MtssrasarA stemma= sum?. Minn. Cajucom, Echlberto Za Irides. Dep. Conserv. 39 pp. St. Paul. 1970. Mionsios Simms*TRAIL LIM: Aaunt Muellert_Eva, snd Gerald Gunn. STEM' OF USER PATTERNS AND clIARACTERISTKE 1962. PAincomnott Tx outworn aratrAnosr: rAc- PhD. dissertation, Mich. State Univ. 149 pp. TOSS AFFECTING DEMAND AMONG AMER/CAN ARCLIS. Clay, G. ORRRC Study Rep. 20. 94 pp. illus. Washing- 1966. Tnt cnANCINGLANDSCAPE CIFstotwast. ton. Landscape Architect57(1): 33. Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Countryside Commission. Cornmission. 1970.RESEARCHmamma No.3.Countrysick 1962. OuncesRECREATIONinaAMERICA.ORRRC Coon. London. 246 pp., illus. Washington. Crafts, E.. C. Ritter, P. 1966. OCR Attie voaBICYCLE TRAMS.Trends in 1966. Tim in-astwzr.ii joy wnen Landscape Parks and Recreation 1(5): 435, 437, 452. Ai...hitct 57(1): 34-37,Mos. Directional Marketing Co. Sargent, Frederick 0. 1970. 1970SNOWMOBILE/I SLIMY.Upper Great 1969. I-1mm OW cAAnu.s Frusta. Univ. Vt. Agr. Lakes Regional Comm. Grand Rapids, Mich. Exp. Sta. Res. Rept MP 60, 16 pp. ffius. Bur- 250 pp. harm- Griffith, Richard E. Shafer, Elwood L., Jr., and James Mietz. 1969. ENVIRONMENTAL ("CALMS IMPACT. (ONO- 1969. Arsnienc AimEMOTIONAL EXPEZIENCESkArt mince Report) its hit Snowmobile Conf. Proc. mom srrnt smann.Ast wumastiss manes. Ensi- 1969: 54. raiment and Behavior 1 (2): 187-197, illus. Hendee., John C., William R. Canon, jr, Stankey, George H. Larry 13. Marlow, and C Frank Broularms. 1471. THE, Ptscartrosrs or wataumms stscucA- 1968. WitanustssVSER3 TN ITTE PACMCWarm- 1707tCARRYING CAPACITY: A GEOGRAPHIC MDT TN WEST-nina CHA1ACTEM1T1t3, VALVES, AND MAN- TIMBAL RESUME, MANAGEMENT.PhD. &ser- AGEMENT PREFERENCES.USDA Forest Serv. Rs. ration, Mich. State Univ. 351 pp. Paper PNW-61. 92 pp., illus. James, George A, Harold K. Cordell, -n11961ne.alIDERNEASRECREATIONAL VIC WATERTON Frank B. Banck, and Robert L. Dawning. LAKES NATTONALTAM Nat. Parks Serv. Dep. 1969.SMALLeCAM1 TIVNTING ON WESTERN /MIMI Indian Affairs and N. Develop. Recreational CAROLINA WILMUFE MANAGRATVIT ARAM.Part 2. Res. Rep. 24. Ottawa. Inwortince and we of forest roads and trails. I. W. Wiltnife in N. C. 33 (1): 10-12, illus. -n1:67.11teAe.ustSITIVET:BANFF AND YOITO NATKO1- james, George A, Frank M. Johnson, AL PARRS.Nat. Parks Serv. Dep. Indian Affairs and Frank B. Barick. and N. Develop. Recreational Res. Rep. 33. 1964. Rn.snoir strireritHUNTER AC4211 AND Ottawa. ozzat 'nu inWORM CANOLDIA.N. Amer. WildlifeUniversity of California Wildland and Natur. Resources Conf. Trans. 29: 454-462. Research Center. Lucas, Robert C. 1962. Wunainntss AsoIIECRRATION-A REPORT ON 1964. Tat anattAtIONALCAPACITY OFYrs on- mums, AND Polostims. ORRRC noo-stwooit ans. USDA Forest Serv. Res. Study Rep. 3. Outdoor Recreation Resources Paper LS-15. 34 pp., illus. Review Coma, Washington. Wilder, Edwin H. Wsgar, J. Alan. WALKING-TRAIL DEVELOPMENTS FOR HUNTERS QUALITY IN OUTDOOR itairAnox.Trends in 1969. 1966. ON THE NICOLCT NATIONAL FOREST.J. Wildlife Parks and Recreation 3 (3):9-12. Manage. 33 (4): 762-768. Wenger, Wiley D. jr. RESEARCH IN THE Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources. 1964. Vn.nuts-tss mcitrAnoN STATE TRIM STUDY. WiS. Dep.Nana. FOREST SUOICK. PART I. FifthBien. NW. WiVeler- 1969. A riess Conf. Proc. 31-35. Resources. 57 pp., illus. Madison.

Other References Park,Wheeling, Ashbaugh, Byron L. ParkE:xecutives.Ogleby 196$. Tun. rs.ANNING AND LAYOUT.Nat. Audubon W. Va. Soc. Inform. Edw. Bull. 4. NewYork. jennirwt. G. PLMX TO WALE. Readers Baldwin, Malcolm F. 1968. Lea SAVE 1971. THE OFF-110th FUME AND ENVIRONMENTAL Digest. 92 (5): 25-26, illus. Washington. Larson, R. D. quAuty. Conserv. round. Parks and Cook, Walter L 1966. Sal sovaixc sun.s. Trends in 1965. DIRE MAILS AND shamus.Amer. Inst. Recreation. 3 (2): 20-22, illus.

Trail GuideExamples Bonney. Potomac Appalachian Trail aub. Bonney, 0. H., and L G. GLIDE ID nix APPALACHIAN run. Susque- 1966. Borstal'sCUM. GRAND TETON NATIONAL 1966. illus. Houston. hanna River to the ShenandoahNational F'ark. PARR AND JACKSON'S TIME. 144 pp., 251 pp. Washington, D. C. Leissier, F. Rom's AND TRAILS or OLYMPIC NAT/ONAL 1965. 84 pp, ay.. Sterling, E. M. PAWL RCP. ed. Univ. Wash. Press. AND Seattie. 1967. Taws Amu TRAILS. CAMPS, snour HIKES SIEWPOINT3 IN THE NORM CASCADES A.NDOLYMPIA. Leslie, R. F. The Mountaineers, Seattle. 211 pp.,illus. 1967. limn TRAILS swim. Crown Publishers,New York. 278 pp., illus. Wills, Robert H. Marshall. Louise B. 1962. Hwy TRAILS: A GUIDE TO THE CASCADEcurt 1966. IOC num INwrstrax wAsuotamx. The Wm Seattle. Mountaineers, Se:rink. TRAIL. Univ. Wash. Press. 157 pp., MEMBERSHIP IN CONSERVATION GROUPS AND OUTDOOR CLUBS by JOHN C. HENDEE, Project Leader in Wild land Recreation Research, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, Forest Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Seattle, Wash.

ABSTRACT. Conservation groups and outdoor clubs are a major influence on natural resource policy through their articulate mem- bers. Different kinds of groups are describedtheir membership, representativeness, potential growth, multiple memberships, and comparability with other voluntary organizations.

CONSERVATION GROUPS and out- These questions cannot be answered pre- door clubs are a major influence on cisely, because little research has been done forest and recreation policy in the on conservation groups and outdoorclubs. United States. Their influence is reflected But there has been some study, the results in legislation such as the Wilderness Act, of which frequently contradict some com- new National Parks such as theRedwood mon beliefs about theseorganizations. and North Cascade, many administrative decisionsby governmentagencies,and growing public awareness of environment. VOLUNTARY ORGANIZATIONS Managers of public or private natural Conservation groups and outdoor clubs resources deal with conservation organiza-are what socialscientists callvoluntary tions at severallevels. Thus knowledge organizations. Observers of American so- about such groups can contribute to under-ciety have long marveled at our prolifera- standing them and can provide a healthy tion of clubs and organizations. Voluntary perspective to guide future contacts. organizations have been noted for several Several questions are pertinent. For ex-beneficial effects. They allow for expres- ample, how does membership in conserva-sion of a wide variety of interests and tion groups and outdoor clubs compare values while uniting their proponents; they with voluntaryaffiliations among other perform servicesto societyin, religion, segments of society? How many and whatscience, health and welfare, art, recreation, kindofconservation organizationsare education, and politics; and they influence there? What kind of people belong? How the legislative process in almost every field. many people belong? Howdo conserva-Through multiple memberships they cut tionists compare to other political groups? across related interests, thus reducingdivi- Why do people join conservation organiza- siveness in society. They help reduce ex- tions and what satisfactions sustain theirplosive social tension by providing outlets membership? Do multiple memberships offor expression, providing interaction be- a few dedicatedindividuals account for tween social classes, adding to the richness many groups? of our culture by preserving traditional

123 129 values,and teachingand implementing resource managers and conservation democratic processes. They provide a po-leaders were asked to estimate the number tential means of social control that can be of groups encountered in our studies of used (for good or bad) to communicate recreationistsinthePacificNorthwest, ideas and values to a largo part of society both grossly underestimated the number of in relatively short time. They have been existing organizations, although many over- noted as a major barrier to totalitarian mass estimated the proportion of recreationists movements and as a pathway to political they thought might belong to such organi- participation for disadvantaged groups. zations. National surveys suggest that between one-third and one-half of the population What Kind of Organizations? belong to voluntary organizations. Most Sociologists'frequently classify voluntary members of these groups tend to be higher organizations as either "instrumental" or than average in social class as measured by "expressive" groups depending on their education, income, and occupational classi- goals. Thisfits conservation groups and fication. outdoor clubs ratherwell.Instrumental In general, members of organized interest organizations pursue activities primarily as groups tend todiffer in some of theira means of achieving some goal such as characteristics from persons who do notpreservation of natural resources. For ex- join such groups. ample, Friends of the Earth and the Audu- bon Society. Expressive organizations pur- sue activities for their own sake, such as CONSERVATION GROUPS specific types of recreation; for example, AND OUTDOOR CLUBS Washington Duck Hunters and Washing- How Many Groups? ton Fold Boat Club. The diversity and scope of voluntary Although the instrumental-expressive di- organizations falling under the category ofchotomy refers primarily to organizational conservation groups andoutdoor clubsgoals, it may also describe the orientation have been illustrated by recent studies inof member participation. For example, the the Pacific Northwest. A survey of wilder- businessman who joins a country club to ness visitors revealed that about 400 re- improve business contacts is instrumentally spondents belonged to one or more conser- oriented in an essentially expressive organi- vation groups or outdoor clubs, represent- zation. And the "little old lady in tennis ing 218 different organizations (Hendee et shoes" may be expressively involved in an al. 1968). A subsequent survey of car camp- instrumentally-oriented conservation group ers and wilderness visitors in Washington activity. revealed membership by about 500 respond- Outdoor clubs typically promote con- ents in 258 different conservation groupsservation group activities, provide recrea- or outdoor clubs. The organizationsto tional facilities for members, and encourage which these recreationists belonged ranged the enjoyment of certain activities through from small activity-oriented groups (boat- educational programs. When these organi- ing, fishing, rock collecting, etc.) to largezations do become instrumentally involved national organizations(Sierra Club andin conservation, they typically focus on WildernessSociety)thatarestrongly protection of environments directly tied to issue-oriented. those outdoor activities sponsored by the As these data imply, the network ofclub. For example, kayak clubs support groups and clubs is extensive, far more so wild rivers; hiking clubs support wilderness. than most people imagine. Many observers Likewise, some instrumental organizations of theconservation movement tendto sponsor expressive activities to attract par- focus exclusively on large national organi-ticipation in their preservation endeavors. zations and forget the many small groupsFor example, a Sierra Club official explained who locally express preferences for par-to me that one purpose of their outings was ticular outdoor activities. When profes- to get people acquainted with wild country

124 , 1.t.19 so they will learn to love it and be willing resource managersinthat,while such to fight for it. groups are not representative of all recrea- Another typology of conservation groups tionists, they may often be so considered and outdoor clubs might be: (I) nationalby resource managers with whom they preservation groups, (2) regional and local have contact (Hendee and Harris 1970). preservation groups, and (3) outdoor ac- tivity clubs, which are usually local al- CONSERVATIONISTS though they may have national affiliations. IN AMERICAN DEMOCRACY National preservation groups continuously The accomplishments of conservationists promote environmental preservation on a are remarkable in view of the relatively large front, such as by the Sierra Club, thesmall portion of the total population in- National Wildlife Federation, and the Wil- volved. Opponents wail, "Never has so derness Society. Regional or local preserva- much been set aside for so few." 'Another tion groups tend to evolve by seeking perspective suggests that, like other social preservation of some specific area such as movements, a relatively few activists lead the North Cascades, the Three Sisteirs, and a passive but generally concerned public. the Alpine Lakes. The 2 or 3 million organized conservation- ists do constitutean important political Who and How Many? entity. They may be merely "the tip of the Studies indicate that many members oficeberg" and thus justify their activity in conservation groups and outdoor clubs liveterms of the long-range interests of the in urban areas and are well above average general public. ineducation,income, and occupational That organized conservationists and rec- classification. In general, education seemsreationists are not representative of the to most sharply distinguish membership: entire population is clear. However, they those belonging to instrumental conserva- do get public attention, are articulate in tion groups tend to be of a slightly highertheir appeals for public support, and have educational level than members of expres- demonstrated their political effectiveness. sive outdoor clubs. Members of such or- Certainly theirsocial class position con- ganizations are more highly educated thantributes to their effectiveness, but the more outdoor recreationists in general, who arecritical question is whether organized con- also well educated. One study of the Sierra servationists are any less representative of Club found that 75 percent had college the general population than other organized degrees and nearly 40 percent hold ad-political activist groups representing other vanced degrees (Devall 1970). In our twointerests. They probably are not, since the studies in the Northwest, 60 percent of the highly educated professional and manage- conservation group and outdoor club mem- rial segment of the public is .tbc most in- bers had college degrees and 40 percent had volvedinthepoliticaldecision-making done at least some postgraduate work. process on almost all issues. However, membersofconservation Despite the social-class bias of conserva- groups and outdoor clubs are not repre- tionists,they are,in one respect, more sentative of all outdoor recreationists. Werepresentative than many other politically determined that about 20 percent of the successfullobbygroupsinthattheir wilderness users and 10 percent of the carstrength is based on human rather than campers in the Northwest belong to eitherfinancial resources. Whereas most industries a conservation group or an outdoor club.lobby on the strength of money provided Based on these data and the known pro-as an essential cost of doing business, the portion of the public who are recreation-conservation movement issustained pri- ists, a very rough projection suggests thatmarily by individual contributions of time less than 1 percent of the total populationand money by members of instrumental belong to conservation groups or outdoorconservation groups. clubs (Hendee et al.1969). These con- Like few other movements in a demo- clusions have important implications for cratic society, conservationists have shown that a dedicated and vocal minority withcertain values and environmental perspec- relatively meager financial resources cantives are learned. If this experience results influence legislation. Although some earlier in an urge to do more to protect the envi- successes are notable,only recently hasronment and spread the value system, an Congress become highly responsive to theobvious sequel is to join a more powerful growing preservationist philosophy. In thegroupdedicated,notjusttoenjoying past,a few partisanalliances,extremely activities, but to crusading for protection limited financial resources, and an unwill-of environmental values. To the extent that ingness to negotiate handicapped the politi-itisvalid,this steppingstone hypothesis cal power of conservationists.Alliances suggests further growth among the preser- with powerful leaders in the Senate and vation-oriented groups from the widespread acceptance of political compromisehave outdoor clubs. been factors in recent legislative successes. On the other hand, Devall (1970) sug- Since the reputation of conservationists asgests that preservation activist organizations, "uncompromising Jererniahs" is well found-such as the Sierra Club, may recruit people ed, these recent successes may suggest anot previously associatedwith outdoor significant political awakening and increasedactivity clubs. These contradictory inter- appeal and acceptability of the movement pretations suggest that more study is needed. among politicians. The upsurge of interest on college cam- puses about environmental issues has no WILL MEMBERSHIP INCREASE? doubt had a substantial impact on organi- zational membership. Althou,ghaforest Some of the most interesting and impor-industry-sponsored essay (Benneth 1967) tant questions about conservation groupssuggests a deliberate attempt by preserva- and outdoor clubs concern the growth andtion groups to recruit college students, it maintenance of membership. How doesseems unlikely that thisis necessary. In a membership in such organizations comesurvey at the University of Oregon,90 about? What sustains interest? Will futurepercent of the students indicated"moder- membership increase? If so, in what typesate" or "great" interest in environmental of organizations? These questions have ob-issues and 75 percent indicated that they viousimplicationsfornaturalresource"strongly approve" of the environmental policy. movement. (Richard P. Gale and RileyE. The well-established correlation betweenDunlap. Attitudes of University of Oregon a membership in conservation organizationsstudents toward environmentalissues: and higher education implies that member- preliminary report. Dep. Sociology, Univ. ship will increase as educational levels rise. Oregon, Eugene. 7 p.) A correlation between membership and ur- Comparison of the environmental move- banization may hold similar implicationsment with the civil rights movementindi- forgrowth.Conservationorganization cates some similarities,particularly with membership is increasing. The Sierra Club, signs of evolution from politics to protest with membership now over 110,000, has among conservationists.(Gale, Richard P. grown about 20 percentannually for sev-From sit in to hike in: a comparison of the eral years. civil rights and environmental movements. Paper presented to Nat. Res. Sec. Rural In studying, how people get involvedSociol. Soc. Wash. 16 p. 1970.) Increasing with these .organizations, we interviewedfervor in the environmental movement may members of several groups and found abe a significant attraction to college stu- common steppingstone sequence from dents and some other potential members. membership in expressive activity clubs to membership in instrumental preservation Other significant attractions for mem- organizations. The evidence suggests thatbership are sociability benefits, which were membership in a politically active ioreser- interpretedasthe primary rewards for vation group is often preceded by affiliation membership in the Mazamas on the basis of withan activity-orientedgroup wherean extensive studyof this Oregon group 132 (Harry1967). For example,the study account for a large proportion of member- found that the Mazamas served as a mar-ships (50 percent) in voluntary organiza- riage market for about one-third of its tions in general (Wright and Hyman 1958). unmarried adult members. Among recreationists, we found that 40 No doubt there are other explanationspercent of the members belonged to two or for increasing and maintaining of member-more groups and accounted for 64 percent ship in conservation groups and outdoorof all memberships reported. The 15 per- clubs. Further research is needed to explaincent who belonged to three or more groups processes by which peopledevelop com- accounted for one-third of all memberships. mitment topreservationideologies andDevall (1970) found that only 21 percent affiliations with related organizations. of the members but 37 percent of the lead- ers of the Sierra Club wereactive in other conservation groups or clubs. These find- MULTIPLE MEMBERSHIP ings suggest that a small cadre of active Thereismultiple membership amongconservationists provides liaison and coor- conservation groups and outdoor clubs, justdination to the movement and a conspicu- as a relatively few persons(15 percent)ous appearance ofmultiple membership.

Literature Cited Benneth, _John E. WESTTHEIR CHARACTERISTICS, VALUES, AND MAN- AGEMENT PREFERENCES. USDA Forest Serv. Res. 1967.-1HE ENGINES OF PUBLIC OPINION.Amer. Forest. Prod. Ind. 12 pp. Pap. PNW-61, 92 pp., illus. Pacific NW. Forest Devall, W. B. and Range Exp. Sta., Portland, Ore. 1970.CONSERVATION: AN UPPER MIDDLE CLASS Res. Hendee, John C., Richard P. Gale, SOCIAL MOVEMENT: A REPLICATION. J. Leisure and Joseph Harry. 2 (2): 123-126. 1969. CONSERVATIoN POLITICS, AND DEMOCRACY. J. Gale, Richard P. Soil and Water Conserv. 24 (6): 212-216, illus. 1970. FROM SIT IN TO HIKE IN: A COMPARISON OF THECIVILRIGHTS AND ENVIRONMENTAL MOVE- Hendee, John C., and Robert W. Harris. MENTS. Nat. Res. Sect., Rural Sociol.Soc. Wash. 1970. FORESTERS' PERCEPTION OF WILDERNESS-USER 16 pp. ATTITUDES AND PREFERENCES. J. Forest. 68(12): Harry, Joseph E. 759-762, illus. 1967. MAZAMAS: WHO ARE WE? WHY DO WE BELONG? Mazama Yearb. 49 (13):71-74, illus. Wright, Charles R., and Herbert H. Hyman. Hendee, John C., William R. Catton, Jr., 1958. VOLUNTARY ASSOCIATION MEMBERSHIPS OF Larry D. Marlow, and C. Frank Brockman. AMERICAN ADULTS: EVIDENCE FROM NATIONAL 1968. WILDERNESS USERS IN THE PACIFIC NORTH- SAMPLE SURVEYS. Amer. Sociol. Rev. 23: 284-294.

Other Suggested Readings Hausknecht, Murray. Pennock, J. Roland, and John W. Chapman. 1962. THE JOINERS:A STUDYOF VOLUNTARY 1969. VOLUNTARY ASSOCIATIONS. 291 pp. Atherton ASSOCIATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 141 pp.Bed- Press, New York. minister Press, Totowa, N. J.

127 _Lfl9ulu HUNTER-FISHERMAN CHARACTERISTICS: FACTORS IN WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT AND POLICY DECISIONS by ROBERT S. BOND and JAMES C. WHITTAKER, respec- tively Associate Professor of Forestry Economics, University of Massachusetts Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management, Amherst, Mass.; and Assistant Professor,Universityof Maine School of Forest Resources, Orono, Maine.

ABSTRACT. Research on the characteristics and motivations of hunters and fishermen is examined for factors important to resource managers and policy-makers. Characteristics related to thelearning experience, time for participation, utilization and accessibility of the resource base, and the type of fish and game harvested are con- sidered. Motivational research, although inits infancy, suggests that participation in these sport activities has importance other than for only the taking of fish or game. In-depth motivation research is needed.

DURING THE PAST decadere- ones,usually showing some interesting searchers associated with land andassociations. Interesting to whom? As rec- water resources have focused atten-reation researcherscampers, hunters, fish- tion more and more on the so-calledermenwe haveoftenconsideredthis outdoor recreationist. Social scientists, espe- question. cially those with an undergraduate educa- In our association with the regional tech- tion in, or a casual acquaintance with, onenical committee that undertook a "Con- of these resources, have conducted research sumer Analysis of Forest-OrientedOutdoor to study participants in one of many activi-Recreation Activities in the Northeast," tiescamping, hiking, boating, skiing, hunt- (N.E.M. 35), we were called upon in the ing and fishing. The impetus for this workannual reports to indicate the usefulness of gained momentum with publication of thethe findings. This is always a challenge! OutdoorRecreationResourceReviewMost of us resorted to the rationale that the Commission's reports, some of which dealtinformation collected and presented about with participants in recreation in generalthe characteristics of hunters and fishermen and others with particular activities. isuseful to managers and policy-makers. Many recreation-participant studies haveWe have never been asked to prove this described the characteristics of the user incontention and would probably have a terms of socio-economic, demographic, anddifficult time to do so. The most objective participationcriteria.These criteriaare proof derives from requests for publica- analyzed by correlating a variety of de-tions. pendent factors against certain independent Future managers and policy-makers will benefit by studies similar to those done byage (Nash 1962): "A thousand case studies the N.E.M. 35 Committee because they ...of adults with recreation skills indicate serveasbenchmarks withwhichlaterthat many skills were established before studies can be compared. The value ofthe age of 6 and fully 90 percent before the data-assimilating research is sometimes ques- age of 14." tioned because it lacks depth. On the other We found that the average hunter was hand, it is well to know the situations exist-38 years old and the average fisherman 40. ing at various points in time and thereby toThe average number of years that they be able to predict trends. had participated was 21 and 26 years re- It may be presumptuous of usbecausespectively. This means that, on the average, we are not in the position of manager orhunters learned this sport at 17 and fisher- policy-maker, nor are we trained in re-men at 14. It should be pointed out that sourceprofessionsdealing directly withhunting is precluded by law before a cer- wildlife or fishto attempt an examinationtain minimum age, which varies by state. of the utility of knowledge about charac- We found that 84 percent of the hunters teristics of hunters and fishermen as theyand 93 percent of the fishermen partici- relate to management and planning. How-pated in these activities in their youth (16 ever, it may be helpful to those of you whoyears or younger). Hunters, on the average, are in this position to have our views onparticipated alone at the age of 16 years the manner by which we perceive how in-and fishermen at 13 years. formation from studies of hunter-fisherman These statistics seem to verify the early characteristics may be interpreted. learning experience contention. Admittedly, The research on which much of thiswe have no knowledge about those people paper is based was done by an interdisci-who no longer hunt or fish but did so in plinary group from six Northeastern Statestheir youth. To make these statistics rele- vant to the manager and policy-maker we New York, Maine, Massachusetts, Penn- characteristics sylvania, Vermont,and West Virginia. needtoconsiderother Economists with, agricultural and forestry known about these sportsmen. backgrounds, a rural sociologist, and a wild- One of these factorsis the source of life biologist comprised the committee. Thelearning. For both hunters and fishermen, diversity of outlook, although a deterrent70 percent were introduced to this activity to the development in one sense,provedby a parent or other relative. Asked if they valuable in the long run. Our views havetook any children under 16 years of age been influenced by varied disciplines. with them to participate in these activities during 1965, 27 percent of the hunters said they did and so did 59 percent of the fisher- CHARACTERISTICS men. Parents and relatives willundoubtedly have an increasingly less important role in Consider some of the characteristics about introducing children to hunting and fishing which information has been gathered, andas they reside in urban areas where.the what possible meaning they have to theresource base is not as easilyaccessible. policy-maker. The statistics we have are Another characteristic needs considera- from the hunter-fisherman phase of N.E.M.tion: the rurality of residence during child- 35 (Bevins et al. 1968). Four general areashood. Seventy-two percent of the hunters of knowledge about hunters and fishermen and 68 percent of fishermen said they spent are: the learning experience, timefor par-most of their childhood in a rural area. It is ticipation, utilization and accessibility ofdifficult to define a rural area, and obvi- the resource base, and type of fish andously there is some relativity involved in game harvested. the individual's interpretation. We can only assume that although ruralMassachusetts Learning Experience and Maine, as extremes, are diffierent, they A number of sociologists have showneach offered about the same opportunity to that, if people participate in a recreational hunt and fish. Seventy-eight percent of the activity, they learned to do it at a youngMaine hunters spent their childhood in a

129 rural area as compared with 67 percent of decisionsrelatingtomanagementand those in Massachusetts. For fishermen the policy-making. percentages were 72 and 62 respectively. Evidence for the apparent importance ofTime for Participation a rural background in youth as a commit- When and how much time is devoted to ment to hunting and fishing can be ob- hunting and fishing by today's sportsman? servedfrom MaineandMassachusetts About three-quarters of our respondents findings.Differentpercentagesof ruralsaid that they would like to hunt or fish backgrounds were found for persons inmore than they do, and that for hunters Maine who hunted only, 77 percent; fished (we did not ask fishermen) time was the only, 64 percent; and both hunted andmost frequently mentioned constraint; 79 fished,83percent.InMassachusetts a percent so indicated. similar relationship held true: hunted only, Approximately one-third of the respond- 58 percent; fished only, 54 percent; andents for each sport worked more than a both hunted and fished,69 percent. A40-hour week. Three-fifths had a Saturday- greater proportion of people who partici-Sunday days-off pattern, about one-sixth pate in both sports came from rural areasreporting only Sunday free during the nor- duringchildhood,thusindicatingthemal work week. Therefore, slightly over greater influence of a rural background tothree-fourths of the respondents had only the combination activity. weekends for these activities unless they The thing about rurality that is impor- lived close enough to the resource to enable tant is the number of people today who arethem to do so before or after work. living in a rural situation. 'The statistics are It might be assumed that because week- roughly the inverse of what were found forends are the predominant leisure time, an hunters and fishermen: today 70 percent ofeffort would be made by hunters to have the population isurban. Projections forSunday hunting legalized. Maine nonresi- future populations are that the Nation as adent sportsmen were asked if they favored whole will be 75to 80 percent urbanSunday hunting; 44 percent did, 28 percent within the century. did not, and 28 percent did not answer. Of Obviously thelearningexperiencein those not answering, 84 percent were fish- hunting and fishing is going to be consid-ermen only. Because Sunday hunting would erably different for much of today's youthfacilitateparticipationbynonresidents, and those of the future than in the past. greater support could have been anticipated The opportunity, and thus the desire to for this question. participate, in such sporting activities will Three-fourths of the hunters and fisher- encompass a diminishing segment of themen took vacations. These varied in length, population. Thisis already evidenced ina third having 10 days or less and a third the declining rate of increase in licensehaving 21 days or more. Important to the sales over the past few years in a state such vacation statistic is the degree of use of this as Massachusetts. If one assumes a desire tovacation for hunting or fishing. Forty-one maintain a high level of interest in huntingpercent of the hunters used some portion and fishing for the many benefits one canof their vacation to hunt, and 55 percent attribute to them, a method of fostering theof the fishermen used part of it to fish. The learning experience of urban and suburbangreater activity by fishermen is related to youth may be required. the concurrency of vacation time and fish- Until the present, fish and game man-ing season. Also, fishingis more closely agers and policy-makers have focused theirtied to activities enjoyed by families, such attention primarily on providing game andas swimming and boating. fish. They have emphasized the biological If a hunter uses vacation time to hunt, he aspects of perpetuating the species. Futurewill devote more hours to it than the fisher- emphasis on theuser of theresource, man will to fishing. The lesser time spent whether he hunts or fishes or simply ob-by fishermen probably reflects family in- serves, is going to require a reorientationin volvement and the need to share vacation time activities. The hunter may expresslyover the years in this pattern of owning a take a vacation to go hunting and not beresource base on which to participate is not accompaniee by his family. known. The more rural the hunter and These findings imply two things for thefisherman population, probably the greater resource manager. First, an effort is neededthe likelihood of resource ownership and to make the resource more readily available. thus the easier its accessibility. Second, applicable only to hunting, is that Itis evident from these statistics that where Sunday hunting is excluded, chang-private and public land ownerships are ing the law would provide more time toheavily relied upon as a base for participa- the hunter during existing seasons. In thetion. For the region, dependency on either six participating states, only Vermont andtype of ownership appears to be equally certain rural New York counties allowed it.shared. However, there is often some ques- Another way of achieving more timetion whether the sportsman knows who the would be to extend seasons, but this mightlandowner is. Taking into account the fact not be feasible on a supply-and-demandthat the Northeastern States are predomi- basis. In fact, simply permitting Sundaynantly in private ownership would place an hunting might require curtailirj the lengthinordinate pressure on the existing public of season in order to perpetuate certainland base for hunting. This implies the need game species. for additional public land or public sub- The question of satisfying demand issidization for management of private lands foremost; yet thereis good reason forto promote game availability. close regulation. Obviously the hunter can- A further implicationisthe need to not have all the time he would like to have maintain or improve access to private lands. for hunting. In Maine and MassachusettsStrangely enough, however, at the time of thereisperenniallegislation before thethis study, access did not seem to be a Legislature to permit Sunday hunting. It isproblem, because in the region only17 inevitablydefeated,butnot from thepercent of the hunters and 11 percent of rationale of perpetuating game species. the fishermen indicatedit as a problem. The most urban states had the most hunt- ing accessibility problemsNew York (23 Utilization and Accessibility percent), Massachusetts (21 percent), and of Resource Bose Pennsylvania (19 percent). This may indi- A relatively small proportion of hunterscate that with urbanization come greater (25 percent) and fishermen (20 percent) accessProblems and an increased need to belonged to a sportsman's group. Of thoseprovide for public sponsorship of the re- that did, about one-third were in a club orsource base. group that owned land for hunting or The availability of the resource base for fishing; and 20 percent of the hunters and participating in hunting and fishing activity, 10 percent of the fishermen were membersas well as other outdoor recreation, will be of clubs that leased lands for these purposes. an increasingly perplexing problem. Pro- Only 6 percent of the hunters reportedgrams are underway in many statesto using club lands to hunt. improve access. As an example, in Maine As might be expected, individual landand Massachusetts, boat-launching facilities ownership for hunting purposes was nothave been constructed in recent years. Also, extensive, although perhaps 24 percent is Massachusetts has an active program of more than would be anticipated. Twenty-land acquisition for game and fish manage- three percent of the hunters said that theyment areas. The free use of the resource hunted on lands owned by them in theirbase has been the accepted norm in the State. Leasing of hunting and fishing rightsUnited States throughout its history. Ex- by individuals was negligible. The owner-cluding recreationists from private lands is ship of camps for the primary purpose ofbecoming more common. The reason for hunting (15 percent) and fishing (8 per-posting land may be to control use rather cent) varied greatly among the States. than to preclude it. However, even the Just how much change has occurredhunter and fisherman, who are the ones excluded, supported the right of private Fish and Game Harvested landowners to prohibit these activities on We are not going to elaborate too much their lands-88 percent of the hunters andon the species of game and fish taken for 72 percent of the. fishermen. The rights oftwo reasons. One, there is obviously a high private land ownership are apparently wellcorrelation between game and fish sought entrenched and respected by these sports- afterandtheirindigenousavailability. men. Second, we begin to tread on even un- Hunting and fishingasa marketablesteadier ground than heretofore, because of activity is accepted by a fairly substantialthe biological aspects of game management. number of hunters (43 percent) and fisher- If one examines the regional and state men (38 percent), but not by the majority. statistics,the correlation between species The price that people are willing to pay foravailability and what is hunted or fished is a day of activity is not large. Only 5 per-apparent. Deer, small game mammals, and cent indicated a willingness to pay over $5upiand game birds (excluding turkey) are per day for hunting small game and fishinghunted most, in that order. Massachusetts and 20 percent over $5 per day for huntingand 'West Virginia are the only States big game. where deer is not uppermost in importance. The sixStates in which the regionalThe deer is replaced by upland game birds study was conducted produced some un-in Massachusetts and by small game in West expected contrasting findings about willing- Virginia. In Maine, upland game birds rank ness to pay to hunt and fish. The two mostsecond in importance. rural States,Maine and West Virginia, In popularity, the fishes in the six States were at the extreme ends of the spectrum. rank this way: trout, bass, panfish, pickerel, In Maine, 33 percent of the hunters wereand pike. In Maine, salmon ranks second; willing to pay to hunt, while in Westand in West Virginia bass outranks trout. Virginia 59 percent were. Thirty-three per-The ranking by states varies greatly. cent of Maine fishermen indicated a will- Are these really preferences? Biological ingness to pay, in West Virginia 50 percent. constraints act to inhibit changing species The reason for the differences in willing-compositioninmoststates;therefore, ness to pay between hunters and fishermenwhat is indigenous is preferred. Some steps in these States appears to be due to avail-can and are being made toward introducing ability of the resource base. Even thoughother species, but both the economic and land is plentiful in 'West Virginia, its use isecological impactsarebeing more fre- more restricted. Also, the availability andquently questioned. quality of bodies oi water for fishing in One thing that resource managers might Maine are far greater than in V est Vir-do is to change preferences of the con- ginia. In Maine, water bodies larger thansumershunters and fishermen. By making 10 acres come under the Great Ponds Act,available more native species, participation which requires that they be accessible toin the activity might be enhanced. The bag public use. Control of the resource baseor catch may not be the sole reason for seems to be a major factor in willingness toparticipation. To change species prefer- pay for sport hunting and fishing. ences, people manipulation is necessary, as An ever greater opportunity presentsopposed to managing fish or game. A little itself to market hunting and fishing; and inof the Madison Avenue advertising strategy some States, sale of these rights is alreadycould be helpful. The commercial fisheries common. The day may come when hunt-industry is attempting to change consumer ing and fishing on private lands will bepreferences by convincing people that pol- available only at a price. 'Whether the par-lock isas good as haddock. This is an ticipant or the general public pays isa attempt to alter demand to place itin policy question. Hance with supply.

4r,

, An entirely new facet in managing and the proof of manliness,the challenge of policy-making may be attributed to those locating the gameall of these things seem recreationists who seek game only for ob- to be an integral part of the actual experi- servation purposes.Their objectivesarc ence of hunting. The display of game and different from those of the hunter, so they the enjoyment of eating it is also important. create an entirely new set of factors to be Dr. Spaulding, a sociologist at the Uni- considered. versity of Rhode Island, has a complex analysis of information collected from 151 mail-questionnaire respondents who were MOTIVATIONS boat-using fishermen. In his conclusions hc Motivation and attitude research for this listssixattributesthatsportfishermen group of recreationistsand in fact for all would miss if they had to stop fishing: (1) forms of activitiesis in its infancy. Our Experiencing the euphoria-tension dynamic, association with this work has been minimal. (2) catching fish,(3)involvement with The study about hunters by Thomas A.some aspect of the environment, (4) inter- More (1970), as yet unpublished, was done persomf relationships and aesthetic attri- at Massachusetts under Bond's direction. butes of the environment, (5) experiencing Boat-using sport fishermen were studied in transition from one situation to another, Rhode IslandbyIrvingA. Spaulding and (6) personal integrative responses. (1970). Each of these researchers used a The point to be illustrated by very briefly different approach, and their findings arc citing these two motivational studies is that limited in scope but serve to illustrate a thereisobviously more to participation point. than killing game and catching fish. There In both of these studies an attempt was isa need for the resource manager and made to discover why people participated policy-maker to consider these things in in these activities and what they derived their decisions. The interpretation of thc from them. In both, it is our interpretation findings as they bear upon decisions is not that the enjoyment of participating was not conclusive, but thereisobviously some so much the success of the harvest but the important input information to be gained many experiences related to the activity. from this type of social-psychology re- Using factor analysis, More was able to search. isolate seven factors illustrating attitude motivations of hunters. He did this by FUTURE RESEARCH submitting 52 statements, attitude objects, to a rand-omly selected sample of licensed We haveconsideredtwoforms of Massachusetts hunters. The attitude objects hunter-fishermanresearch. One concerns were ranked by respondents on a .five-step the characteristics of present participants; scale from strongly agree to strongly dis- the other an attempt to look within the agree. A measure of consistency of re-person to uncover the whys and satisfac- sponse within theseven factor groups, tions derived from hunting and fishing. An termed an Eiginvalue, was used to measure attempt has been made to show how both the factor strength. The seven factors in forms have utilitytothe managcr and order of declining Eiginvalue are: display, policy-maker who is called upon to provide aesthetics,communality,pioneering,the the basics to participationresource base kill,familiarity, and challenge. Although (environment) and commodity (fish and the Eiginvaluc may be a poor measure for game). ranking importance,it can serveas an Future research can be greatly enhanced indicator. by the decision-maker telling the researcher What his findings seem to indicate is the what it is that he feels needs to be known importance of the things associated with about hunters and fishermen. The NEM. hunting. Showing off guns, the enjoyment, 35 Regional Committee, initsplanning, beauty, and tranquility of being in forest contacted State fish and game agencies and and field, the communality of associates, asked for assistance. Some was provided, the escape from everyday responsibilities, but probably not enough.

Y',19 A follow-up question to accomplished lends itself more readily to an examination rcscarchshouldbe:do managers andof demand than a free-use participatory policy-makers find it useful? There are twocommodity. worthwhile reasons for doing this research: it provides a norm for later studies, and it Ili-depth research into the motivations should have currcntusefulness to thoseand attitudes of huntcrs and fishermen is having responsibility for resource manage- needed for a better understanding of the ment and policy-making. values thcy place on participation. The Futurc research should be valuablein surface is just being scratched in this re- providing inputs into the decision-makingsearch field.It is imperative that the re- proccss. We need to build some models source specialist contribute his knowledge and collect data that will help this proccss. to the social scicntists doing this research. Wc need to know, first, what is needed,Better still, professional resource personnel rathcr than simply going out and collecting who areso inclined can become social a lot of information. scicntists and, having backgrounds in both Rcscarch in studying people is even more fields, can contribute to a greater degree complex than controlled experiments. Athan thosc researchers having knowledge marketableandconsumable commodity of a single discipline.

References Bevins, Malcolm I., and others. TIME ASSOCIATIONS IN OUTDOOR RECREATION AND 1968. CHARACTERISTICS OF HUNTERS AND FISHER- EDUCATION. in TRENDS IN AMERICAN LIVING AND MEN IN SIR NORTHEASTERN STATES.Univ. Vt. OUTDOOR RECREATION. ORRRC Study Rep. 22: Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 656. 76 pp. 157-180. More, Thomas A. 1970. MOTIVATIONAL ATTITUDES OF LICENSED MASS- Spaulding., Irving A. ACHUSETTS HUNTERS. Univ. Mass. Dep. Forestry 1970. VARIATION OF EMOTIONAL STATES AND EN- and Wildlife Manage. M. S. thesis. 49 pp. VIRONMENTAL INVOLVEMENT DURING OCCUPATIONAL Nash, J: ly B. ACTIVITY AND SPORT FISHING.UniV. R.I. Agr, 1962.1HE ENLARGING ROLE OF VOLUNTARY LEISTJRE- Exp, Sta. Bull. 402. 78 pp.

140 THE SKIER: HIS CHARACTERISTICS AND PREFERENCES by WILLIAM A. LEUSCHNER and ROSCOE B. HERRING- TON, USDA Forest Service, respectively Economist, North Central Forest Experiment Station, St. Paul, MMn.; and Recreation Resource Analyst, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ogden, Utah.

ABSTRACT. Skiers are young and becoming younger, with in- creasing proportions of unmarried and female skiers. Many are students and roughly half of the remainder earn their livings as professionals (doctor, lawyer, teacher). Skiers have higher-than- average incomes. Most skiers never go away overnight to ski and seldom travel great distances. Forty percent of the skiers have skied 3 years or less. Day skiers ranked proximity as the most important reason for skiing at a particular area. The physical quality of ski slopes (not including snow quality) was ranked second by the day skier and first by skiers planning weekend and vacation trips.

SKIERS ARE such a small part of theduced student subscription rates. However, total populationnot more than 2 per-wherever possible we used Pitts' data be- centthat itisdifficult to collect acause they are original. sound sample. Consequently, few publica- The comparison of data from surveys tions contain original data about skiers,made hi different regions in different years particularly skiers distributed over a largecauses a problem because differences among geographical area. In this paper we willthe surveys may be due to interregional draw primarily upon the only three sourcesdifferences, or may be due to year-to-year ofregional skierdata:Sno-Engineeringchanges in skiersskier population trends. (1965) for the Northeastern States in theEven more disconcerting in making com- 1967-63 and 1963-64 seasons; Herringtonparisons is the unknown influence of dif- (1967 ) for the Western States in the 1964-ferences due to sampling procedures and 65 season; and Leuschner ( 1970) for theanalyses. We tried to isolate interregional Midwestern States in the 1968-69 season.differences and population trends by infer- ence and by substantiating evidence where- Surveys by Ski magazine in the 1964-65 should and 1967-68 seasons were reported by Pittseverpossible,butthereader (1968). But as Pitts pointed out, these wereremember that many statements depend surveys of subscribers, so they probablyheavily on the authors' judgment. were notentirely representative of the average skier in the 'UnitedStatcs. For SKIER CHARACTERISTICS example, one would expect a higher per- Most skiers are young. About two-thirds cent of high income and student slciersof those studied are 30 years or less and a because of the subscription cost and re-fifth to a third 18 years or younger. These Iii Figure 1.Agedistribu- Figure 2.Years educa- tion of skiers by region, tion of skiers, by region, inpercent.(N.R. = no in percent. response.)

100

90

80

13 10 uj 60

50 2

30

20

10

NORTHEAST MIDWEST 0 (1962-63) (19889) NORTHEAST WEST MIDWEST (1982-63) (1984'84) (198869)

REGION (SEASON)

Figure 3.Skier occupation by region, in percent. 100 IRESPONSE -` it:sq. N.1).tV1. i 1 OTHER .4 44.0x4V;ie. $. .. 90 .; 415 0 V.I.kil'.::,4 KiliegltMHOUSEWIFE lic!:tl " ; ki - ., '.:1/444.1):''' MANAGERIAL 80 . , ??.14,...114. MICLERICAL ,, 1 1 I ., TO R.., U1 I c. 119A'PROFESSIONAL W 60 .Wis.. v..., t,-, Q.

.0 ..+.6.:-.11.4 , , j 50 e 'Y.::: 1 22 ve,....,,..,4 ,q. pl t290 41 , ..ri.4 340 .,t.st .';

)= 4 s . ;1,vii li t)30 52 ,1 STUDENT rtl414/410. r ',I 20 $ ...ii.li., ..i. r fk% "" "r i , 'r.4) 10 i - i 1

0 NORTHEAST WEST MIDWEST (1962-'63) (1964-'65) (1960-'69)

136A 1. proportions should be even highcr becausemore females. But Pitts( 1968 )in the new- the studies did not include skiers under 12est study, notcs an increase of about 5 or 13 ycars old. Skiers arc either youngerpercent. On balance, there seems to be a in the Midwest than the West and youngertrend toward more female skiers. in the West than the Northeast, or the The followinggeneralcharacteristics population has atrend toward youngcremerge. Skiers are young, and onthe skiers(fig.1). A trend toward youngeraverage becoming younger. Most arc un- skiers is consistent with the national trendmarried. Thcrc may be a trend toward a toward a younger population, thc apparentgreater proportion of females. A large per- decrease in the education level (fig. 2), andcentage of skicrs are studentsover half in the increase in the percentage of studentsthe Midwest. Skiers have higher incomes (fig. 3).A populationtrendtowardthan the average citizen, and, except for younger skiers was also noted by Pittsstudents, roughly half earn their livings in (1968). professions (doctor, lawyer, teacher), im- The indications that skiers are young and plying higher-than-average educational becoming still younger arc supported by level, our general observations of the sport. Skiing Past use patterns may help us predict is an active sport; it requires greater en-how skiers will act in the future. In both duranccand stamina than many otherthe Western and Midwestern studies it was

popular forms of outdoor recreation, andestimated that about 1 percent ofthe it is potentially hazardous. All these charac-regional population skied, the percentages teristics usually appeal more to teenagersin individual states ranging from 0.1 to 3.1 and young adults than to older persons. percent. Thus the number of skiers in the The proportion of unmarried skiers in-United States is not likely to exceed 1 or 2 creased from about a third in 1964-65 inpercent of the national population. Both of the West to about two-thirds in 1968-69these studies showed that attendance grcw in the Midwest (table 1). Pitts( 1968 )alsonearly 20 perccnt per year during the last mentioned a shift toward unmarried skicrs.decade, but projections indicate a diminish- The proportion of unmarried skiers in theing rate of growth. Northeast may bc duc to young unmarried Both studies showed that residents of the people bcing attracted to the large popula-study-area states accounted for about 85 tion centers for social and occupationalpercent of the days skied in the study area. reasons. Although nonresident skiers do not account In all three studies the skier was found tofor a significant proportion of the total be more affluent than the median in hisskiing for either region, they are a signifi- region of the United States; in most casescant influenceinsome states,suchas his income was 25 to 30 percent higher. Colorado. There was an increase in the proportion One questionis:what kind of skiing of female skiers between the Western andtrips were taken? Between 80 and 90 per- Midwestern estimates. The oldest studycent of allskiers took either single-clay reported 38 percent females in the North-trips, weekend trips, or a combination of east.which contradicts a trend towardthe two (table 2). In other words, most

Table 1.Percent of skiers by region, sex, and marital status

Region Married Unmarried (season) Male Female Total Male Female Total Northeast (1962-63) 40.3 59.6 West (1964-65) 47.0 15.0 62.0 13.0 30.0 Midwest (1968-69) 21.4 14.3 35.7 32.1 31.1 63.2

137 143 Table 2.Percontage of skiers taking various combinations of trips, Midwest and West Year Day Weekend Day. and No (region) only only weekendOther response 1968-69 (Midwest) 58 15 17 7 3 1964-65 (West) 46 13 23 18 0

skiers never go away overnight to ski, andways in thc years between thestudies; those who do seldom go for more than 3location of ski areas in relation to popula- nights. tion centers; or, in the case of vacation trips, to the Midwesterner traveling East A single-day tripisdefined as one in which the skier travels to the ski area andor West to ski. returns home the same day. A weekend At the time of the surveys about 40 trip is one in which the skier is away frompercent of the skiers had beenskiing 3 home at least 1 night but less than 4 nights,years or less, and almost three-fourthshad for the primary purpose of skiing. A vaca-been skiing 8 years or less (fig. 5). More- tion trip is onc in which the skier is awayover, these figures arc amazinglyconsistent from home 4 or more nights for the pri-over all the surveys. mary purpose of skiing. There is a large difference between re- Skiers generally are not willing toor dogions in the number of days skied per skier, not have totravel great distanccs to dothe Northeast reporting an average of 17.7, their skiing (fig. 4). The Midwestern skierthe West 10.3, and the Midwest5.7.There travels farther than his Western counter- is littleadditionalevidenceindicating part. This may be due to improved high-whether this is an interregional difference

DAY TRIPS WEEKEND TRIPS ALL TRIPS

MIDWEST WEST MIOWEST WEST MIDWEST WEST 100 movm

75

25

Figure 4.Percentage of resident skiers traveling by auto, by one- way distance, class, and type of trip.

,. Figure 5. Numberof ness, were ranked next.Inadequate service yearsskiedat timeof facilitiesand overnight accommodations survey, by region, in per- were ranked fourth andfifth, followed by cent. skier preference for cable versus ropelift 100 r..N. R. iy ' N.R. 1314. .1, N.R 8 : facilities.Operators rankedcrowdedness 1215YRS: 2 15 YRS 215 YRS ' 90 variables higher than skiers did, and cable .47 kW!. A Z9-14 facilities lower. ao V,3 h n )4 h.--,914 1. inter- .- . .,.'13:, The reader should use caution in it (51-140 .1:.:tk,s' .;,:if 4,,, Xr AA 'A preting these results. For example, thelow 70 fo,41:15; Y 4. price of tow and lift tickets may not at- 60 ii) v 14-13 tract a skier, but a highprice may drive IMP:4 q4.4 ,14 )0,,./ ek him away. Also, advertising may not con- 50 lop., !N, 7 $r1' / vince a skier to attend a particular ski arca, 40 but it may be important to informhim of

1- the days and hours the arca is open orof 30 events of special interest,such as discount

20 , if,4 evening ski schools. Finally, these results h gi)r , fk, ,...4 r 9.- do not show why the skier goes skiing on a 10 ,,,, particular day, but why he goes to a par-

1. . 1: ticular ski area. 0 MIDWEST NORTHEAST WEST (1982-63) (1984 -65) (1968 -.am Although the Northeastern and Western studies did not include questionsabout motives,the Western studycontained comparable expenditure data, which may indicate skier interests (table 5). The con- or a populationtrend. We suspect, butsistency in the percentage distributionsof cannot prove, that the 17.7days per skierskier expenditures between theWestern reported for the Northeast may be theand Midwestern studies is alsonoteworthy. result of the weighting systemused in Expenditures for lift tickets constitute analyzing the sample. about a quarter of the average daily ex- penditure for all skiers and aboutone-third SKIER PREFERENCES of that for the day-skiers. Skiers are ap- In the Midwestern study, skiers wereparently willing to pay for thequality of asked why they skied at one area insteadofthe slopes and the tow and liftfacilities another. The day-skiers rankedproximitythey use, both in the West and theMid- as the most important reasonfor siding at awest. The moderateexpenditure on after- particular area. The physical qualityof theskiing entertainment also seems to support ski slopes (not including snowquality) wasthe moderate ranking that skiers gaveit on ranked second by the day-skier andfirst bythe motives question. Ontheother hand, skiers planning weekend or vacationtripson-site eating, drinking, and lodgingplaces (tables 3 and 4). were ranked low, butaccounted for a high Cable lift facilities were consideredde- percentage of expenditure.This may be The day-due to the monopoly positionof a ski area sirable but clearly less important. reflect the skier next considered low ticketprices andselling food to skiers or may the area's reputation amongother skiers.importance of off-site eating,drinking, and The weekend-vacation skierconsidered thelodging facilities. area's reputation, the expected amountof These findings may be substantiatedby crowding, and after-ski entertainment. those of Echelberger and Shafer(1970), the Operators of ski areas were askedwhatwho used factor analysis to examine factors limited attendance at their areas.relationship between several variablesand first byannual attendance at 26 ski resortsin north- Weather variables were ranked and New York State. operators as limitingattendance. Inadequateern New England and not enough ski-They found that, in a bad snow year, at- tow and lift capacity the ad- able area, both of which relate tocrowded-tendance was positively related to Table 3.-Motivesfor choosing ski areas for single-day trips, in the Midwest,1968-69 season (In percent) Importance of motive Motive Sum of First SecondThirdFourth Fifth 1-3 Closeness to residence 44.7 15.9 11.4 6.5 4.6 72.0 Physical quality of slopes 26.9 20.5 14.1 7.8 3.1 61.5 Presence of cable facilities 5.9 17.2 16.1 14.1 6.5 39.2 Low price of tow and lift tickets 3.5 13.8 13.2 7.0 7.2 30.5 Area's reputation with skiers 6.3 7.9 9.6 7.6 9.0 23.8 Expected amount of crowding 2.5 7.9 11.7 9.1 8.6 22.1 Reputation for after-ski entertainment 1.4 4.8 4.3 4.6 5.4 10.5 Other 5.6 3.1 1.3 .6 .4 10.0 Advertising 1.1 1.5 3.8 3.7 6.7 6.4 On-site eating, drinking, and/or lodging facilities .6 2.6 2.8 4.7 7.2 6.0 Number of other ski areas in vicinity 1.4 1.2 1.7 2.4 1.9 4.3 No motive mentioned - 3.6 10.0 31.9 39.4 13.6 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 300.0

Table 4.-Motivesfor choosing ski areas for weekend or vacation trips, in the Midwest, 1968-69 season (In percent) Importance of motive Motive Sum of First Second Third Fourth Fifth 1-3 Physical quality of slopes 54.5 17.0 6.5 6.9 3.2 78,0 Presence of cablefacilities 4.4 19.2 19.6 9.9 6.2 43,2 Area's reputation with skiers 13.9 9.4 7.4 9.7 5.8 30.7 Expected amount of crowding 1.8 10.8 16.6 11.5 7.9 29.2 Reputation for after-ski entertainment 5.6 12.2 8.3 4.8 8.2 26.1 On-site eating, drinking, and/or lodging facilities 2.0 9.5 9.3 8.2 8.1 20.8 Advertising 5.5 4.2 5.8 4.8 4.2 15.5 Closeness toresidence 53 4.9 5.2 6.7 5.8 15.4 Low price of tow and lift tickets 1.8 3.2 9.1 6.1 8.8 14.1 Number of other ski areas in vicinity .9 5.2 4.1 4.9 5.0 10.2 Other 4.3 1.8 1.7 1.0 .9 7.8 No motive mentioned - 2.6 6.4 25.5 35.9 9.0 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 300.0

Table 5.-Skierexpenditure by region, typeoftrip, and item (In percent) Average for all trips Single-day trip Weekend trip Item Midwest West Midwest West Midwest West (1968-69)(1964-65)(196849)(1964-65)(1968-69)(1964-65) Lodging and meals 28.3 27.9 17.6 13.4 38.0 33.7 Lift tickets 24.1 23.8 34.9 35.9 16.6 20.5 After-ski entertainment 8.5 11.0 8.0 7.4 9.7 14.0 Transportation 16.5 18.7 15.8 22.5 15.5 15.9 Other' 22.6 18.6 23.7 20.8 20.2 16.0 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 'Includes equipment rental and repairs, lessons, package plans, and other miscellaneous items. 71111M1111101

vertising budget. In a good snow year, Stated skier piieference, average distanccs attendance was posirively related to miles traveled, and thc large proportion of of intermediate trail(posi.iblya quality single-day ski trips all indicate the im- factor), was negatively rdatcd to travel portance of locating a ski area near popu- timc, and was also reiatee. to some con-- lationcenters.The trendtowarda pound variables includingthose two al- younger skier population,if continued, ready mentioned plusp.trcent of slopes may further decrease the distances trav- rolled and packed ar.d the number of ski eled andincrease theproportion of instructors. Data averaged for the 2 years single-daytrips.The development of showed positive relationships with advertis- snowmaking equipment makes rural loca- ing and a positive relationship with distance, tion for snow much less important. which leveled off as distance increased. Slopes and trails should be varied, inter- esting, and challenging within their re- IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERS spective difficulty classes to meet skier Whether new ski fireas should be built preferences for high-quality ski slopes. or existing ones should be expanded is a If there is a trend toward fewer days complex question, beyond the scope of this skied per season (or if a ski area is in a paper. Wc assumed that the ski-area or lower use region) it may be appropriate recreation manager wished to provide as to investigate ways of increasing annual much skiing pleasure to as many skiers as use per skier. This will more fully utilize possible and did not consider questions of fixed-cost items (to the extent overca- nct welfare maximization or cost. The find- pacity exists) and could help the private ings of these studies pose several implica- scctor increase profitability. tions for managers. In all likelihood thc total skier population The large proportion of day and week- will grow as the population grows dur- end trips implies that managers of new ing the ncxt few years, and attendance or existing ski areas should re-examine may double in thc next 5 to 10 years. plans and programs depending on vaca- This may indicatc a substantial future tion trips because the vacation market is demand, particularly at lower cost public relatively very small. The area managers may decide to either emphasize or de- a reas. emphasize vacation skier programs. (This The large population of skiers with only statement applies only to the proportion a few years experience, combined with of vacation trips. It may be that increas- skicr dropouts, indicates that a substantial ing numbers of skiers will offset a low or part of the skier population will continue decreasing proportion of vacation trips.) to have only a mod.erate degree of ex- pertise. This implit.sthat many slopes These are merely some of the implica- should be in the beginner and intermedi-tions,andtheyare directedprimarily ate categories and that good ski schoolstoward publicly owned areas. The con- areneeded.Further,ifattendancecerned and imaginative manager will think reaches projected levels, the number ofof others. For example, the decreasing age novice skiers should increase. There isof skiers should decrease the relative impor- probably an opportunity for some skitance of after-ski activities. Research can areas ncar large populaCon centers todiscover and interpret information, but the specializein providing skislopes andadministrator must applyitto his own instruction for the beginning skier. unique situation.

141 147 Literature Cited Echelberger, Herbert E., and INDUSTRY AND THE SKIER. USDA Forest Serv. Elwood L. Shafer, j . Res. Pap. NC-46. 42 pp., illus. N. Cent. Forcst 1970. SNoW + (X) = USE OF SKI SLOPES.J. Exp. Sta., St. Paul, Minn. Marketing Res. 7: 388-92. Pitts, Eugene. Hcrrington, Roscoe B. 1968. 1RAVEL STUDY DISCOVERS NEW DOLLARS. Ski 1967. SKIING TRENDS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN ME Arca Manage. 7 (4): 25-27, 66. WESTERN STATES. USDA ForestServ. Res. Pap. 1NT-34. 90 pp. Intermount. Forest andRange Sno-Engineering, Inc. Exp. Sta., Ogden, Utah. 1965. THE SKIER MARKET IN NORTHEAST NORTH Leuschner, William A. AMERICA. U. S. Dcp. Commerce Arca Redevelop. 1970. SKIING IN ME GREAT LAKES STATES: THE Admin. 181 pp.

I THE SNOWMOBILE

by JOHN W. HETHERINGTON,Vice President for Marketing, Ski-Doo Division, Bombardier,Ltd., Montreal, Quebec, Canada.

ABSTRACT. As use of the snowmobilehas increasednearly 1%2 million now in usethe developmentand maintenance of snow- mobile use areas has become a concern.A study made by Bom- bardier, Ltd., calls attention tosafety problems, costs, trail design and maintenance, sign systems,rules and aids for snowrnobilers, safety patrols and other services, andsafeguards for the environment.

THE NUMBER of people who spend Up untillast winter there was little development theirtime inthe out-of-doors in-factual information about the creases dramatically each year.It hasand maintenance of snowmobile use areas. been estimated that the American publicIn an effort to develop thisinformation, will enjoy some 186 million recreation-Bombardier Limited undertook an exten- days in 1971. Unfortunately, as the numbersive survey of snowmobile use areas. of people who are turning to the out-of- doors increasesin 1970 nearly 400 million THE BOMBARDIER STUDY people spent their leisure time automobil- ing, camping, hunting, boating, and snow- During the wintrr of 1971,Bombardier mobilingthe amount of natural resourcesconducted a qualitative samplingof ap- plan- proximately50 snowmobileuseareas remains the same; but with careful snowbelt. ning, more recreational areas can bedevel- throughout the North American oped, making our natural resources moreTo achieve a representativegeographic sample, the leading snowmobilemanufac- productive. turer asked each of its 14distributors to Itis up to people intherecreation particular methods submit 5 to 10 use areas in his industry to assist in developing territory. Snowmobile associations andpark whereby these millions of people canmake available land.organizations also were consulted. the most efficient use of the conducted a Governments at all levels will have to con- Previously, Bombardier had facili-mail survey to gatherinformation about tinue to invest in more recreational The returns ties. But they need to have all the necessarysnowmobile rental operations. information to get the most for thedollars were so few andthe data so sketchy that that they invest. And theproblem mustno accurateconclusions could be made. an eyeUse area operators weregenerally an un- definitelybe approachedwith kept no toward the protection of theenvironment.sophisticated group of people who people, out-records and had little detailedinformation In this way, the concerns of all However, it doorsmen, environmentalists,conservation-about snowmobile facilities. betakenintowas discoveredthat there was a great de- ists,sportsmen,will trail areas consideration. mand for facts on snowmobile and rental operations, as the few peopleland open to the public were surveyed, as who did respond to the initial Bombardierwere three golf courses. Some systems ran survey all asked to be sent the findingsrental operations in conjunction with the when they were produced. trails. As on ski areas, some trails were for It became evident that some organizationexpert snowmobilers, some for beginners. would have to go into the field and gather the information firsthand. To do the re- SAFETY PROBLEM search, Bombardier selected three outdoor writers who hadextensive snowmobile Bombardier undertook this project for experience. threereasons.First, snowmobilingina All were qualified photographers, which well-maintained and controlled use area can proved extremely beneficial because, onceeliminate many of the safety problems that again, detailed information was difficult toconfront the industry today. Bombardier obtain. Their photographic records con-has been studying the safety problem for tributed greatly to the study. They used athe past 4 years in cooperation with the specially designed two-page form to obtain National and Canada Safety Councils. In- specific information. From 15 January to v est igations show that a majority of snow- 15 April, they conducted interviews withmobile-related fatalities occur on roads and the peopleinvolvedindeveloping andhighways. Snowmobiles aredesignedas maintaining each arca. off-road vehicles, and should not be oper- Because many areasarc really not aated on the road. In most states and prov- specific place of business, the researchersinces it is against the law to use them on had to seek out and talk to snowmobile roads. club members and officers, park and rec- Nevertheless, people aredriving their reational arca personnel, resort owners, andsleds on roadways and arc dying because snowmobile dealers. To gage the economic of it. impact of snowmobiling in these areas, the Why do people disregard the facts and team of researchers also spoke with res- continue to operate snowmobiles in danger- taurant and motel owners, service stationous sit!, Itions? It is largely because there operators, and chamber of commerce peo- are not enough suitably designed use areas ple, and confirmed the fact that snowmobileavailable for the snowmobiling public. use centers are a definite financial boon to any community. Safety problems arise from irresponsible To achieve a true cross-section, the re-operation in the wrong locale and are not searchers visited areas in all sections of theinherent in the machines themselves. Many UnitedStates and Canadian snowbelts.of the accidents, injuries, and fatalities can Although many aspects of trail develop-be eliminated through the development of ment arc universal, they found that each well-designed trail facilities, which would region hasits own unique problems andput machine operators in a controlled use requirements. The wide open spaces of thesituation and thus would foster safe enjoy- westernUnitedStatescontrastgreatlyment of this family sport. with the heavily wooded areas of Michigan, Quebec, or New York. ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEM Not only was the study structured to include samples from a broad geographic The second reason for this study is that base, but every conceivable type of usesnowmobiling has been severely criticized area also was sought out. Included wererecently by some environmentalists. Part of visits to nine state and six national forestthis criticism is justified, some is not; and land use areas, as well as five areas devel-much of it lies somewhere in the middle oped by cities or townships. Fourteen trailin other words, no documented conclusions networks visited were developed by snow-can be drawn because theproblem has mobile: clubs; 11 were privately run enter-never been thoroughly and objectively prises. Two areas of corporation-owned researched. 150 Environmental problems that do exist can COST FACTORS be controlled by developing trail areas de- The Bombardier study showed that the signed with environmental safeguards inother cost factors to consider in the devel- mind. Trails can and should be routed soopment of the trails involve thebuilding that the noise of the machines will notof bridges over land or water hazards, the botherlocalresidents. They shouldbe clearing of new or connecting trails, and constructed away from areas where wild-the erection of barriers around dangerous life winters and where plant life might beor sensitive areas. Labor costsfor clearing affected. Use areas should be developed so the trails and preparing them for snowmo- that they blendinnaturallywith thebiling, and the cost of clearing equipment, terrain. were provided on a volunteer basisin the Finally, Bombardier undertook this study majority of instances. In much of the snow- because snowmobilinghasmushroomed belt there still remain thousands of miles of into unbelievable proportions in slightlytrails that with a little effort can be made more than a decade. Last yearthe industryideal for snowmobile use. Some funds will produced 563,000 snowmobiles, and abouthave to be spent on building access trails 500,000 were sold at retail. The number ofand linking together available use areas. In machines now in use is 1,400,000 and shouldthe future we must be ready to make the exceed 2 million by the end of next year.necessary investment in the heavy equip- In many areas of North America wherement that will be required todevelop trails machine registration is high, snowmobilersfrom scratch. are finding that the space wherethey can Remember that at this point we are not enjoy their sport seems to become moretalking about maintenance,signing,res- limited each year. taurants, or any associated facilities. What are the specifics of use-area devel- From the areas that did keep an accurate opment? Let's take a look at what therecord of the cost of trail development, it study uncovered and what Bombardierhas been determined that the cost ranges recommends should be included in accept-between $100 and $150 for each mile of trail constructed, depending on the type of able use areas. terrain, equipment., and amount of man- The first concern to any use area, ofpower required. course, is financing. How muchwill it cost The report covers a few new trail sys- to develop snowmobile trails? In most cases tems that were developed with thehelp of studied, the development of the trail systemlandscape architects, environmental experts, itself was very inexpensive. A majority ofand parksupervisors. These individuals successful trail systems utilize some type were able to design interestingtrail systems of trails already in existence, such as oldb y using topographicai and aerial maps. logging roads, unplowed or unused high-These people also can give advice when ways, abandonedrailroad rights-of-way,already existing trails need to be altered to bridle paths, or hiking trails. Over 80 per-make them acceptable for snowmobile use cent of the use areas sampled relyheavily because of safety or environmental consid- upon old logging roads, whichcreated aerations. Most of these people, especially if good natural trail system that took on athey were snowmobilers themselves, volun- spider-web effect. teered their time. If already existing trails or roads of one These then are the types of trails found type or another are used withoutthe con- available: struction of anyr new trails, development costs will be minimal. Almost everytrail A system on public land financed by snow- system built on already existingtrails does mobile registration feessome enlight- not even list adevelopment cost figure in ened governments have taken definite its books. In most cases volunteer workers, steps to develop the publicland under using chain saws, etc. to clear brush and their jurisdiction. stumps from the trail, neededonly 2 or 3A system on private or public lands in- days to prepare an area. formally developed by snowmobile clubs. 151 Networks on the property of large corpo- because efficient maintenance vehicles are rations such as paper companies or land at least 7 feet wide. developers. Though the trail systems visited varied in Regulated areas set up by local businessmenlength from 4 miles to 500 miles, the aver- on private land with use fees or rentalage and suggested trail length is 50 miles. machines. The most popular system is the spider web, A system on private land for the use ofwhich in most cases fits perfectly into the patrons of a lodge, hotel, or resort. pattern of old logging roads that were These last two types are the most tightlyutilized for the trails. Small looped trails controlled of all use areas. within a larger system provide suitable Through the survey it was found that alength for all types of riders. For instance, minimum depth of 3 in a system where the longest trail is 50 inches of snow ismiles, shorter trails of 1, 5, 10, and 25 miles recommended for snowmobile operation.within the longest trail are ideal. The im- Good trail systems are designed with defi-portant thingis to make certain that a nite destinations or routes in mind, showing snowmobiler can easily return to his start- points of scenic or historical interest. Theing point. The best areas have a sign-in, topography was varied to keep the ridersign-out system set up at the start of all interested and on the trail. The most popu-trails in order to keep track of how many lar trails connect towns, scenic lookouts, orpeople are out on the trail. restaurants and give a purpose to snowmo- bile trips. Some areas also identify trails according to their difficulty, specifying certain trails for beginners and others for intermediates TRAIL DESIGN or experts. To get the maximum return from avail- able land, trails should be designed for mul- SIGN SYSTEM tiple use such assnowmobiling in the winter and trailbiking,horseback riding, The Bombardier study also deals with the and hiking in the summer. Trails should not problem of adequate trail signs. Although a conflict with other winter sports like cross- uniform sign system has been developed, country skiing or snowshoeing. Not onlyalmost every trail area visited has designed is this unsafe; it also infringes on the rights its own signing system. Bombardier en- of others. Bombardier also advocates the courages the utilization of the standardized, concept of sensible zoning of areas whereinternational signing system developed by no vehicular trafficispermitted. These the International Snowmobile Congress and wilderness areas should be respected by all the United States Bureau of Outdoor Rec- those concerned. reation. The study indicates that trails should be Signs should be posted in such a manner at least 10 feet wide and run in only onethat they do not detract from the natural direction.Bombardierfound that evenbeauty of an area. At the same time, how- some very wide trails had dangerous spotsever,directional arrows and reassurance at sharp curves if they ran in both direc-markers should be used in quantities ade- tions. To eliminate possible head-on colli- quate enough to do the job. Most areas sions, one-way trails should be the rule. On occasionally used helpful mileage signs, as some extremely wide trails, the construc-well as signs noting various points of inter- tion of a median in the center was found to est along the trail. The safest systems have be an effective means of dividing a trail: stop signs posted at trail intersections and Width of trails may have to vary be-public highways. cause of the terrain, but situations where a Markers should be erected to denote snowmobile must attempt to squeeze be-hazardous or sensitiveareas.Areas that tween two trees or other fixedobjects snowmobilers should stay away from .can should be avoided. Also, if trails are 10 feet be effectively marked off with bright plastic wide, trail maintenance will become easierflags or snow fences.

146..

L A.4 The Bombardier survey shows that it is sport of snowmobiling. Unliketheir country 1 very easy to stray off a trailwhen ridingcousins, they are not familiar with con- over a stretch of open land,and that finding venient places to run their machines. Rec- the place where the trail goes back into the ognizingthisfact,many snowmobile forest can be quite difficult. Make sure distributors and dealers have taken the lead trails arc identified over long' open stretches. and have produced their own trail and Though to the uninitiated, banked curves use-area maps. may be considered saferthan flat curves, Twenty-five percent of the use areas area operatorsinterviewedbelievethatcontacted in the study have organized trail banking curves encourages high speeds, patrols. The best examples cover every mile while flat curves will result in a reductionof trail in the system at least once a day. of speed. The study shows that banked Safetypatrols should not only service curves should beused only to protectmaciiine breakdowns, help stranded snow- snowmobilers from a sudden drop in ter- mobilers, and give medical aid in emergen- rain or a fixed or hidden object.Trails cies,but also they should serve as the running adjacent to a sudden drop in ter- area's police force, stopping, warning, and rain, such as a deep valley or a cliff,should evenexpellingsnowmobilers whoare be avoided, as trails tend to get drifted over breaking the area's rules. and side-hilling on a snowmobile becomes Associated facilitiesthat make atrail difficult.If rerouting is impractical, thesystem more .attractive tosnowmobilers construction of a fence or otherbarrierinclude adequate parking space for use- mini- between the trail and the drop will areasize. Thisisextremely important. mize this problem. Many areas reported that people were unloading their machines on the side of RULES & AIDS roadsa definite safety hazard. It does not do much good to have 100 miles of trails Snowmobilers should not go out on thethat only a handful of people can get to. trail alone. The study found that the betterSpace should permit the loading and un- use areas enforce a"buddy-system" rule. loadingof snowmobilesfromtrailers. Required check-ins and check-outs are ad- County governments should be called on visable. Both of these rules will cut downto keep roadways andparking areas well the number of lost or stranded snowmo-plowed. Picnic areas, restroom facilities, bilers. warming huts, and litter cans are some Safety instructions should be made avail- basic services that greatly enhance any able to all snowmobilers in the formof area. booklets. Practical instruction for the be- Lodges and restaurants are found at most ginning snowmobiler is a must,especially dis-privately run resort-oriented areas. In many in rental operations. Bombardier has cases this type offacility is, of course, not tributed nearly 2 million of its safetybook- infeasible. But even a simple snack bar ar- let, "Play Safe," which was produced rangement can be a greatservice to the cooperation with the National and Canadasnowmobiler while at the same time pro- Safety Councils. "Play Safe" is available for andviding an excellent source of income free from Ski-Doo dealers, distributors, the use area. Gas, oil, and repairservices both Safety Councils. The best trail systems have maps postedalso are suggested. along trail routes, showing the snowmobiler Although not generally the rule, some where he is and where he is going. Mapsprivate areas charge a fee for usingthe also should be distributed by regional tour-trails, and several also have rentalmachines. ist offices, clubs, and local governments.The fee for a snowmobiler with his own With 65 percent of all snowmobiles soldinmachine varied greatly according to the rural areas, the development and distribu-available facilities, but an average was$10 tion of trail maps is essential to thefuturea day. Mostprivate areas operating to make of this industry. More and more metro-a profit from theirtrail system offer ma- politan dwellers are beginning to enjoy thechines for rental at an average costof 453 between $7 and $10 per hour. Special full-problemthe Skidozer 200. This unit was day rates also are available. They rangedesigned specifically for trail maintenance. from $25 to $40 a day. Only the more sophisticated areas or the ones in business for their own financial gain have detailed records of development TRAIL MAINTENANCE and maintenance costs.Volunteer man- Most areas have solved the insurance-hours accounted for over 85 percent of all trail maintenance and construction. The liability13roblem by requiringasigned waiver of responsibility from anyone usingsurvey does reveal that it costs approxi- thetrailsystem or rentinga machine.mately $100 per mile per season to maintain Renters also are responsible for machinetrails. This figure is based on every mile of damage. Local laws and insurance situationstrail being groomed at least once every should be investigated by anyone operatingother day. The money goes toward opera- tors'salaries,machine depreciation, and a use area. maintenance of equipment. Use fees, gas The biggest problem, found universallyand oil services, and restaurants help offset throughout the use areasvisitedin themaintenance costs. Volunteer man-hours Bombardier study, is trail maintenance. Thisand machinery will also lower this cost. iswhere thelargest amounts of time, More needs to be done to encourage money, and effort are spent on every useuse-area development throughout the snow- area. Maintenance equipment must be pur-belt. Economically these trails systems are chased; personnel must be hired. Mogulsa boon to the communities inwhich they and bare spots must be groomed regularlyare located. Virtually every area contacted if area operators wish to have snowmobilersemphasized a new economic prosperity as return. an outgrowth of snowmobileactivity. But One problem in trail maintenance hasthis is not the only consideration. been simply a lack of equipment available Trails are needed to insure safety, to to do the job. Crude attempts were made,safeguard the environment, to protect the and people come up with some pretty in-rights of non-snowmobilers, and to give ventive measures; but most were inefficientthose people who enjoy the thrill of an and just not acceptable. This past winter,afternoon's ride across a snow-white trail Bombardier began to produce what it hopesa change to use their machines in aproperly will be the solution to the trail-groomingconstructed and maintained area.

148 154 Nit135.7SV:We

" 0 a)

pai UNDESIRABLE BEHAVIOR IN FOREST CAMPGROUNDS

by ROGER N. CLARK, Cooperative Research Assistant, Univer- sity of Washington College of Forest Resources and USDA Forest Service Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, Seattle, Wash.

ABSTRACT. A 3-year study indicates that nuisance behaviors, law violations, vandalism, and littering in.forest campgrouAds are more extensive than is generally believed. All campers share respon- sibility for the problems. Violations occur because of ignorance of, lack of understanding, or a willingness to disregard rules. Control measures arediscussed, including an incentive system utilizing monetary and nonmonetary rewards, which was used successfully to control littering in a large forest campground.

VANDALISM, nuisance behavior, lit- THE EXTENT OF tering, and violation of rules and DEPRECIATIVE BEHAVIOR regulations are major recreation man- agement problems. The directcosts of During the summer of 1968, we used replacing vandalized facilities and restoringsystematicparticipant - observationtech- areasthat have excessivelydeterioratedniquestorecorddepreciativebehavior from careless and indifferent use are in-without disturbing campers or influencing creasing at an alarming rate, while othertheir actions. Our observers mingled un- inappropriate behavior decreases the qualityobtrusively with other campers in selected of recreation experiences. areas and recorded specific information on In our studies, we focused on the activi-all depreciative acts observed. The data ties of recreationists and the attitudes ofcollected included a description and classi- campground officials as related to depre-fication of the act, personal characteristics ciative behavior. To simplify the studiesof the offender, apparent cause or motiva- and to concentrate on the areas where de-tion for the act, reaction of those involved preciative behaviors are more prevalent,and of other campers, official action taken, only intensively developed forest camp-and apparent results. grounds that attracted large numbers of people were studied. Types of Depreciative Behavior Data reported here were collected at Lake Kachess campground in the Wenatchee Because we looked harder and more sys- National Forest, although supplementarytematically, we saw more problem behavior data were collected in similar campgrounds.than the average camper would see. Al- The campground is characterized by heavythough we observed many depreciative use, highly developed facilities, opportunityacts, our attention was drawn to a continual for water-oriented activities, and- residentseries of major and minor violations carried 'rangers. out by people who were either unthinking ig4 or consideredthemselves above a particular Our observations indicated that campers rule. of all ages share responsibility for deprecia- Nuisance acts were the most common;tive behavior. Contrary to popular belief, they accounted for half of all depreciative as evidenced in some currentliterature, behavior reported (50 percent). Legal vio-teenagers did not commit adisproportion- lations were the next most frequent, ac-ate amount ofdepreciative acts. Instead, counting for about one-third (37 percent),preteenage children in groups of two or followed by acts of vandalism (13 percent).three appeared to be a major causeof ex- Of the nuisance acts observed,almost 80 pensive damage to facilities. This suggests percent involved petsrunning loose; thethat stricter parental supervision ofchildren remainder included excessive noise,viola- might eliminate much of the expensive tions of privacy, sanitary offenses,and haz- vandalism problem in campgrounds. ardous behavior such as throwingrocks in the swimming area. Why Did They Do lt? Most legalviolationsinvolved camp- The observed depreciativeactswere ground rules, followed by trafficviolations classified as to their apparent motivation: and littering. Only ahandful of civil law whether they appeared to be committedfor violations were observed. Theft wasinfre- entertainment, as a matter of convenience, quent in numberof occurrences, but was as sheer disregardfor rules and effects on expensive. others, due to ignorance of rules, orbe- About 60 percent of the vandalism actscause rules interferedwith some desired were directed atcampground facilities, andgoal. only 30 percent involved thenatural envi- Most of the nuisance acts, especiallythose ronment. Public, notprivate, property wasinvolving pets, stemmed from ignoranceof usually the target of vandals inthe cases we rules; but other nuisance acts such as ex- observed. cessive noise, violations of privacyby chil- dren, and throwing rocks appeared tobe Who Was Involved? the result of deliberatedisregard of the findingeffects on others. One interesting and unexpected often re- and children committed Vandalism of facilities most was that teenagers flected disregard, but almostone-fourth of depreciative acts in roughly the same pro- entertainment. portion as they appearedin the camp-these acts seemed to be for differed somewhatFor example, most vandalismby children ground, although they vandalism in- in the type of actscommitted. Accordingoccurred during play. Adult teenagers were mostvolving the natural environment,such as to our observations, chopping on trees in thecampground, was likely to violate campgroundrules, includ- less likelymost often done forentertainment and to a ing traffic regulations, and were ignorance of rules than adults or children tocommit nuisance lesser extent was due to or the consequencesof the act. acts. the result of playing in groups Rule violations were usually Children, usually while sheer disregard of knownregulations as of two or three, wereresponsible for most directedexemplified by littering and useof motor- acts ofvandalism, which were and trails. In a facilities. But the bikes on campground roads primarily at campground violated of inappropriate De-number of incidents, rules were most frequent types because they interferedwith other desired havior for children werenuisance acts most violations of pri-goals. For example, a fullcampground often often involving pets and resulted in illegal camping inthe picnic vacy. most fre-area. Adults committed nuisance acts Indifference to consequencesand ob- quently and were a closesecond to teen- be When adultz were ob-servance of lawsonly if convenient may agers in violations. determinant of this sortof mis- it usually focuseda primary served in vandalistic acts, behavior, especially amongadults. on the naturalenvironment rather than on apparently adult acts in- Thus depreciativeacts are campground facilities. These committed for a varietyof reasons, and volved individuals ratherthan group. 157 several approaches seem logical for theirwhen the offender was reprimanded for control. For example, better presentation ofviolation of campground rules.In these rules,educationprogramstoincrease cases, violators complied with the ranger's camper awareness of the consequencesofinstructions about two-thirds of the time. certain acts, and stricter enforcement of Repetition of the act was the most com- regulations are necessary to reduce prob-mon type of noncompliance after con- lems of the type discussed here. frontation with the ranger. It appeared that The data suggest, contrary to some pre-repeated violations reflected camper judg- vailing opinion, that depreciative behaviorments that the rules were either unnecessary is not always the result of "slobism" andor that they interfered with other recrea- vandals running wild through cur Parks. tional activities or goals.

Who Was Affected? CONTROLLING Campground facilities, the natural envi- DEPRECIATIVE BEHAVIOR ronment, and other people all suffered from Itis one thing to point to problems and depreciative behavior. In total, other peoplequite another to proviile workable solutions. were impinged upon in about 60 13ercentWe do not know, at this point, how to of all the depreciative incidents observed.solve all the problems we observed. How- As a result, it was surprising to note theirever, in addition to the points suggested indifference. More than 80 percent of theearlier,certain broad guilielines may be depreciative acts observed were committeduseful. when other people were around. In more To begin, we should recognize that the than 90 percent of these cases, no percepti-campground community, like all communi- ble reaction by adjacent campers could be ties,contains a broad range of deviant observed. People either ignored the acts,behavior. Problems arising from these be- were indifferent to the act, or did not seehaviors will increase and become more anything happen. complicated asthe camping population In the small percentage of cases wheregrows. Old standards, rules, management onlookers reacted, the most common re-policies, and approaches will become obso- sponse was to comment to othersabout the lete. Recognition of the problems and new incident. In a few cases, people were ob-efforts to cope with them are imperative. viously upset but took no action. Even Administrators must recognize that work- when acts of vandalism were committed ining with the people who use public parks view of adjacent campers, remedial actionis a challenge of the first magnitude. Camp- was observed only one time. Inthis case, ing in highly developed campgrounds has the camper went to get a ranger. Certainlybecome a social experience; we must design such indifference creates a climate in whichcampgrounds, develop policies and rules, depreciative behavior can and will occurand train rangers with this in mind as much with little consequence to the offender. as the necessity for pieserving the environ- ment. What Action Was Taken? The data suggest that rules intended to Campground rangers were present at lesscontrol certain types of unwanted behavior than 10 percent of the depreciative inci-in campgrounds must be clearly analyzed dents observed. Data were insufficient toas to their effects on recreational activities support or reject the concept that thebefore they are implemented.Ifthe public presence of rangers serves as adeterrent tocannot see their worth and the underlying depreciative behavior, although it is believedrationale, then these rules will most likely that this is tnie. be violated. It is therefore important that In almost all of the cases in which areasons underlying rules andregulations are ranger was present and didtake someclearly communicated. Adoption of com- action, the offender was cooperative. In-mon campground rules and standards of different or uncooperative behavior wasenforcement by thedifferentagencies observed in only a few cases, and this waswould also help to remove some of the confusion that exists regarding appropriate Theater Phase behavior. Over a 14-week period, we measured the If strengthening the police powers oflittering behavior of children atkiddie park authorities is not the complete solu-matinees in two theaters to determine the tion, it is certainly an important ingredient.effects of traditional antilitter measures in- Most campground rangers seem to resist thecluding direct appeals, antilitter films, litter role of policeman and find it difficult tobags, additional trash cans, and the effects confront the publicin an authoritarianof new approaches such as tangible rewards manner. Yet the enforcement aspect ofcontingent on antilitter behavior. Theaters their job will become increasingly impor-were selected for this preliminary phase of tant. In future recruitment and training,the study only for their convenience as a this should be recognized. place where alternative procedures could In addition, the legal authority of mostbe tested. agencies is extremely limited; and unfor- We found, in general, that under normal tunately this weakness is recognized by theconditions, only 16 to 19 percent of litter worst offenders. Cooperating law-enforce-in the theater was properly disposed of in ment agencies are often overworked andtrash cans. Doubling the number of trash unabletorespond,particularlyduringcans in the theater and placing them in periods of peak use. Legal changes, whereby more conspicuous places had little or no campground rangers could be made moreeffect on litter disposal. effective, should be explored. Showing a Walt Disney antilitter cartoon Police tactics, of course, cannot solve allbefore the scheduled movie slightlyin- of the problem without a greater degree ofcreased disposal of litter, but to a total of public awareness and cooperation. The lossonly 21 percent, which actually represented of personal freedom to the average camperno effect because it so closely approximated would be too high if we took all measuresnormal antilitter behavior. necessary to completely eliminate deprecia- The first real effects were noted when tive behaviors. But they can be reduced iflitter bags were handed out "for your use security measures are backed by publicwhile in the theater," which raised the litter recognition of the problem. disposal rate to 31 percent. When litterbags Above all, the individual camper must bewere combined with firm instructions to made to shoulder much of the burden.the audience to "please put all of your Noninvolvement can no longer be tolerated.refuse in the litterbags and deposit them in Campers must begin treating deviance intrash cans before leaving the theater," the parks as they would treat it in their ownlitter deposited in trash cans rose to 57 front yards. They must take on the burdenpercent. of direct intervention by vocally stating However, outstanding results occurred their disapproval of wrongdoings and, ifwhen tangible incentives were offered for necessary, summoning campground person- proper litter disposal. When children were nel. Campground rangers must begin tooffered 10 cents for every full litter bag actively encourage campers to help. deposited in the lobby, 94 percent of the litter in the theater was properly discarded. Likewise, when children in another theater EXPERIMENTAL CONTROL were offered a free ticket to a special movie OF LITTERING for each full litter bag, 95 percent of the One means of involving campers directlylitter was deposited in the trash cans. in the control of a problem behavior These results indicate the ineffectiveness litteringwas tested during the summer ofof traditional antilitter procedures (with 1970. In this study, an incentive system wasthe possible exception of litterbags and used to encourage the picking up of litter,explicit, personally delivered instructions) first in a movie theater and subsequently inand the dramatic effects of even a small a large forest campground. incentive on antilitter behavior.

.1" 159 Campground Phase able bottles, nothing additional is needed to The objective of the foregoing experi-encourage picking up. For other types of ment was not to develop methods to cleanlitter, providing an incentive for collection up theaters but rather to determine if estab-and proper disposal is necessary. Under the lished principles of behavior could be ap-incentive conditions, all types of litter had plied to encourage antilitter behavior anda value and as a result were likely to be to compare such efforts with cpnventionaldisposed of properly. litter-control methods. As a r4sult of the The feasibility of methods such as the findings from the theater experiments, weone presented here should be noted. The conducted a similar experiment in a forestincentives handed out in the campground campground to evaluate the applicability ofwere worth approximately $3.00, and the an incentive system for litter control in atime to implement the incentive system was campground environment. approximately 2 man-hours. If the litter Two types of litter were measured in thehad been collected by campground per- campground: that thrown down by camp-sonnel, an equivalent job would have taken ers and that planted by the research staff.16 to 20 hours and would have cost $50 to Planted litter was necessary to insure a $60. relatively constant level of litter and to Both traditional and a newly proposed determine which types of litter were mostincentive method for combating litter were likely to be picked upunder both normaltested in these experiments. At least in the conditions when no incentives were offeredtwo theaters and the campground, tradi- and under reinforced conditions when thetional methods were grosslyineffective incentive system was in effect. The littercompared with incentive systems. Judging planted included beverage cans, deposit and from the condition of the Nation's high- nondeposit bottles,and crushed brownways, parks, cities, and forests, traditional paper bags. methods have not been greatly successful in The campground phase of the studythese areas either. Appropriate disposal fa- lasted 2 weeks. During the first weekend,cilities, properly designed educational cam- under normal conditions, litter levels rosepaigns, and use of litterbags are certainly steadily from Friday through Sunday andimportant in solving part of the litter prob- declined slightly on Monday. During thislem; but new approaches are obviously time, all but 9 percent of the deposit bottlesnecessary if we are to approximate a rea- were picked up, while 30 percent of thesonably complete solution. nondeposit bottles, 54 percent of the cans, The incentive method successfully used and 59 percent of the paper bags remained in these studies offers a promising approach. on the ground. That such programs may resat in a dra- During the second week, we contactedmatic reduction inlitterisjustification seven families and offered their childrenenough, but the biggest payoff may be the smallincentivesfor picking up littervalues and behavior learned by children Junior Forest Ranger Badges, Smokey Bearwho have been tangibly rewarded for their Shoulder Patches, chewing gum. Duringantilitter efforts. Although some schools of this weekend, the litter count dropped,thought might debate on philosophical with a dramatic effect. Whereas during thegrounds the value of rewards in the learn- firstv ee k only deposit bottles consistently ingplrocess,such an approachiswell disappeared, all types of litter were pickedfounded in theory and is substantiated by up while the incentive program was inresearch. effect. In fact, except for 5 percent of the cans, 3 percent of the paper bags, 5 percent of the nondeposit bottles, and 3 percent of CONCLUSION the deposit bottles, everything else Was Solutions to behavior problems are not collected by the children. easy to come by in any environment, least These results clearly indicate that forof all in public recreation areas where the litter with a built-in value such as return-appropriateness and consequences of many 160 behaviors are ill-defined. It is likely thattheir friends. However, accounts of this recreation-area managers will be faced withsort dominate some of the currentliterature. an increasing number andvariety of prob- Our research indicates that depreciative lems of a depreciative nature as user popu-behavior, at least in well-developed forest lations grow and diversify. campgrounds, is widespread and that all We are just beginning to learn how tocampers share responsibility forthe prob- cope with depreciativebehavior, but one lem. thing seems clearconventional wisdom Finally, the approach taken in the experi- about who causes problems or why peoplemental control of littering holds promise behave as they do cannot be accepted asfor managers of recreation areas. By struc- fact. Such "folklore" may be unfoundedturing the environmental factors that con- and lead to further problems. For example,trol behavior, many imaginative programs all vandalism in parks is not caused byare possible. We need not,and must not, "drunken teenage punks" who blow uplimit ourselves to the traditional methods outhouses and rip down signs to impressfor controlling inappropriate behavior.

Literature cited Bennett, Joseph W. GROUNDS - AN EXPLANATORY STUDY.(Abstr.) 1969. VANDALS WILD. 238 pp., illus. Metropolitan NW. Sci. 43 (1): 33. Press, Portland, Oregon. Etzkorn, Peter K. Campbell, Frederick L., John C. Hendee, 1964. LEISURE AND CAMPING: THE SOCIAL MEANING and Roger N. Clark. OF A FORM OF PUBLIC RECREATION.Sociol. and 1968. LAW AND ORDER IN PUBLIC PARKS. Trends Social Res. 49: 76-89. in Parks and Recreation 3(12): 28-31, 51-55, illus. Hendeejohn C., and Frederick L. Campbell. Clark, Roger N., Frederick L. Campbell, 1969. SOCIAL ASPECTS OF OUTDOOR RECREATION- and John C. Hendee. THE DEVELOPED CAMPGROUND. Trends inParks and 1969. DEPRECIATIVE BEHAVIOR IN FOREST CAMP- Recreation 6 (4): 13-16.

_155 161 PERSPECTIVES ON LAW ENFORCEMENT IN RECREATION AREAS

by LAWRENCE C. HADLEY, Deputy Assistant Director, Na- tional Park Service, Deptriment of the Interior, Washington, D. C.

ABSTRACT. The nature and scope of law-enforcement problems in the National Park System are of increasing concern to park and recreation area managers. A positive response by management in terms of formulating and executing a fully professional and effec- tive enforcement program is vital for sustaining public confidence that Parks are safe for individual and family use. Law enforcement must be carried out in perspective with other management pro- grams and developed with sensitivity to the changing nature of society and the changing needs and interests of park users.

N THE SUMMER of 1970, the Super- still possible in the Valley. Not all motor- intendent of Yosemite National Park cyclists operate noisy equipment; not all of the young generation of visitors behave reported as follows about conditions in wantonly or intolerantly of the feelings Yosemite Valley during much of the heavy of others; many are not drug ridden nor use season: panhandlers. Major crime is under control and the physical safety of the majority At ... times the overriding impression is of visitors is not a problem. one of confusion and noise. Motorcycle groups cruise aimlessly around the Valley floor, looping through Yosemite Village CONFLICTS IN THE PARKS and the campgrounds; they ride along the foot and bridle paths, and congregate Though the situation in that Park may with others of their kind in their convert- not be critical now, the conditions noted ed vans and delivery wagons. SinglY and by the Superintendent are typical of those in groups, young people drink wine on Sentinel and Stonemen Bridges, invade that are becoming increasingly more evi- the meadows and panhandle from park dent in other national parks. visitorsin front of the Village Store. Theft, major and minor, is common in In 1970 several areas of the Park System the campgrounds. The mobile camper, experienced disturbances of major propor- unable to find space in the campgrounds tions and severity, posing new and umque late at night, wanders through the Valley problems to park management. seeking parking areas and other places to pull off the road for a night's rest. Auto In Lassen Volcanic National Park a traffic in the easterly portion of the Val- group of Indians attempted to occupy that ley where the major public use facilities park and take possession of it in settlement are located is confusing and frustrating to the interested sightseer who is in no of land claims. The activity was success- particular hurry to get to any particular fully deterred by the cooperative efforts of place. Park rangers, U. S. marshals, California Although these impressions are generally State Highway Patrol officers and the local valid, solitude and natural serenity are county sheriff staff. 15612 At Badlands National Monument andfew years ago, comprise an increasingly Wind Cave National Park, South Dakota,large proportion of park visitors. and at Theodore Roosevelt National Me- The traditional role of park manager has morial Park, North Dakota, groups of been keyed to a philosophy which has held several hundred young motorcyclists triedresource preservation as primaryand public to force entrance into those areasand touse (the visitor) at bestsecondary, if not congregate for a weekend encampment.substantially lower in priority, as an objec- The local Park staffs, augmented by rang-tive of management. Parks and by a ers from other National Urban visitors bring urban problems to unit of United States Park Police from change in park Washington, D. C., were able to maintain parks andare forcing order and forestall a concentrated assembly management. of the group. The traditional functions of the Park Me- rangers have been oriented toward At the Mount Rushmore National iprotect- morial, Indians engaged in a prolonged oc- ing park resources and providing nterpre- cupation and demonstration during the latetive services to visitors. This has led to of grievances recruitment of rangers largely from the summer and fall in support natural sciences, history, archeology, land- against the Federal Government. scape architecture, etc.These backgrounds In Yosemite a group of 500 to 700 young are unsuited to theemerging situations, people confronted Park rangers in a nearwhich demand involvement with the urban riot when attempts were made to assureproblems that are more and more evident quiet and good order in the Valley camp- in the Parks, especially in law enforcement. grounds. A staff of some 40 Park rangers required assistance from nearly 100 officers from neighboring police jurisdictions to DILEMMA restore order after theinitial violence had Statistics on crime in the National Parks subsided. (table) clearly suggest the need for positive The parks of the Nation's Capital, ad-action by Park managers to achieve pro- ministered by the National Park Service, fessionalism in law-enforcement programs are more and more the sceneof demonstra- to deal with hard crime,and to make inno- dons by scores of groups andorganizations vations in management programs thatoffer that seek to express a variety ofbeliefs and alternatives to law enforcement as the ulti- views on an array of issues and concerns. mate action. Failure oneither count may In May, and again in July 1970,massive increase the risk that the public will lose demonstrations in Washington testedthe confidence in the Parks as places safefor capabilities of the United States ParkPolice family usea suggestion that has already in containing violence. been voiced in public discussions ofthe issue. CHANGING SOCIETY The dilemma that is presented to park management is identical towhat faces uni- The United States is now movingfrom versity administrators, city officials, gov- a rural-oriented to anurban-oriented so- ernors of states, andvirtually every public ciety, and at the same time itspopulation and corporate official today. Thechanging is trending toward a majorityof young nature of American societyis causing mil- people under the age of 30. lions of the population toquestion the Public use of the National ParkSystem validity of accepted traditions andvalues. has risen to exceed '170 millionvisitors dur- That segment of our society under 30 ing calendar year 1970. persistently hold the view that poverty in Urban dwellers and young people,whose affluent A.merica is intolerable; that black attitudes toward the meaning ofparks andAmericans have been shamefully treated whose needs and interests in park usediffer and deserve equal sharing of opportunities; markedly from the typical userof only a that National goals are materialistic,.based Table.-NationalPark Service law-enforcement summary, 1966-70 Criminal action 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 Increase PART I CLASSES: No. No. No. No. No. Pct. 1.Criminal homicide 4 6 9 14 8 100 Murder and non-negligent manslaughter 4 4 4 5 Manslaughter by negligence 4 2 5 7 3 2.Rape 17 41 48 56 34 100 3. Robbery 99 16 8 235 203 188 89 4.Aggravated assault 87 199 258 234 25 8 196 5.Burglary-breaking and/or entering 244 394 476 512 896 267 6.Larceny (except auto) $50 and over in value 460 539 802 1,282 1,593 246 Under $50 in value 1,255 1,955 2,430 3,050 2,773 120 7.Auto theft 96 97 140 134 154 60 Total, Part I classes 2,262 3,399 4,140 5,485 5,904 161 PART II CLASSES: 8.Other assaults 20 2 1 39 30 51 155 9.Forgery and embezzlement 2 2 6 8 2 10.Fraud 8 8 15 37 53 562 11.Stolen property-buy, receive, possess 24 30 74 114 38 58 12.. Weapons-carrying, possessing, etc. 258 170 172 247 285 10 13. Sex offenses (other than No. 2) 96 89 65 63 41 -49 14. Narcotic drug laws 11 48 208 366 700 6,263 15.Liquor laws 415 5 25 574 787 953 129 16. Drunkenness 2,791 2,307 1,521 475 521 -81 17.Disorderly conduct 957 1,02 1 1,288 1,155 1,692 76 1 8.Driving under influence 273 272 227 365 541 98 19. Road & driving laws (moving; other than No. 18) 31,161 23,2 35 29,757 34,207 37,513 20 20. Parking violations 24,477 20,870 31,030 46,889 38,483 57 2 1.Traffic & motor vehicle laws (except Nos. 18-20) 3,765 3,08 8 4,245 6,619 5,631 49 22. Fishing regulations 254 2 55 443 688 827 225 23. Boating regulations 424 6 85 758 1,065 1,03 9 145 24. Protection of wildlife; firearms, etc. 755 490 593 1,984 2,173 187 25. Preservation of natural features 1,643 5 87 788 1,274 4,604 180 26. Destruction of Government prbperty 83 1 19 276 194 179 115 27. Vandalism (other than No. 26) 152 227 219 217 331 2 8.All other offenses: littering, firer, pets, miscellaneous 1,439 3,1 14 7,282 10,626 16,957 1,078 Total, Part II classes 69,008 57,163 79,580 107,410 112,714 63 All criminal actions 71,270 60,562 83,720 112,895 118,618 66

in the concept that public decisions are INNOVATIONS IN MANAGEMENT influenced primarily by economic consid- erations; that our Nation's basic resources Within the Park Service, however, there are examples of innovations in manageMent have been plundered and abused for per-that reflect awareness and responsiveness to sonal gain at the expense of National well- being for this and future generations. the changes occurring in American society. A national dialogue along these lines has The record of increase in crime in the been taking place in varying degrees ofNational Parks has caused the Service ro intensity across the land for nearly a decade.move agressively to attain full professional- Out of it has emerged the fixing of labelsism in law enforcement. After comprehen- by opposing sides:"hippies" on the onesive study of the problem in the Park Syi- hand and "the establishment" on the other.tem and evaluation of our effectiveness and Park managers fall largely, if not entirely,capability of dealing with it by expert in the latter category and are, by implica-consultants from the Internatiorial Associa- tion, resistant and unyielding to change. tion of Chiefs of Police assisted by repre-

15:8 :-164 sentatives of our own U. S. Park Police, we ing the heavy travel season, a special are proceeding with a program asfollows: training program in law enforcement has been developed to reach a minimum of In this fiscal year the United States Park 100 seasonal candidates from selected Police force in Washington will be in- areas. creased by 40positions.This added strength will permit formation of a police An intensive 8-week training program cadre capable of being dispatched to heavily oriented toward police manage- being designed areasoftheNational Park System ment and administration is throughout the country to assist Park for supervisory ranger personnel from rangers in cases of special needsuch as areasexperiencingmajor law-enforce- have occurred in recent years. ment problems. The law-enforcement program will be A seminar in law enforcement will in- strengthened by providing professional volve top field managers of the Service law-enforcementassistancewithinthe in exposure to law-enforcement problems Washington region and Park organiza- in our society. Its purpose is todevelop philosophical base upon tionstructures.Maximum relianceis a policy and being placed upon the expertise and pro- whichto formulate and executethe fessional ability of officers of the United Service's law-enforcement program. States Park Police to provide leadership The effort thatisbeing mounted to and program direction. achieve an effective posture in lawenforce- At the Washington level a Divisionofment is designed to meet aprimary objec- Law Enforcementhasbeen created, tive of management of the NationalParks: headed by an inspector, United Statesto achieve "... properuse, management, Park Police. At the regional level a law- government and protectionof, and main- enforcement officer will be assigned to tenance of good order in ..." the National the staff of each of the Region directors. Park System. The position will be filled by an officer of the Park Police at the lieutenant- FOR EVERY CITIZEN captain grade. At the Park level a law-enforcement The purpose of the law-enforcement officer will be assigned to the staff of the program of the NationalPark Service is to superintendent in Parks where law-en-assure for every citizen apark experience forcement problems areidentifiedas that ispersonally meaningful, free from major in degree and proportion. We an- apprehensions about the safety of his person ticipate that 15 to 20 Parks need pro- and his property. Law enforcement must be viewed in fessionalpoliceassistanceduringthe heavy travel season. The positions will be proper perspective andrelationship with Policeall other Park management programs,and filled by the assignment of a Park judgments as to officer at the sergeant-lieutenant level. must be able to withstand viability and relevancy in accordancewith A comprehensive law-enforcementtrain-the publicinterest.'The National Park ing program has been designedand Service has accepted as a guide informulat- initiated that will reach 225 ranger candi-ing management programsincludinglaw dates and selected managementpersonnel. enforcementthe philosophy of Thomas Before the op_ening of the travel season Jefferson, who wrote: this year, 50 Park rangers from all parts ...laws and institutions must go hand of the country will have completed 540 in hand with the progress of thehuman hours of basic police training atthe mind. As that becomes more developed, Service's Washington Center. more enlightened, as newdiscoveries are made, new truths discovered and manners Since seasonal rangers bear the bruntof and opinions change, with thechange of the responsibility in accomplishing our circumstances, institutions must advance objectives in public-use management dur- also to keep pace with the times .." The National Park Service is suchan A recently inaugurated program known institution that must "... advance ... toas Volunteer-in-the-Parks offers an oppor- keep pace with the times..." We believetunity for youngsters, and older peopleas we are doing so in upholding our law-well, to work as volunteers in Parkpro- enforcement responsibilities. grams. Volunteers serve without pay but We are committed to measures that willreceive compensation for costsof com- achieve a professional stance in law en-muting, meals while on the job, and the forcement through adhering to the highestcost of needed uniforms or required spe- principles of justice and the preservation ofcial clothing. The response has convinc- individual rights and liberties. ingly demonstrated the interest of citizens The record demands timely and equitableof every age and background in public enforcement of Park regulations and otherserviceranging ' fromperiodcostumed laws. But itis expected that enforcementinterpreters in historical areas of the Park actions be executed with that degree ofSystem to performers in craft demonstra- professionalism that does not impair thetionsto manning of public information quality of park experience that the publicdesks in Park visitor centers. The Volun- rightfully expects. teers not only get a "piece of the action" Finally, in further observance of Jeffer-but are found to be an effective non-bureau- son's caution that institutions change, thecratic means of communicating with park National Park Service has sought innova-visitors. tions in management programs to meet the These measures arechallenging park special needs of special segments of ourmanagers to seek new ideas and fresh ap- society. proaches in meeting the needs of today's In the National Capital Parks of Wash-public. They suggest interesting possibili- ington, D. C., and at Mount Rainier andties in responding to the unconventional Olympic National Parks in Washingtoninterests and desires of today's youth such State, funds especially appropriated by theas recently occurred at the Padre Island Congress provide free busing for minorityNational Seashore in Texas. There, 3,000 and disadvantaged children into the nearbyyoung people from the Corpus Christi area Parks from Washington's inner city andasked for, and received, permission to stage fromthedepressedneighborhoodsofa weekend rock festival on the beach. The Seattle and Tacoma. Special programs rang-event was staged without incident, although ing from rock-music concerts to interpre-accompanied by the array of bizarre be- tiveprogramsto camping andhikinghavioral patterns associated with such gath- outings are offered. This effort has beenerings. At the close of theaffairthe accepted enthusiastically in its initial appli-Superintendent, who initiallyviewedit cation and offers encouragement thatitwith apprehension, reported that the kids should be extended to other Parks through-effectively policed their "happening" with out the country. In Washington, D. C., ita minimum of need for surveillance by the has proved to act as an effective deterrentPark staffand they left the beach cleaner to vandalism in the parks. than it was when they arrived.

l6QA COMMUNICATING WITH RECREATIONISTS by J. ALAN WAGAR, Project Leader, Environmental Interpre- tation Research, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, USDA Forest Service, in cooperation with the College of Forest Resources, University of Washington, Seattle.

ABSTRACT. Recreationists are free to ignore many of a land manager's communication efforts. Greatest effectiveness can be ex- pected for presentations that are dynamic and are tailored to the interests and other characteristics of selected visitor groups, that permit participation and reward learning, and that provide both an iilea of what is coming and a framework to give it coherence.

MOST OF THE ORGANIZATIONSnatural resources. This is a new direction responsible for forests and relatedfor us. However, research and experience resources find that recreationists arefrom a number of fields bear on the effec- their major public contact, making com-tiveness of the communications involved munication with recreationists a matter ofin environmental interpretation. vital importance. Perhaps the first principle in these com- Reasons for communicating can vary.munications, especially those with recrea- Communication may be designed to servetiOnists, is to remember that we are dealing the organization, perhaps by improving itswith non-captives who can stay or leave as public image or by gaining understandingthey wish. Although the professionals in for its policies. Or communication may berecreation generally think Of it as being designed primarily to serve recreationistsconstructive, haVing serious purpose, and or other publics by enhancing their ex-being "good for you," the recreationists periences. Still other communication effortsthemselves typically seek diversion, enjoy- such as those to inform people about rulesment, even amusement. They are not likely and regulationsmay serve t.heneeds ofto tolerate our communications solely out both the organization and the recreationists.of some great thirst for self-improvement. The research in my own project is now The general extent to which visitors can concerned primarily with the effectivenessbe reached by interpretation is indicated by of efforts to interpret the environment toa study made in Yellowstone National Park people. In this, emphasis is on communica-(McDonald 1969). Of the people who tions that benefit recreationists and others,visited the park, 56 percent attended visitor either directly by enhancing their on-sitecenters, 11 percent attended campfire pro- experiences, or more indirectly by helpinggrams, arid 9' percent used nature trails. them know enough about the environmentApproximately 10 percent of the visitors for responsible citizenship, thereby con-stopped at wayside exhibits, and less than tributing to thoughtful public actions thathalf of these people read the signs. A large help maintain the flow of benefits from ourproportion of the visitors simply were not 167 reached by anyoftheinterpretationexperience, knowledge, and feelings of the provided. urban people who comprise a growing majority of our visitors. Resource managers are also affected by MOTIVATION & INTEREST the standards set by other communicators. If the nuMber of people reached is to beFor example, the yellowing sheet of camp- increased, both motivation and interest areground regulations posted on the weather- of central importance. beaten bulletin board just may be overlooked By choosing to seek recreation, visitorsby the visitor who is saturated with TV already demonstrate some motivation; butadvertisements that have living color and this may have a Jekyll-and-Hyde characterthe best attention-getting techniques that about it. On one hand, the recreationistmoney and the FCC permit. normally comes looking for enjoyment and is predisposed to defining the experiences RESEARCH FINDINGS he encounters as enjoyable. On the other hand, he may wish to escape anything that Some of our recent research in the Pacific appears to be "heavy going." If what weNorthwest shows just how important the offer is not truly interesting and a source ofmeans of presenting information canbe. the delight the visitor came seeking, he mayFor interpretive exhibits,our interviews simply drift away in spite of his initial pre-with people at five visitor centers showed disposition toward enjoying whatever hethat interest depends greatly on the extent finds. to which exhibits are dynamic in some way As a means of communication that mo-rather than inert. Exhibits with motion, tivates visitors, the ideal is to have a giftedrecorded music or speech, shifting lighting, interpreter or guide for each visitor oror three-dimensional effects were rated as small group of visitors. In addition to beinginteresting much more than average. Con- dynamic and conveying the personal en-versely, those using mounted photos and thusiasm of the interpreter, personal pres-printed texts were selected as interesting entations can be designed so they permitmuch less than average. This is sobering participation and response by the visitor,when you realize how much resource man- providing feedback to the interpreter andagers have relied on mounted photosand his organization. printed labels to communicate with recrea- This feedback is the key to flexibility; ittionists. permits presentations to be adjusted to the The same study also showed that people interests, knowledge, misconceptions, atten- would much prefer to hear information tion spans, and other characteristics of thethan to read it. In addition to taking less audience. If presentations cannot be tailoredenergy than reading, 'listening permits the to the audience, many people may simplyvisitor to concentrate his attention on the lose interest. scene or object of centralinterest. Mahaffey What the visitor defines as interesting(1969) found- similar results at a historic will be conditioned strongly by his every-site in Texas. day world. As Tilden (1967) expressed it: A number of organizations seem to have "Any interpretation that does not somehowcome to the same conclusion.Many muse- relate what is being displayed or describedums, visitor centers, and zoos nowhave to something within the personality or ex-message repeaters at selected exhibits.And perience of the visitor will be sterile." Wesome museums rent headphonesthat pick must start with what the visitoralreadyUp messages from inductanceloopsat knows and feels. selected exhibits. Finding this starting point is often diffi- Portable tape-players can also be used in cult for land managers whose professionalmany situations, and severalcompanies now training and years of experience with ruraloffer guided walking or auto tours recorded resources make many things seemself- on cassette tape. These are availablefor evident. But what seems self-evident to themany of the major cities ofthe world, for land manager may lie mostly outside theseveral National Park Service areas, for Niagara Falls, and other attractions. In theticipation was highly rewarding and created Pacific Northwest, we are studying wayssufficient motivation to hold their attention, to adapt and enhance theeffectiveness ofeven though they were a non-captiveaudi- cassette tape-players for interpretationinence. There remains, however,the matter National Forest settings. In addition toof harnassing this motivation to convey a determining how well visitors like recordedmessage. Pinball machines, forexample, tape presentations for nature trails and antopermit participation but do not convey tours, we are also investigating howthemuch information. structure of the presentation affectslearning. One approach lies in making the reward If we want visitors to learn specific factscontingent upon learning.If interacting or concepts, then two branchesof learningwith exhibits is fun or rewarding, simply theory are pertinent. One, espoused byset exhibits up so that participation can Piaget (1970), maintains that participationcontinue only after the player correctly is essential for learning. For a child thisanswers a question demonstrating thathe may be highly directasby touching ahas learned a portion of what we want him newly discovered object or putting it in histo know. The portions conveyedin this mouth.Later,participation may be in-manner can be arranged to convey com- creasinglyabstract;but,accordingto plex concepts. This, of course, is the basis Piaget, it must still take place if learning isof teachingmachines and programmed to occur. As an illustrationof this concept, learning. many educators now usethe "discovery Even after thenovelty of interesting method" of teaching some subjects. In this,equipment has worn off, being shown that they use a series of questions to lead thethelastanswer was correctisreward student into discovering facts or relation-enough to maintain interest and enhance ships for himself rather than being toldlearning. In fact, on the basis of this, coin- directly. How much involvement and par-operated question-and-answer machines are ticipation are permitted in communicationsnow located in manypublic places as a by land managers? commercial venture.

EMPHASIZE PARTICIPATION PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION A second and equally pertinent branch Although reinforcement by identifying of learning theory comes from the work ofcorrect answers has been usedin displays B. F. Skinner (1968) and other behavioral designed to identify birds of other objects, psychologists. They note that people per-it has seldom been used to convey more sist in doing the things theyfind rewarding. complex concepts to non-captiveaudiences Piaget's emphasis on participation is notlike those found in recreation settings. An at all incompatible withSkinner's emphasisexception is the work of C. G. Screven on reward. This wasnicely demonstrated (1969), a behavioral psychologist. In studies by our experience with a question-and-at the Milwaukee PublicMuseum he has answer device we call therecording quiz-used programmed instruction techniques to board. When we installed thisin a Nationalgreatly increase what visitors learn from a Park visitor center, children began playingrather detailed anthropology exhibit. it within seconds, and it continued as their Some visitors were given a pa:cable tape- favorite exhibit until we removed it. This player connected to an answer board.When came as a surprise,since our quizboardstarted, the tape-player told the visitorwhat included only written questions and an-to look for, explained apoint to him, asked swers aliout theother exhibits, and these a question abcutit, and then stopped. When other exhibits were extremely welldone. the visitor selected the correct answer on However, the quizboard was the only ex-the answer board, the player startedagain, hibit in the building that permitted par-rewarding the visitor by telling himhis continuing ticipation. answer was correct, and then By their enthusiasm, children and, to a withadditionaldirections,explanations, lesser extent, adults demonstrated that par- questions,andidentification ofcorrect -7

answers. Visitors who received this guid-making events leading to the American ance averaged about 75 percent correct onRevolution.Then,asthevisitorgoes an examination to test their knowledge ofthrough the restored town, he already has the exhibit, compared with an average ofvivid mental imagery of the events that about 25 percent for visitors who saw thetook place at the powder magazine, the exhibit without this guidance. Raleigh Tavern,theCapitol,ctc.The Based in part on Screven's work, we de-movie provides a framework that helps the veloped and tested programmed signs forvisitor organize, comprehend, and retain a nature trail in the Pacific Northwest. Forthe information he is given. the sixth-, seventh-, and eighth-grade stu- dents who used the trail, signs with branch- ing programming resulted in 20-percent OTHER WAYS highertestscoresthan unprogrammed Frameworks can be provided in other signs that included the same information. Inways. At the Pacific Science Center in the branching program, selected signs ex-Seattle, cartoon story lines are often used plained a point and at the bottom includedin conveying the concepts of science to a question with three answers. Accordingyoungvisitors.Jerry Dotson, program to the answer selected, the trail user wasdirectorsays(personalcommunication directed to one of three signs on down the1970) these stories help maintain interest trail. Signs corresponding to wrong answersand tieideas together until the young provided supplementary information andvisitors begin to understand the concepts then directed the user to the sign to whichinvolved. a correct answer would have directed him. In these stories, a "projective" technique In addition to showing the effectivenessis also used to permit a young visitor to of programmed presentations,Screven'svolunteer his opinion without much risk of work in Milwaukee provided two otherbeing wrong. In the story line, a cartoon results. Using a short examination to mea-character such as Snoopy is often intro- sure knowledge about exhibit content, heduced and shown to make a few mistakes tested some visitors only after they saw theof his own. Then, instead of being asked exhibit, others only before they saw the"What would you do inthis problem exhibit, and others both before and aftersituation?", children are asked "What do they saw it. Surprisingly, visitors who hadyou think Snoopy would do?" For an in- no guidance through the exhibit scored noappropriate answer, the instructor can say, higher than those who had not even seen it."He might. Let's see what would happen This suggests that many efforts to com-if Snoopy did that." If it turns out badly, municate through exhibits are totally in-it is Snoopy's problem, not that of the child effective. In addition, with no other guid-who volunteered. ance through the exhibit, visitors who had Adults may be even more concerned received a pre-test scored noticeably betterthan children about being wrong or look- on a post-test than those not given a pre-test.ing ridiculous. This may explain why they By supplying ideas about what to look for,often examine a quizboard or other partici- the pre-test apparently "preprogrammed"pation device without touching it.This visitors and provided them with a frame-leads to my final point concerning com- work on which to build. munication with recreationists. This matter of preprogramming may Different people will respond differently have wide application in our communica-to the same stimuli, making averages some- tion efforts. It is used extremely effectivelywhat misleading. Tilden (1967), for ex- at Colonial Williamsburg, where the visitorample, has emphasized that interpretation is urged to see the orientation movie "Thefor children "should not be a dilution of Making of a Patriot" before he visits thethe presentation to adults, but should fol- restored buildings. Photographed right inlow a fundamentally different approach." the restored part of Williamsburg,this He notedthatchildren often have an portrays such figures as George Washing-"eagerness for pure information" whereas ton and Thomas Jefferson in the history-adults have a "slight aversion to it." For 170 reaching a variety, of people,a variety ofthey include some of the attributes ofa communication techniques will be needed. liveinterpreter. These include dynamic rather than inert presentations, flexibility SUMMARY & CONCLUSION and feedback that permit diagnosis of the visitor's knowledge and interests, and tail- Because recreationistsare free to ignoreoring of presentations to the characteristics most of the communications directed to-of different groups of visitors. ward them by land managers, the effective- Effectiveness of communicationscan also ness of conveying this information oftenbe increased by providing for participation depends on how much motivation and in-and by making it rewarding for the visitor terest can be generated. The ideal situationto learn what has been communicated. is to have a personal interpreteror guide Finally, retention of informationcan be who can tailor presentationsto the peopleimproved by providing the visitor withan at hand. However, theeffectiveness ofinitial framework that alerts himto what is unmanned presentations can be increased ifcoming and then gives it coherence.

LiteratureCited McDonald, Arthur L. OF THE CHILD. (Translated from the French by 1969. FINAL REPORT TO THE NATIONAL PARK SERV- Derck Coltman.)186 pp. Orion Press, New ICE, YELLOWSTONE PARK. 43 pp. Mont. State Univ. York. Psychol. Dep., Bozeman. Screven, C. G. Mahaffey, Ben D. 1969. THE MUSEUM AS A RESPONSIVE LEARNING 1969. RELATIVE EFFECTIVENESS AND VISITOR PREFER- ENVIRONMENT. Museum News 47(10):7-10. ENCE OF THREE AUDIO-VISUAL MEDIA FOR INTER- Skinner, B. F. PRETATION OF AN HISTORIC AREA. Tex. Agr. Exp. Sta. Dep. Tech. Rep. 1. 63 pp. Tex. A & M 1968. THE TECHNOLOGY OF TEACHING. 271pp. Univ., College Station. Appleton-Century-Crofts, New .York. Tilden, Freeman. Piaget, jean. 1967. INTERPRETING OUR HERITAGE(revised edi- 1970. SCIENCE OF EDUCATION AND THE PSYCHOLOGY tion). 120 pp. Univ. N. C. Press, Chapel Hill. FACILITY REHABILITATION by EDWIN H. KETCHLEDGE, Professor,New York State University College of Forestry at Syracuse University,Syracuse, N. Y.

ABSTRACT. Restoration of vegetation on damagedsitesis the most perplexing challenge infacility rehabilitation. In the Adiron- dack Mountains, the ecological impact ofrecreationists on the natural environment has become critical in twohigh-quality interior areas: on the steep higherslopes where trails soon become eroding stream channels, washing away thethin mountain soils; and on the open summits where thefragile alpine communities are trampled by traffic from below. Our research effortsof 6 years have yielded a technique for restoringthe deteriorating summits. We are trying to involve the largest regionalhike-climbing organization in a sus- tained program of trailsmanship to assist theEnvironmental Con- servation Department in effecting vegetational controls.

THE TERM "facility rehabilitation"into action a corrective program based on may be interpreted in numerous waysthe data gathered so far. to mean a variety of things.Vegeta- My immediate concern over the last tional restoration requires two essential in-several years has been the ecologicalcrisis puts:first, acquiring the basic ecologicalcreated by the overuse of certain high- understanding (the raw data) of the plantquality recreational lands in the High Peak communities to be manipulated; and second, region of the Adirondack Mountains.The developing the technical skills and logistic damage inflicted on the landscape inthe support to effect the desiredchanges (the1960's has become so intense that in places program). In our research efforts in the it threatens the ecological integrityof these Adirondack Mountains of New York State,sites; indeed, some are degradedbeyond we have accumulatedsufficient field datarepair. In our close personal associations over the past five summers to warrant anwith the Adirondack MountainClub and attempt at the second step,translating ourwith the Adirondack 46ers, Dr.Leonard research phase into an action programofand I were aware of frequentdiscussions vegetational restoration. among recreationiststhemselves about the magnitude of the environmental deteriora- The novelty of our overall programin tion they were in part causing on someof vegetational restoration in the Adirondacks the highest peaks. is our attempt to involve establishedhiking utilizing We felt that if we could publicizethe clubs in carrying out field trials the the basic ecological information wehaveproblem to the using recreationists in developed so far. We are continuing ourregion, we might be able to exploittheir research on the fundamentalbiological andconcern, to direct it towardconstructive environmental questions; butmeanwhile, restoration of the resource. Accordingly, without further delay, we aretrying to putwe reported ourfindings in THE CON- 2 SERVATIONIST, official publication ofpealed to the United States Forest Service the New York State Department of Envi-for assistance in investigating the problem ronmentalConservation,amagazine ofand, through their Watershed Environ- national reputation with circulation overmental Research unit at the College of 100,000. It was the overwhelming publicForestry, have received their support from response to this article thatopened the doorthe start. Now, after five summers of work- to effecting the action phaseof our studies. ing intermittently on the problem, we feel Because this article explains the nature ofwe have some answersthat will enable the facility-rehabilitation problem wefaced, forest resource managers in the North- I am presenting much of it here as back-eastern States to control and to adegree ground to our follow-up program. alleviate some of the environmental prob- lems in the High Country. The first question we faced was just how THE IMPACT severe and widespread wasthe destruction. Perhaps it was only a local situation on the (From The impact of man on the high Adirondack country, by E. H. Ketch- few favorite peaks we had been climbing ledge and R. E. Leonard, in THE CON- recreationally at different times of the year. SERVATIONIST 25(2):15-18,1970,with During our first summer on the study, then, permission of the New York State De- we individually ortogether inventoried all partmentofEnvironmentalConserva- 46 peaks over 4,000 feet elevationand ex- tion.) amined every mile of trail in the High Resource managers now realize thatfor-Country. It turned out our first fears had est lands used forrecreation have a specificbeen well-founded:erosion was in fact carrying capacity for people. geographical in extent and variedfrom In truth, the ecological impactof vaca-minor to severe on different peaks. In afew tioners and recreationists on the landscapecases we were, and are,losing our scenic iseven more pronouncedthan that ofsummits fast, and some sections oftrails wildlife on their habitat. Moreover, when-are already beyondrepair. Something ob- ever the ecologicalbalance is delicate and viously had to be done. Based on our re- precarioustostart with,environmentalconnaissance, we decided to look into two pressures from humanforces are magni-things: to study the basic ecological causes fied, and even slight disturbances mayinof the situation, hopefully to getideas on time lead to outright destructionof thelong-term solutions, and at the sametime natural environments. When- thathappens, to find some temporary,expedient way to it seems that man and nature arein fullminimize the existing deteriorationbefore battle. Such is the story of man's impact onit got much worse. the Adirondack High Country, ourtheme on thc following pages. Trail Erosion The two of us who here share our thoughts with you first became awareof Trails, wherever they may be, are sure andto become erodedwith use; that is to be the developing conflict between man for nature in theAdirondack High Countryexpected, and ordinarily is no cause foresters and biologistsalarm. But, in the High Country wehave not as professional combination of critical cir- but rather as forest recreationists.In oura very unusual peaks, wecumstances. First, the slopes are steep,often free time, hiking over the high precipitous, and the soils were struck by the severetrail erosion wevery steep and encountered on all too many of thehigh wash out quickly if disturbed.The soils mountain slopes. We found even morethemselves are unusual; because ofthe vast ofquantitiesof water moving downslope disturbing the widespread destruction unstable the fragile plant communities onthe alpinethrough them, they are extremely trampled toand have little internal strength; moreover, summits, which were being particularly at death by the ever-increasing trespassofthey are typically shallow, the higher elevations, andhave a high mountain climbers. , spendcontent ofpartially-decayed organic ma- We felt professionally obliged to quickly. Because some time working on asolution. We ap-terial which washes out of the increased rainfall on these islands inproblem was in each of the two, so we the clouds, each trail soon becomes a water-selected a section of trail representative of course cutting deeper with each successivethe average condition in each and studied storm until bedrock is exposed, generally athe two. Our major question was simply matter of only a few dozen years. There-how fast does the typical trail wash out. By after the waterflow undermines the soilvisual judgment we had already recognized bank on the down-hill side of the trail,four stages in the process of trail erosion: thereby ever widening the cut. Hikers, Stage 1. Vegetation on forest floor dead trying to avoid the mud and water in theand surface litter being washed out. bottom of the trail, tend to walk on the Stage 2.Tree roots exposed and sur- side of the bank, accelerating the erosion.rounding soil layers disappearing. In short, trail erosion is speeded up in the Stage3.Unprotected lower soillevel High Country, and is a problem of greaterbelow tree roots exposed and eroding. magnitude than in the flatter, rolling hill Stage 4. Soil mantle gone and bedrock and lake country elsewhere in the Adiron- exposed:subsequent erosionlateralinto dacks. bank. As characteristic of conditions in the Trailed Peaks post-fire paper birch stands, we selected a Twenty-six of the 46 peaks havea section of the Mt. MacIntyre trail of 21 marked trail to the summit, a trail whichpercent slope and at the 3,000-foot level consequently bears the brunt of hundredswhere erosion was at the third stage. Specifi- or thousands of mountain hikers who comecally, we wanted to determine how much to the area from all parts of the Northeastthe trail was lowered each year by the specifically to enjoy the High Country. Ongradual washout; that is, how much soil these particular trails and their crowningwas actually removed from the site. The summits we have an ecological crisis on ourtechnique we used at four locationsis hands resulting from the explosive interestshown in figure 1. in mountain hiking. When we put in the study plots we Two forest types cover the mountaindeliberately selected stage 3 to measure, the slopes: spruce-fir forests, the natural type,stage we judged to be the fastest. But,in and paper birch forests, the disturbancehindsight, we hadn't expected the soil loss type. For our study, we needed to knowand subsequent lowering of the trail to be more quantitatively how severe the erosionas significant as it turned out tobe. The

Figure 1.Cross-section of a trail, showing the method used for measuring trail lowering due to erosion. The trail profile was measured at 2-inch intervalsalong the metal tape.

NAIL INTRII

NAIL CARPET THREAD IN TREE ...... FLEXIBLE average loss, including the edges of theTrailless Peaks cuts where erosion was just starting, was One would perhaps think that the 20 exactly one inch a year, a startling amounthigh peaks without maintained trails would figuring the many miles of trail traversingbe immune to the problems under discus- the mountain sides. sion here. Such is not the case. The latent After four years of periodic measure-pioneering spirit of independence in each ments we found not unexpectedly that most of us is best expressed among forest recrea- of the erosion occurs during the summertionists by choosing one's own route and season. Some of the erosion is due tofrostdestination, free of the oft-crowded trail action which tumbles soil particles off theand away from the noise and disturbance banks in the spring and fall, and quite a lotgenerated by fellow woods-travelers. But certainly is due to washout by rain. Butthere are not that many different routes after studying three trails for days on end,possible up the remaining "trailless peaks," in all kinds of weather, and at all times ofand by the 1960's most of our isolated year, we believe the greatest share of thesummits had their own multiple versions of disturbance is due to the pounding from so-called"wildernesstrails,' where the the hikers' boots, particularly those with footstepsofhundredsofindependent the cleated Vibram-type soles. The con-climbers have left their respective marks on stant cutting-in of boots roughens the sur- the forest floor, in many cases initiating a face,thereby creating an easily erodedproblem of erosion. One need not be an topography. With each step of the hiker, expert woodsman to notice most of these soil is depressed further into the bottom of routes;itturnsout therefore that they the cut, where the stream flowing down-receive a great amount of unintended use. hill in the trail during and after a rainstorm As a consequence, unmaintainedtrails carries it off the slopes. have appeared on the last of the 46 peaks Meanwhile, we set up a similar study inover 4,000 feet elevation. Indeed, theprob- a spruce-fir stand at 3,400feet near Lakelem of erosion on these less-traveled trails Arnold on Mt. Colden. The forest thereis more pronounced in one sense than on had been logged about 1920 prior to itsthe authorized trails; several of the peaks acquisition as part of the Forest Preserve have many trails converging on the summit. but the second-growth pole-size stand isNow they get worse each year because vigorous and healthy, and the sitenot novice climbers walk over several of them damaged directly by the harvesting. Thetrying to find which one actually leads to trail in this case is the old logging road, ofthe summit. Until a single one is selected to only modest steepness:14 percent slope.be marked and maintained as the official Although only about 35 years old, practi-trail, each of the many trails will continue cally the entire section of trail is in erosionto erode and threaten the ecologicaland stage 3. For our study this.time wechanged aesthetic integrity of the remaining sum- the arrangement of our profile lines to run mits. It seems a shame we can't leave some across the trail at an angle in such a way as of our mountain peaks isolated and alone to tell us not only how muchthe trail wasin a true wilderness condition, but so long being eroded downward but also how fastas people demand to climbthem, the best it was widening sideways. we can do is minimize theirdamage, con- Again we found severe lowering of thecentrating the disturbance on a single trail ground level, this time slightly over an that can be supervised and maintained prop- inch a year. More startling was our discov-erly by State forest rangers. ery that the trail waswidening at essentially Disturbing as the trail problem is, the that same rate! Thus, once downward cut- two of us feel optimistic aboutit all for a ting begins, lateral erosion may keep pacesimple reason. The resource managers al- withit.Trail erosion, then,isa two-ready know fairly well how to handle the dimensional problema vertical droppingecological degradation; the rangers know of the trail surface, as expected, but also ahow to locate trails wisely on a gradual horizontal movement at approximately thetraverse upslope instead of goingstraight same rate. up and down; theyknow how to put in 1V5 water bars at regular intervals to shunt the particular bog (THE CONSERVATION- water flow off thetrails onto the forestIST, June-July 1964) depends upon the floor where it can be slowly absorbed. To particular chemical-physical characteristics a great extent we already have the technical of each situation, but one highly specialized know-how, though admittedly we have yet plant group is universally present in all our to devise aesthetically pleasing techniques norther bogs, namely sphagnum moss. It is to preserve the naturalistic settings alongthe group responsible for peat formation the trails. What we frankly don't have is (THE CONSERVATIONIST, April-May the necessary staff of trail rangers to handle 1961), for the deep deposits of peat moss the upkeep problems created by the hordes now being used as a soil emollient. As the of recreationists now exploring the moun-crowded plants, only a few inches tall to tain slopes. Fiscally we are budgeted for the start with, grow upward each year, their 1950's while our problems are those of the older stems die off or they become buried 1970's. In view of the exploding interest in in their own stems and leaves; in their up- forest recreation, realistically we need to ward movement they leave behind a sta- expand our financial and logistic support tionary wake of their own remans, so to for trail maintenance and for related envi- speak, which settles into the compact layers ronmental protection. of peat now familiar to every gardener. Peat in itself is not a good substrate for Summit Destruction plant growth. Itis lacking in nutrients, We face an altogether different and more though it will retain them nicely when sufficient fertilizer is added. It is very acid complex problem in the matter of ecologi- in chemical reaction and must be heavily cal destruction of our higher summits. limed to make a "sweet" soil. The empty The key to understanding the problem leaf cells will retain great amounts of water, here is an appreciation of the fragile nature and once so wetted, peat remains damp ofthesearctic-likeplantcommunities several days, whence part of its value in crowning the higher Adirondack peaks. Onegardening. The combination, then, of sour might think that a group of plants tough and wet is what makes the bog condition in enough to withstand the extreme environ-which only a few specialized types of mental conditionprevailing on a wind- plants can survive. swept mountain summit would certainly be able to take the trampling of hikers. As for the Adirondack summits, most of Such is not the case. Cold temperatures, which are rounded mountain tops, they short growing seasons, infertile soils and stick up into the sky like blotters inter- drying winds are one thing, but the sum- cepting moisture-ladenclouds constantly mer-long, physical pounding under thou-floating by. Theirs is a misty, damp envi- sands of human feet is too much to expect ronment much of the year, a good growing condition for sphagnum mosses. Moreover, here where growing conditions alone are accumulated dead plant remains decay very so treacherous. slowly in these cold, sub-arctic ecosystems; The complicating factor in the alpinethe undecayed plantmatter creates an zone topping theHigh Country isthe acid, mucky soil, the type of substrate on absence of a true meadow vegetation pro- which sphagnum does well to the exclusion tecting the site; that is, there is no toughof most other plants. The final result of sod of intertwining grass roots binding the this interaction of environmental condition soil together underground. The reason for is that sphagnum moss, not grass, turns out this is reflected in the uniqueness of the to be the meadow-forming plant on our alpine habitat: It really is an inverted bog.mountain tops. It is the ground matrix in which all other plants are rooted. It is the Summits Resemble Bogs ecologically dominant plant controlling the In its simplest terms a bog is nothing site and directing vegetational development. more than a wet depression wherein peaty, In brief, the summit may be visualized as saturatedsoilsdevelop. The typesofa thin veneer of sphagnum bog arching plants and other life forms inhabiting any over the summit rock like a giant, upside- down bowl, a concave cap of bog environ-human disturbance, then we would have to ment sitting inverted on a mountain top,(1) supplement the native flora with one of all places! or more hardier introduced species of plant The significance here is that sphagnumbetter able to withstand the pressures, and lacks roots and woody parts. The delicate(2) increase the energy flow and health of aerial shoots are entirely soft and herba-the community, by the addition of essential ceous; the lower stems in contact with thenutrients via fertilizers. We assumed, of ground quickly die as they shade out, andcourse, that saving a summit community crumble into peat. Such afragile plant,somewhat altered with a non-native species however well-adapted to the natural envi-was alesser evil than losing the entire ronment prevailing on the summits, cannotalpine zone outright, as was so evidently, take the new phenomenon appearing there,happening all around. We hoped that if theadvent of the hordes of mountainwe could arrest or abate the erosion, per- climbers and hikers criss-crossing all overhaps then by improving the site fertility we the mountain tops. In the alpine environ-might get a catch of local species to seed in ment, footprints oft become indelible tracksagain; and take over once more, as was in the tundra meadow, spots which diegoing on naturally long before the recrea- back and soon start to erode out. Thetionistsarrived.Idealistically,our long- fundamental ecological truth of the situa-term goal was to restore the summit to the tion is simply that the alpine-zone plantspre-recreationist condition. rooted in the sphagnum matrix are eventu- ally trampled to death by the hikers walk-Mt. Dix Test Area ing around and enjoying the view from different vantage points on the open summit. To that end we selected the sixth highest Once so exposed, the unprotected sphag-Adirondack peak, Mt. Dix, elevation 4,857 num matrix is quickly killed as well, andfeet, as the test peak. It has three stretches soon the black, mucky component in theof bare peat on the summit ridge badly matrix leaches out in the rains, leaving theeroded after the alpine plants had been near-inert peat stems and leaves. Thereaftercrushed to death. In an ecological sense the erosion is next to impossible to stop so longthree are disaster areas. as the site is continually subjected to the We started our efforts with a simple pressures of human trespass. transplant experiment. Earlier we had noted The alpine trespass-capacity, as we per-that alpine bent grass,Agrostis borealis, sonally term the limited carrying capacityone of the ten species of alpine grasses (all of such fragile environments for people, isof which are relatively rare in the region) much lower than the current level of trafficwas flourishing nicely in one patch on flowing over every one of the 12 higheranother lofty summit, Gothics. From that peaks having tundra conditions attheirhealthy stand we lifted eight small clumps, summits. Therein lies the cause for theroots, soil, and all, and transplanted them approaching destruction of our preciousto one of our three study areas on Mt. Dix. arctic landscape in the High Country: tooWith a sufficient dose offertilizer, we many people for the precarious environ-hoped they would establish themselves and ment to handle. perhaps in time spread over the bare peat, If we can't slow down the flow of rec-stopping further erosion. To our disap- reationists to the summits (a question thatpointment we found only two clumps should remain open and debated, we per-surviving the following year. As we had sonally believe), then what can the ecolo-feared, the bare peat had been so leached of gist do to lessen the human impact on theseits few nutrients since becoming exposed few alpine jewels? The answer, obviously,to the weather some years back that it acted lies in countering the ecological degrada-like a vacuum sucking up the fertilizer, in tion inflicted upon the landscape; but how?a sense, leaving little for the plants. We sought to find out in two ways. Our Meanwhile, in the other two locations basic premise was that if the natural vege-where all plants had been killed out, we put tation could not cope with acceleratingin test plots trying to establish in each a 1.77 sod of new grass. Our purpose here wasof that beautiful, vigorous, patch of lawn simply to see if we cculd get some other !was to us a satisfying experience. types of grass, commercially available, to , This past summer we expandedour grow during the summer. If so, then we'efforts by bringing into the study Dr. would pick out certain northern species;Norman Richards, a fertilizer specialist in selected specifically to withstand year-loi*our Silviculture Department at the College. the severe environments prevailing on Adi-Under his direction we re-treated the plots rondack summits. The tests in this caseusing different combination of grass seeds involved each time: a square yard of bareand specializedfertilizers kindly formu- ground heavily fertilized so as to provide alated for us at no charge by Agway Inc., favorable spot for any native plants towho have been supporting similar efforts spread in; a second square yard planted toin the Pacific Northwest. At the conclu- grass seed but without fertilizer added; andsion of the summer season 1970 we will a third square yard treatedwith bothevaluate our results to date. Hopefully in fertilizer and grass. 1971 we will put in some final test plots on another untreated erosion area to verify Our first summer we didn't get the plotsour conclusions from the five-year study. put in until mid-summer. The following Our ultimate aim in this study is to pre- spring we found no results whatsoever inpare and distribute an erosion control guide thefertilizer-alone or grass-aloneplots,for resource managers suggesting means for though the grass had started in the grass-restoring eroded high-mountain trails and plus-fertilizer plot before September frostsdegraded summit areas, thereby giving the had forced it dormant. The second summerforesters in the field the tools and techniques we tried again, in late May; this time weto control the complicating disturbances also sprinkled over all plots half an inch ofbrought about by recreationists in the al- the black, amorphous muck that had beenready fragile environment we know as the washed out of the peat years ago, butAdirondack High Country. remained trapped in a nearby depression. That fall we were greatly excited to dis- cover that thefe rtilizer-plus-grassplots were 90 percent uccessful, that each had THE RESPONSE a strong, vigorous sod of grass, much in contrast to the germinated but now dead Theresponsetothe CONSERVA- grass on the unfertilized plots nearby. NowTIONIST article was startling. Apparently we knew we were on the right track bothwe hit a sensitive spot in the public con- as to the fundamental ecological cause atscience, in part no doubt due to the uni- the bottom of the environmental problemversal concern for environmental issues, but and to an expedient way of stabilizing thealso, we think, due to a special awareness eroding surfaces. Our next task would beamong forest users themselves of what their a mass treatment of the three bare areas,increasing numbers are doing to the land- each of which covered about 200 squarescape. They are worried about what is happening. They realize that they them- feet. selvesindividually and collectivelyare at The following summer a party of fourthe root of the problem. of us from the College of Forestry packed Meanwhile, as our work has progressed, in 50 pounds of fertilizer and 10 pounds ofDr. Leonard and I have been talking about grass seed to Mt. Dix. We treated the threethe problem to all sorts of interested groups main erosion areas uniformly with seed andacross the State: college outing clubs, Boy fertilizer, and lightly broadcast the remain-Scout troops, hiking clubs, local chapters ing natural mucky 'deposits over the peat.of national organizations, and lay groups Our efforts were partially undermined un-of various persuasions. In every case, sev- fortunately by a severe thunderstorm theeral members of the audience have ex- night of the treatment, but even so we hadpressed readiness to help in the work, some 70-80 percent grass cover in September,enthusiastically so. The numbers of volun- better than we had expected. The first sightteers prepared to spend a few days at labor

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for us in the mountains is most gratifyingregular trail maintenance and management and has assured us of a ready work forceactivities. once we have formulated anaction pro- In addition to the instructional program gram, which this past winter we havedone. at the Workshop, we will organizethe The biggest alarm to the growing envi-participants into small work parties that ronmental problem in the High Peaks haswill assume responsibility (under super- appeared, in part independent of our ownvision of the local trail ranger) for par- preachings, in the two recreational groupsticular sections of the high-mountain trail most closely tied to the resource:the Adi-system, including the summits. These squads rondack Mountain Club, a 6,000-memberwill handle such minor problems as water- organization of broad conservation-preser-bars and similar environmentalfirstaid vation interests who for yearshave assistedwhen the need may rise, and also will be the State ranger force in their spring trail-availableoccasionally to work with the clearance operations; and the AdirondackRanger should major rehabilitation be re- 46ers, aprestigous group of some 700quired. Similarly, a selected few members mountain climbers who have attained allwill work directly with our research party 46 peaks over 4,000 feet elevation, whichoffrom the College, reseeding and treating a course are the peaks mostshowing thefew eroding summits or scenic overlooks ecological ravages of overuse. and otherwise assisting in our continuing The 46ers in particular have respondedstudies of the basic ecological situation. to the impact problem withsoul-searching In September, at the annual 46er fall self-analysis. Their more active membersouting, the work parties will assemble for have come to perceive that they in trutha review of our summeraccomplishments bear a major share of the responsibility,and, more important perhaps, for a group both because of their club's climbing ac-evaluation of the basic idea of direct in- tivities and also because of the way theyvolvement of recreationists in vegetational have oversold "peakcollecting"asanrestoration. We have every reason to be- exciting sport. Because their organizationallieve that we will be successful in this pilot conscience has been stirring separate fromproject, and in 1972 will be able to mobilize our proddings, theyseemed ripe, so toan even larger force toassist the local re- speak, for Ray and me to convert to a new,source managers in theirtrail programs. invigoratedrationale,a new missionof TRAILSMANSHIP, to justify their con- The simple moral of our story, we be- tinued existence. Instead of disbanding aslieve, is the new dimension to facility re- some had suggested, theleaders have per-habilitation; involvement of selected rec- suaded the membership tohelpbeginreationists themselves in a continuing_pro- countering the damage by becoming ex-gramofvegetationrestoration.There amples of good trail stewards, oftakingalways will be an administrative lagin workrespondingtoecologicalconsequences time off from their pleasure climbs to of constructivelyontrail improvements,created by recreation overuse, because thereby setting the standard for othcrthe lead time needed to gear up fiscally. forest recreationists. Budgets may be anticipated in advance by To accomplish that end, we are nowthe men in the field, for sure, but adequate involving the 46ers as our workingforce infundingtypicallymaterializesafter the an action program toapply the lessons wecrisis, which may be too late. In the interim, have gained from our rehabilitationeffortswhile we await adequate stuffing of the trail in the High Peaks. This spring, assistedbymaintenance force, we can turn to the rec- personnel from the Department ofEnviron-reationists themselves to assist us to a sig- mental Conservation, we are conducting anificant extent as trail mcdics. The central Trailsmanship Workshop for the 46ers totheme to our story, thc one contribution train a cadre of "trail mcdics," a pilot groupwe feel we aremaking to the question of of volunteers, to work with us in our con-facility rehabilitation, is the new dimension tinuing research program and withtheof involvement of participating recreation- ranger force of theDepartment in theirists in vegetational restoration. CARRYING CAPACITY: MAINTAINING OUTDOOR RECREATION QUALITY by DAVID W. LIME and GEORGE H. STANKEY, USDA Forest Service, respectively Geographer, North Central Forest Ex- periment Station, St. Paul, Afinn; and Geographer, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Missoula, Mont.

ABSTRACT. A discussion of (1) what is meant by the concept of recreational carrying capacity; (2) what is known about capacities in terms of both how resources and experience of visitors are affected by recreational use; and (3) what alternative procedures the administrator can use to manage both resources and visitors for capacity.

RECREATION resouite administra- THE CARRYING tors, planners, researchers, and citizen CAPACITY CONCEPT groups are continually groping for Few topics in recreation management are strategies that will tell them how to man- discussed as widely or as loudly as carrying age the growing numbers of Americanscapacity. The term is a perfect example of participating in outdoor recreation activi- conventional wisdom: everyone talks about ties. We atthis symposium are keenly managing our recreation resources within aware of the attractions of outdoor recrea-their carrying capacity; but when you get tion, the rapidly growing needs for recrea-to specificshow many, .what kinds, when, tional services, climbing use figures, hazards for whom, etc.the discussion bogs down. to the resource resuking from intensive We might start with a statement of what visitor use, and other barometers of acarrying capacity is not. There seems to be "crisis in the making." real value in this approach because the term These topics frequently lead to suchis often used in a misleading fashion. For questions as What is the appropriate levelexample, many space standards have been of use for any given recreation area? Whatpopularized, such as those reviewed in steps can management take to increase anOctober Recreation Space Standards (De- area's capacity without sacrificing quality? partment of the Interior 1967). Basically, At what point must responsible administra- these standards define the maximum number tors say, "That's enough; we're full; no of use-units (people, vehicles, etc.) that can more can come in"? utilize the available recreational space at ISO one time for some activity while providingwhat type of recreational opportunity or a "satisfactory" experience for the user. opportunities the area is going to provide. For the most part, there is little evidence For example, will the goal of the area be to to suggest how the "satisfactory experi-provide camping in a near-natural setting ence'factor was arrived at and used inwith a low level of development, or will determining various space standards. Also, the emphasis be on high-density use with these space standards -have generally failed well-developed facilities for both comfort to incorpotate the level of use the physicaland activities, or what? A person interested environment can tolerate over a given timein a camping experience in a near-natural period before serious damage results. Mostsetting with few others nearby will not space standards have developed from intui- enjoy camping in a state park with many tive judgments and trial-and-error experi-other people camped close by. But this is ences rather than from quantitative evidence not evidence that the area is being used from controlled research. beyond capacity. Rather, this individual's Recreational carrying capacity is not adesires are inconsistent with the manage- simple, single, absolute value. There is noment objectives for this particular area. fixed figure we can point to for a particular At some point it may become evident recreation area and say "This is the carry- that management objectives need to be ing capacity." The recreation manager isre-evaluated, perhaps changed. With new faced with a complex set of conditions. Heobjectives, management practices may be must consider a wide range of activities,substantially altered and to the extent they many of which are in conflict with oneare consistent with the new objectives the another. He must also provide for manymanager is on safe ground. Without defi- different kinds of users; old, young, active, nite objectives however, trying to manage passive, etc. And he must provide oppor-any location for its carrying capacity will tunities for a wide range of values, many ofbe an exercise in futility. which are incompatible with one another. The golf of maximizing user satisfaction What then is recreational carrying ca-for a given geographic area such as the pacity? We define it under the assumptionNew Etgland States can be met only if we that the principal goal of recreation man-provide a spectrum of opportunities that agement is to maximize used satisfactionmeets the diverse and often conflicting consistent with certain administrative, budg-tastes of the public. etary, and resource constraints. The rec- Burch (1964) has noted that although reational carrying capacity is the characterthere is a wide range of recreational tastes, of use that can be supported over a speci-certain kinds of activities tend to be associ- fied time by an area developed at a certainated with one another. These "activity level without causing excessive damage toaggregates" place certain demands on the either the physical environment or the ex-resource and relate in certain predictable perience for the visitor. Thus capacity is aways to other users. Thus, regionwide plan- multidimensionalanddynamicconceptning may be needed to meet the diversity capable of manipulation by the managerof recreational tastes. However, "no one consistent with administranve, budgetary,recreation supplier need feel obliged to and resource constraints. meet all demands. Each public agency could There are three basic components ofaim clearly at a part of the demand, and carrying capacity: (1) management objec-refer people who want something more, tives, (2) visitor attitudes, and (3) recrea-less, or different to a more appropriate tional impact on physical resources. Thesearea" (Lucas 1963). arc not independent uniqueconsiderations, Today, developed camping facilities oc- of course, but are closely interwoven. cupy only about 1/20 percent of National Forest land. Although much of the land is Managsment ObOctivos unsuited for recreational developments, the Capacity can be judged only in light ofnotion that we have used up the capacity the particular management objectives for aof our National Forests to provide for rec- given area. These objectives must definereational demands is simply invalid. We do 181 face a problem in establishing the appropri- do so, individual recreation areas will tend ate mix of the many kinds of recreationalto become homogeneous, lacking the vari- opportunities we might develop, and it isability and diversity needed in a recrea- here that an understanding of what the tional complex. We cannot please everyone recreationist seeks becomes invaluable toeverywhere. "It seems misleading to give management decision-making. By making equal weight to evaluations by people who sure thatafullrange of opportunitiesare seeking a different type of area or ex- exists (regardless of the agency or organiza- perience. By analogy, a Chinese restaurant tion that provides them), we will then bewould do well to ignore the opinion about in a position to match visitor needs withthe food expressed by someone who ate opportunities rather than trying to developthere by mistake while seeking an Italian recreation areas for the mythical "averagerestaurant" (Lucas 1970). user" (Shafer 1969). Although management tannot rely solely on public opinion in formulating decisions, Visitor Attitudes visitor attitudes are valuable in formulating decisions. They help define the spectrum of "Perception" refers to the process wherebyopportunities needed, and the mix of these an individual receives information from the social and physical environments in whichopportunities; and they shed light on how he operates, interprets it in light of hisvisitors might respond to specific manage- experience and attitudes, and then reacts. ment actions. Knowing who may oppose a given management action and talcing mea- We know that all recreationists do notsures to explain why their preferences can- perceive the environment in the same. way;not be met may be as important as deciding what is a quality recreational experience to one may be entirely undesirable to another. for whom the area will be managed (Lime 1971a). Surveys of public attitudes can give But perhaps of more importance is that objective, unbiased feedback not otherwise what the recreationist perceives as accept-available to the manager on a variety of able or desirable may be quite different questions. from what the manager perceives (Stone and Taves 1958; Lucas 1964; Hendee and Harris 1970). In a study of National ForestImpact onPhysical Resources campgrounds, Lucas (1970) found that How much wear and tear of the re- visitorsrankedrecreationalsitequalitysources should the manager permit before much differently than Forest Service ad-he says, "that's enough"? This recreational ministrators did. Sites ranked by managers impact on physical resources is the third as only "fair" were almost all ranked highercomponent of carrying capacity. by users. Consequently, what the manager Any use of an ecosystem results in some judges to be a pleasing recreational envi-change; Frissel and Duncan (1965) found ronment may be entirely different fromthat only light use of camping sites in the what the recreationist seeks. Boundary Waters Canoe Area (BWCA) Defining recreation standards and objec-resulted in a loss of over 80 percent of the tives requires the consideration of values.ground cover at the campsite. Even in Because values arc subjective, to evaluatelocations where the management objective them is pnicularly frustrating for man-is to maintain a natural or near-natural set- agers. ose values are to count mostting, we immediately compromise total the managing agency's or the public's? Ifachievement of that goal simply by allow- public values are to be relied upon, which ing use of the location! "public"?there are so many of them! Some might argue that the capacity of an The answer to this dilemma is found inarea is the amount of use that area can how visitor objectives relate to managementsupport without serious damage to the re- objectives. As we suggested earlier, thesource. But what is "serious' damage? A needs and motivations of recreationists portion of the damaged site will recover considerably; so do recreational areas.vP'e after a brief rest if use is kept low enough must strive to match the two; if we fail to to allow the site to recuperate. On the other hand, certain techniques can be used by theImpact on Physical Resources manager to "harden" the site: he canirri- We have considerable documentation of gate, fertilize, rotate use, or pave,therebythe effects of recreational use on soil, vege- making the site more resistant to change.tation, and other physical components of But the action the manager takes is basedthe resource base. Damage to ground cover on how change relates to managementob-occurs not only becauseof direct bruising jectives ratherthandirectly on changeand crushing of vegetation, but also because itself. of soil compaction due totrampling by In an activity-oriented, high-density-usevisitors. Root growth is impaired and tree campground, the manager would be free tostability is affected. Vegetation sensitive to use a variety of techniques tooffset prob-use may be replaced by moreresistant lems of resource damage; for example, pav-species (LaPage 1967 ). Marked changes ing or planting hardy species. However, inoccur in hydrologicconditions, such db a a campground where theob;ective is toreduction in available soil moisture. Sub- provide a camping opportunky in a fairlystantial amounts of protective plant litter natural setting,the amouat of resourcemay also be lost,further increasing the change permissible would be comparatively chances of soil erosion. small. To maintain the natural setting, the Water is the focus of considerable rec- manager might have to resort torestrictions reation use. As a consequence, problems of on use (numbersof people, kind of use)water pollution will represent agrowing rather than on techniques that "harden"concern for the recreation manager.Oil the site. and gas pollution frnin outboard motorsis What the manager needs to know aboutan especially seriousproblem. Between 10 recreational impacts upon the resource isand 33 percent of outboard fuelis dis- (1) the character of change that will occurchargedinto thecooling-water exhaust under specific levels and types of use, andstream as unburnedwastesand it may be (2) how the predicted change in the physi- as high as 40 percent(Muratori 1968). cal environment relates to the managementThink of the impact of those 7 million objectives for the area. Decisions aboutoutboard craft that were using ourinland how much change is to be accepted will bewaters in 1966, over 5 yearsago! more viable anddefensible if we know Related problems stem from thedis- more about howpeople perceive and re-charge of human wastes into waterbodies, spond to changes in the physical environ-creating not only potential healthhazards, ment. The final decisionwill rest with thebut also touching off suchproblems as manager, but he cangreatly narrow thealgal blooms (Barton 1969). range of uncertainty indecision-making Wildlife plays an important rolesome- through active dialogue with the interestedtimes a primary one, sometimes asonly an public as well as with planners, engineers,incidental source of enjoymentin many academicians, and researchers. recreational activities. Regardlessof how wildlife meshes into the recreaConist'sob- jectives, however, its abundance,behavior, EFFECTS OF RECREATIONAL USE and survival is often influencedby recrea- ON PHYSICAL RESOURCES AND VISITOR ENJOYMENT tional activity. Aswe noted earlier, the managementImpact on Visitor Enjoyment objective set for a recreation area isthe controlling factor in determining carrying Only a few studies have been made on visitor's capacity. In setting management objectives,how change in site quality affects a the physical resources of the areaand theenjoyment or how the amount of recrea- of a visitor's attitudes of users must be considered.Bothtional use affects the quality of these variables are affected byincreasingexperience. loads of recreationists and may together or e Outdoor RecreationResources Re- by themselves establish constraints ontheview Commission (1962) found thatvisitors amount of use the area maysustain. to a wide rangeof recreational areas were 1E3 satisfied with the numbers of other people TECHNIQUES FOR MANAGING they encountered. In fact, the study indi- THE PHYSICAL RESOURCES AND VISITORS cated that one out of five persons felt that FOR CARRYING CAPACITY meeting more people would have been all All too often we view carrying capacity right. On the other hand, nearly one out ofin an "either/or" context: either we allow four National Forest visitors in the studyuse to continue unchecked or we drasti- felt that use levels were excessive. cally restrict numbers. Although both of these actions are alternatives that the man- One method of reducing the feeling ofager may at some time decide to adopt, crowding is to provide a certain minimumthere is a wide variety of alternatives and spacing, between campsites. In a study oftechniques available to management that New England state parks, Shafer and Burkewill help insure the goal of maximizing (1965) found about one out of three per-user satisfaction while protecting desirable sons desired a spacing of 250 to 400 feetresource characteristics before it becomes (the sites were only 50 to 100 feet apart). necessary to actually restrict numbers. We In a study of National Forest campers inmust re-emphasize that the option or com- Minnesota, Lime (1971b) found that nearlybinations of options a manager may con- all parties preferred to be well separatedsider for any area depends primarily on the and screened from their neighbors. On themanagement objectives prescribed for that other hand, many recreationists prefer andarea. The specific goals of the area limit even seek areas that afford opportunities tothe character of options the manager can be close to others (Burch and Wenger use. 1967). The manager should try to accomplish The most substantive work on crowdingthe followingmuch of it based on Wagar's has been conducted in wilderness. In the(1964) discussion of managing for carrying BoundaryWatersCanoeArea,Lucascapacitydepending on the area and its (1964) found that canoeists objected tomanagement objectives:reduceconflicts encountering others more than motorboat-among competitive uses; reduce the destruc- ers and motorcanoeists did. Canoeists de-tiveness of people; increase the durability fined crowding not onlyintermsofof the physical resource; and provide in- numbers of people, but also in types of usecreased opportunities for visitor enjoyment. (motorboats). On lakes where total seasonThese goals can be achieved by three over- use was less than 300 groups of canoeists,lapping courses of action: (1) site manage- canoeists felt that crowding was no prob- ment; (2) modification c + visitor behavior lem. Whcre motorboats were found, how-through direct regulation; and (3) modifi- ever,canoeists felt crowded sooner. Incation of visitor behavior by means of another study in the BWCA as well as inindirect and more subtle measures. three western wildernesses, Stankey (19U) found that tolerance to crowding was a Site Managentent function not only of the level and type of Imaginative site design, landscaping, and use encountered, hut also of where andengineering can effectively increase the when the encounters took place and thecarrying capacity of some sites by channel- destructive behavior of visitors. ing the movements ofvisitors,thereby Thus unrestricted recreational use willlimiting the area they damage, providing eventually lead to soil compaction, altera-surfaces that withstand intensive use, and tion in piant species composition, increased providing access to areas that are otherwise erosion, and dissatisfaction among visitorsunused or very lightly used. regardless of whether we are talking about The movements of recreationists often a state park campground or awildernesscan be guided by the design and arrange- area. Since these areas havedifferent objec-ment of facilities and barriers. Posts,logs, tives, the decisions a manager might makerocks, and, in more critical places, fences or and the alternatives he may wish to con-guard rails, can be used to keep vehicles in sider are different. parking spots and out of campsite and pic- nic areas (Magill 1970). Paths, elevated ems (Carlsbad, for example) has unques- walkways, and bridges can similarly channel tionably disturbed the cave's ecosystems. movement. Few of us, however, would enjoy these Care should be exercised in selecting theareas had they not been altered to Increase route of paths. Routes that are picked sim-their carrying capacity. It is important to ply because they happen to be the cheapestrecognize that providing access not only or easiest place to put a path probably willeffectively increases capacity; it can also do little to enhance visitor satisfaction. Onquickly alter the type of recreational op- the other hand, letting visitors choose their portunity offered. own routes around the campground and then hardening these paths could result in Regulating Visitor Behavior an unnecessarily large amount of ground Through directregulationof where being paved. We need more informationvisitors may go, how long they may stay, about the factors that influence pedestrianand when they may enter the area, man- traffic flow. agement can attain a desired intensity of Several technires can be used to in- use for a particular site. Regulatory pro- crease the durability of the biotic com- cedures include zoning, rotating use, limits munity. Sites that have been damaged byon party size, and reservations. Implicit in overusewilleventuallyrecover,given these techniques is a trade-off between the enouah time. The demand for recreationalloss in the recreationist's freedom of choice space is such, however, that most managersand the gain in ability of the site to more cannot afford to have a substantial propor- nearly meet the visitors' needs and objectives. tion of the areas under their administration More visitors competing for the same tied up in natural restoration. As a conse- amount of recreational space will frequently quence, managers will generally need tomean that they interfere with each other s assist natural recovery processes. activities. For example, water-skiing and Irrigation, fertilization, and reseeding canfishing in the same area just do not go greatly accelerate the recovery of sites. together. Mechanized trail travel (snowmo- Herrington and Beardsley (1970) found biles, trail bikes, ATV's) is largely incom- that an application of water, fertilizer, andpatible with foot travel. Allowing high- seed would revegetate 70 percent of theintensity bike use in the immediate vicinity cover at campgrounds in central Idaho inof an Important nesting area for eagles only 3years, a percentage unattainable could create a serious conflict. through the application of seed alone. Separating or zoning conflicting uses ac- Where recreation use is heavy, managerscentuates the need for careful and deliber- may wish to convert the natural vegetativeate planning, but the benefits to be gained cover to more hardy species. Ripley (1962) will generally outweigh the costs. Perhaps has listed a number of conifers and hard-most Important, zoning can assure the per- woods that demonstrace considerable resili-petuation of a range of recreational oppor- ency in the face of heavy recreation use.tunities in an area. It assures the user's right Thinning the overstory also can increaseto a free choice among alternative forms of the resistance of trees and understory vege-recreation. In winter setting aside separate tation to abuse (IVagar 1965). Judicioustrails for snowrnobilers and snowshoers or thinning could be done to protect soil-cross-country skiers seems especially war- moisture values while not appreciably re-ranted if management wants to maximize ducing the amount of shading for visitors. enjoyment for both groups. In the Bound- Recreational use can be redistributed andary Waters Canoe Area, outboard motors capacity can be increasedusZ providingand snowmobiles are banned from about access to previously uncle_ areas. Thisone-half of the total arta to reserve this means not only additional roads and trails,part of the region for more primitive forms but also construction of facilities. The in- of recreation and travel. stallation of trails, lights, elevators, etc. at In Alaska, the State Fish and Game Asso- some of the Nation's more spectacular cav-ciation has instituteda zoning plan in IPS controlled-use hunting areas that will re-tem might create some formidable adminis- strict use to primitive travel(foot, dogtrative problems as well as negative reac- team, or horse) in some areas while onlytions on the part of some of the recreating foot travel would be permitted in otherpublic. A limited reservation system may areas. Also planned is time zoning wherebe very useful, however. only so many people are permitted in a For example, the State of Oregon has put certain area at a time. some of its large state parks on a reserva- Rotating use among available sites andtion system for the summer use period. A relying on the inherent resiliency of thecentral clearinghouse with a toll-free tele- resource to accommodate useis anotherphone number maintains information re- meansforreducing permanent damagegarding available camping locations. Res- caused by concentrated use. Temporary re-ervations are made by phone or mail with cuperation periods after watering, seeding,each individual park. Although difficulties and fertilizing probably would be mosthave been encountered with the program desirable. Developed recreation areas could(people not showing up for their reserva- be designed in such a way that sites aretions, for example), the system seems well rested1 year in 3. In camping areas andaccepted. One result of the reservation picnic grounds, for example, this could beprogram has been a shift in the makeup of accomplished by constructing three distinctuse at different camps; Oregon residents areas with separate access roads and closingtend to use the reservation parks more, off a different one each year. This wouldwhile nonresidents fill the nonreservation require that areas be overdeveloped by atcamps. least one-third; but, coupled with a con- tinuing maintenance program, the resultsModifying Visitor Behavior might be very rewarding. By understanding the factors recreation- Limiting the size of parties is an impor- istsconsider in making decisions about tant management tool for alleviating dam-where to go, and what to do, managers can age totheresource. Large groups aremodify visitor behavior in more subtle and excessively destructive of resourcesnotless obtrusive ways. By doing so, the man- only because of the large amount of spaceager does not interfere directly with the they require but also because of the inten-visitor's freedom of choice, yet he influ- sive nature of the use. For example, tenences the user to make choices that produce separate parties of three horses each whodesired changes. Visitor behavior can be use an area over a 2-month period Un-modified by (1) communication and inter- doubtedly will have a less detrimental im-pretation services, and by (2) fees or other pact on the trail and campsites than if alleligibilityrequirements.Techniquesto 30 horses traveled as a single group. maintain the site also fall in this category The noise and congestion often associ-because the way in which facilities are ated with large groups is another reason tomanaged can influence a user's decision on limit party size. iklthough we as yet do notwhether to visit the site or not and how know how visitors react to large groups inlong to stay. developed recreation areas, Stankey's ( 1 97 1 ) It is our opinion that the dissemination research in wilderness showed that largeof information to the public is one of the prdes arc strongly disliked by others.mostfruitfultoolsadministratorshave Even though large groups constitute onlyavailable to modify visitor behavior. By a small proportion of total use for mostincreasing contact with the public (both recreation activities, they may well cause avisitors and potential visitors)managers disproportionate loss of enjoyment can probably solve many current problems Requiring recreationists to obtain reser-and help avoid others. vations is one way to control both the level Communication and interpretative serv- and character of use at any given area.ices for recreationists are many and varied. Complete switchover to a reservation sys-Organized services with personal contact

_ fAs includeillustratedtalks,movies,slides, simply the result of not knowing what is nature walks, tours, and campfire programs. right, rather than overt maliciousness. Other services include self-guidingtrails Third, better communication with the and roads, museums, brochureb, maps, and public gives the manager an opportunity to guidebooks. Communication between oneexplain to those visitors who object or are public agency and recreationists could beopposedtocertain management actions increased by greater dissemination of in-why their preferences cannot bc mct. Not formation through other public agencies,only should management try to better un- local businessmen and chambers of com-derstand the needs of their clientele, but merce, newspapers and magazines, and radiothey have an obligation to help thc public and television. understand the needs and goals of recrea- Another approach is to build some visitortion management. Ultimately, this two-way information centers in metropolitan areasprocess can do much to win public accept- so uscrs can morc efficiently plan trips inance and support of many management advance. This also would provide an op-proccdurcs. portunity to educate them about appropri- Finally, increasing the flow of informa- ate behavior, rules, etc. Bccausc many userstion that the recreationists use in making find recreation areas by just driving around,decisions is another way to change patterns it is essential to have an adequate numberof usc. More uniform and efficient use of effectively placed roadside informationamong sitcs should bc possible. For ex- signs. A study in Utah showed recreationalample, people seeking solitude should be usc of an arca could bc changcd substanti-informed where use is lightest. This would ally by signing (Brown and Hunt 1959).both makc use of sites more uniform and Finally, there undoubtedly arc countlesswould also help people to maximize their imaginative communication techniques beingenjoyment. Snowshoers and skiers would utilized in other fields of public relationsprobably appreciate very much knowing that can be applied directly or modified foron which trails they could least expect to use in recreation management. encounter snowmobiles. What arc the byproducts both for man- Various aspects of visitor behavior agers andrecreationists of aneffectiveespecially usc patternscan also be modified communication or interpretation program?in both space and time by the use of en- First, increasing our contact with visitorstrancefccs,particularly differentialfees. can help them find out what thc range ofWhere there is wide variation in thc in- recreation opportunities and attractions istensity of use between similar recreation in a given geographic arca. Thcy can thensites (campgrounds, trails, etc.) in a given route themselves to those areas that matcharea, differential fces could producc a more their interests. Recreational experiences mayeven distribution of use. In much the same also be enhanced if visitors can be taughtway that airlines and hotels use off-season anunderstanding of basicconcepts ofrates to attract tourists, both public and ecology and other outdoor values. This inprivate recreation suppliers could employ turn should increase their awareness ofdifferential charges to shift smile use to some of the more subtle attributesof anoff-peak times (LaPage 1968). Managers of area (geology, wildlife, vegetation, arche-camping areas, for example, could lower ology, and anthronology). By deepeningor perhaps eliminate entrance fees altogether their sense of appreciation and awarenesswhen use is traditionally lowon weekdays, for the natural environment, more recrea-during Indian summer, and so on. Some tionists could take better advantage of anmanagers will be in a position to promote area's recreation potential. winter camping and extend special rates in Second, we hope that increasing the flowan effort to spread use to other seasons.For of educational information to the publicthose rccreationists seeking an escape from will result in a reduction in the destructive thenormallycrowded summer camp- behavior of some persons. We azume heregrounds, these opportunities could be espe- that much of their destructive behavior iscially appealing. Requiring recrcationists to demonstrate a tunities thc arca itself is going to provide, certain minimum levelof knowledge orand (2) thc recreational opportunitics othcr skill before thcy arc eligible to parocipaterecreation suppliers in thc immediate arca in an activity or enter an area is anotherprovide. As aresult, managing agencies means of maintaining recreational quality should work closely with each other in whcrc there is limited capacity and high regional planning so thcir individuai areas demand. Thc "huntcr safety" program is function as part of a whole. similar to what wc have in mind; young Providing a wide range of opportunities people arc required to show a certain level to choose from in a region will help visitors of proficicncy in firearm safety and game-maximize thcir enjoyment.Use patterns management principles before receiving a should morc closely parallel the goals of hunting license. Because of potential crowd- management, and thc efficiency of manage- ing in wilderness, "entrance cxams" mayment should bc morc nearly optimized. some day be desirableto maintain thc quality of such arcas (Hardin 1969). While 2.Determining carrying capacity ulti- these actions of management arc regulatory mately requires thc consideration of human to a point, they do not interfere directlyvalues. Because of thc subjectivity of these with thc recreationists' freedom of choice. values, it is essential that managers carry on Once hc has dcmonstratcd hisability, a an active dialogue with a variety of publics. person is essentially free to do as hc pleases, Inthis way management objectives and consistent with ccrtain rules of safety. capacity guidelines will bc more viable and defensible against public criticism. Eligibility requirements could also bc established differentially to shift usc from 3. Thc resistance of an area's resources onc place to another and from one timcto usc is an important constraint on carry- pericol to another. Inexperienced canoeists, ing capacity. Yet, knowing how the rc- for example, might be excluded from ccr-sourcc is affected by various levels and tain streams at certaintimes until thcytypes of usc does not by itself tell the reach an acceptable level of proficiency.manager what is an acceptable amount of Snow skiing is another activity whcrc anchange to permit. There are many po.nible individual could bc required to demonstrate standards of acceptable change that thc t minimum level of skill before hc couldmanager could employ. It is important to usc certain slopes. remember that the objectives for the area Wc hasten to add that law enforcementare thc controlling factor for these stand- also has its place in managing for capacity.ards. Managcrs must consider the opinions Regardless of what the land managcr doesand concepts of a variety of publics before to protect thc resource and enhance visitorthey act. Although administrators cannot enjoyment, some people simply will not get manage by public opinionalone, time thc message. To protect the site as well ;;sopinions can help thc manager narrow thc thc rights of thc careful visitor, thc re-range of uncertainty in the decisions he sponsible administrator may at times have makes. to rely upon legal sanctions. 4. Thcrc has been considerable research about the effects of recreational usc on resources and recrcationists. Our knowledge SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS of the iaverse effects of use on soil and Our efforts to explore thc topic of carry-vegetationresourcesisrelatively good; ing capacity have left us with five conclu- knowledge about the effects on other re- sions. sou daily water and wildlifeis I. There arc many possible,carrying ca- mucheslesesXfininve. pacities for a given recreation arca. These Our knowledge of how various levels of capacities can be defined only in light ofuse, types of use, and site dign affect the the objectives for the area in question. experiences of users is still less understood. These management objectives must con- We have learned, however, that recreation- sider:(1) the type of recreational oppor- ists whn appear superficially similar do not have identical nccds and do not perceiveinterpretation services, fees (especially dif- thc recreation environment in the samcferential fees), and other eligibility require- manner. Nor do managers perceive thements. The best technique or combination recreation environment in the same way asof techniques to usc depends primarily on recreationists. Because ofdifferencesin thc particular recreational opportunity the people's tastes,itis essential that leisurearea is meant to provide. behavior be thoroughly understood. Regulations, direct or indircct, are useful tools for the rccrcation manager. But they 5. Managing an area for itscarrying in manymust be applied thoughtfully, with careful capacity_ can be accomplished reasoning underlying their implementation. ways. Ntl =IOUS procedures are availableA campground filled with signs saying what to the manager before it is necessary toa person cannot do will not go veryfar ration total numbcrs of recreationists. Thetoward meeting the underlying objective aim of these techniques should be to: re- management maximizing duce conflicts among competing uscs; re-ofrecreation uscrsatisfaction. Regulations should be duce destructive behavior of people; incrcascviewed as mcans to an cnd rather than as the durability of sites; and provide increasedan cnd in themselves. All of us, administra- opportunities for visitor enjoyment. tors, managers, researchers, and thc rec- Procedures for postponing the rationingreating public, need to remember that. To of useinclude:(I)site managementthe extent that a regulation helps meet barriers, paths and trails, roads, artificialmanagement objectives, it is useful. Beyond surfaces, Irrigation, fertilization, and hardythat,itis simply an encumbrance to all species of vegetation; (2) regulating visitorparties concerned. More important, inde- behaviorzoning, rotating use, party sizcfensibleregulationswill makeit more limitations, and reservations; and (3) modi-difficult to institute needed rules at some fying visitor behaviorcommunication andlater time.

Literature Cited Barton, Michael A. Herrington, Roscoe B., and 1969. WATER POLLUTION IN mums axcar.Anosat. Wendell G. Beardsley. AREAS. J. Soil and Water Conserv. 24 (4): 112- 1970. IMPROVEMENT AND MAINTENANCE OF CAMP- 134. GROUND VEGETATION IN aNTRAL mato. USDA Brown, Perry J., and John D. Hunt. Forest Serv. Res. Pap INT-87, 9 NI., illus., Inter- 1969. THE rsn.usxce or ucroaasarmis SIGNS Ws mount. Forest and Range Exp. Sta., Ogden, VISITOR DISTRIBUTION AND USE. J. Leisure Res. 1 Utah. (1): 79.-83. LaPage, Wilbur F. 1967. SOME OBSERVATIONS ON CAMPGROUND Burch, William R., Jr. TRAMPLING AND GROUND COVER RESPONSE. USDA 1964. TWo coxa.prs FOR GUIDING REMATION Forest Serv. Res. Pap. NE-68, 11pp., illus., MANAGEMENT DECISIONS. J. Forestry 62: 707-712. NE. Forest Exp. Sta., Upper Darby, Pa. Burch, William R., Jr., and Willey D. Wenger, Jr. LaPage, Wilbur F. 1967. THE SOCIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PARTICI- 1968. THE ma or FEES IN CAMPERS' DEMONS. PANTS IN THREE STYLES OF FAMILY CAMPING. USDA Forest Serv. Res. Pap. PNW-4 29 pp., USDA Forest Sen. Res. Pap NE-118, 24 pip, Mos, Pacific NW. Forest and Range E.v. Sta, illus., NE. Forest Exp. Sta., Upper Darby, Pa. Portland. Ore. Lime, David W. 1971a. How VISITORS SELECT CAMPGROUNDS: AN Department of the Interior. EXAMPLE Or BEHAVIORAL RESEARCH IN RECREATION 1967. Ouncoit accatams space STANDARDS. 67 MANAGEMENT. in BEHAVIORAL SPENCE AND THE Printing Office, Washington, PROBLEMS OF OUR Exvntormovr. (Ed. by Joachim ff.c.Government F. Wohlwill and Daniel H. Carson.) Amer. Frissell, Sdney S., Jr., and Donald P. Duncan. Psycho!. Assoc., New York. (In press) 1965. CAMPSITE PRIPERENCE AND ornnuoitAnorr. Lime, David W. J. Forestry 63: 256-260. 1971b. FACTORS tarmustfarts CAMPGROUND UN Hardin, Garret SUPERVOR NATIONAL FOREST OF MOMENTA. 1969. THE ECONOMICS or watatalszss. Natur. USDA Forest Serv. Res. Pap. NC-60, 18 pp., History 78: 20-27. 21us, N. Cent Forest Exp. Sta, St. Paul, Mmn. Hendee, John C., and Robert W. Harris. Lucas, Robert C. 1970.FORESTERS' PERaFTTON OF WTLDERNESS 1963. Tim STATUS OF statunces IICESEARCH vit- USER ATITTUDES AND PREFERENCES. J. Forestry 68: LATED TO USERS. Soc. Amer. Foresters Proc. 1963: 759-762. 127-128. Boston, Maw. 1 99 Lucas, Robert C. um USDA Forest Serv. Res.Note SE-171, 2 pp., 1964. WILDERNESS PERCEPTION AND USE: THE SE. Forest Exp. Sta., Asheville, N. C. EXAMPLE OF THE BOUNDARY WATERS CANOE AREA. Shafer, Elwood L., Jr. Natur. Res. J. 3 (1): 394-411. 1969. THE AVERAGE CAMPER WHO DOESN'T MIT. Lucas, Robert C. USDA Forest Serv. Res. Pap. NE-142, 27 pp, 1970. USER EVALUATION OF CAMPGROUNDS ON TWO illus., NE. Forest Esp. Sta., Tipper Darby, l'a. MN2RGAN NATIONAL USDA FOUST SUT. Shafer, Elwood L., Jr., and Hubert D. Burke. Rcs. Pap. NC-44, 15 lop., illus., N. Cent. Forest 1965.Pautatas FOR OUTDOOR arcaunox Exp. &a., St. Paul, Minn. FACILITIES IN MIR STATE PAW. J.Forestry 63: Magill, Arthur W. 513-518. 1970. Fut CAUFORNIA CAMPGROUNDS ... CONDI- StankeyGeorge H. TIONS IMPRMY AFTER5 YEARS RECREATIONAL 1971. TnE PERCEPTION or WTLDERNESS RECIXATION USE. USDA Forest Serv. Res.Pap. PSW-62, 18 CARRYING CAPACITY: A GEOGRAPHIC STUDY115 pp., illus., Pacific SW. Forestand Range Esp. NATURAL REPWRCES MANAMMENT. PhD. disser- Sta., Berkeley, Cal. tation, Mich. State Univ., 351 pp., illus. Muratori, _Alex, Jr. Stone, Gregory P., and Marvin J. Tares. 1968. How OUTWARDS CONTRIBUTE TO WATER 1958. CAMPING IN THE WITAIERNESS. In MASS rou.vuox. N. Y. Conservationist 22 (6):6-8, MUMS- (Ed. by Eric Larrabee and RolfMeyer- 34, illus. Kohn): 290-305. The Free Puss, Glencoe. Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Wagar, 1. Alan. Commission. 1964. 1 HE CARRYING CAPACTTY OF WILDLANDS iron 1962. THE QUALITV OF ot:ThooR RECREATION: Al xrattAnow. Forest Sci. Monog. 7, 23 pp. Wm. Evrovran By csu sAttsrAcrtox.Washington, Wagar, J Alan. D. C.: Government Printing Office, 95 pp., illus. 1965. CULTURAL TREATMENT OF VEGETATION ON Ripley, Thomas H. RECREATION STNS. Soc. Amer. Foresters Proc. 1962. TRU AND SHRUB =SPONSE TO Pi:CREATION 1965: 37-39. Detroit, Mich.

An exteruive bibliograpby rekvam to carrying capacity decision-making is available upon request to tbe 4nabort. A Look at the Research Task Ahead CULTURAL "FOGWEED" AND OUTDOOR RECREATION RESEARCH

by WILBUR F. LaPAGE, Recreation Specialist, Durham Research Laboratory, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station, Forest Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Durham, N. H.

ABSTRACT. A critical look at outdoor recreation research and somc underlying premises. Thc author focuses on thc conccpt of culture as communication and how it influences our perception of problems and oiir search for solutions. Both outdoor recreation and science arc viewed as subcultures that have their own bodies of mythology, making recreation problems more difficult to define and to resolve.

FDWARD deBONO, physician and Another sure symptom of fogweed over- ., author of several books on the subjectexposure is the pleasant fanmsy that there of how people think, argues that "... are no causes and no effects. Everything is there are fields in which progress has beentautology: "recreation produces good citi- held Up for ages because of the dominancezens" and, of course, "good citizens recre- of obstructive myth-like concepts... aate"; "peopk don't pay much to use a convenient term for such concepts is 'fog- public park"; 2nd "people won't pay much weed,' because they grow readily on fertile for their ovIdoor recreation." And almost soil and quickly obscure...furthermore., all fogweed victims eventually suffer severe enriching the soil with more informationdelusions, such as the idea that "outdoor only strengthens thc fogweed" (deBonorecreation demands are generated by 1 1969). mass return-to-nature motive." A more accurate description of the state And so the myths continue, despite their of outdoor recreation understanding, andinability to provide us with any useful the effect of the past decade's research,social understanding of outdoor recreation. would be difficult to imagine! They flourish in the face of authoritative Outdoor recreation is the classic case ofreports such as Herbert Gans' statement afieldchokedwith"fogweed."Dr. that ".. .I do not believe that outdoor rec- deBono's "fogweed" is,I suspect, simply reation is more environmentally favorable the generic name for a great many speciesin terms of mental health values than other of habit-forming and hallucinogenic plants. environments, or that there are significant Excessive exposure to the weedy field ofrelations between outdoor recreation, physi- outdoor recreation results in a variety ofcal fitness, and mental health" (Gans 1962). commonly recognized ailments such as a We seldom question any of our most blind insistence upon treating correlates asbasic outdoor recreationpremisesuntil causes: "More income, more leisure, andsomeone like Philip Foss reminds us that more travel, must always mean greaterthere is ". .. no apparent reason in logic or individual participationin outdoor rec-equity why a private landowner should be reation." asked to pay the cost of providing hunting

186 192 rwortunitics for the public" (Foss 1966). There arc even cultural differences in thc And, if you doubt that there are real costsways in which peoplelearn how to learn. involved, just look at the bill for vandalismSome cultures stress "doing" as aprinciple that occurs every hunting season!(Bennett oflearning, while others do not; and 1969). Western cultures arc much more likely to strms logic than rote or memory.And once Perhaps our cultural beliefs do nothave in a of logic and equity, butpeople have learned how to learn to stand thc tests them to simply thosc of timc and repetition!Be- given way, it is extremely hard for learn in any other way (Hall 1970). CatISC public attitudestoward outdoor rec- specific reation arc so profoundly shaped bythese We are, therefore, products of and similar subjectim and oftenemotionalcultural and subcultural systems, even to cultural "facts," we in recreationresearch the waVS in which we think, thcproblems study, and recreation resource managementshould that we advance as being worthy of benefit by a better understandingof howthe methods by which we examinethose culture pervades OUr perceptionsof leisure,problems, and the solutions that wc propose. outdoor recreation, and science. It should not really surprise us thatmiddle- ell% researchers with middle-class concepts of leisure and resources consistentlyfind "CULTURE IS COMMUNICATION" that outdoor recreation is predominantly a have Although there are more than 160differ-middle-classactivity! Could they of culture (Here lson andfound otherwise? Both upper andlower ent definitions desig- Steiner 1964), there is a commonthread ofclasses have ample reasons to avoid agreement that cultureis "learned and nated outdoor recreation areas. shared behavior." If culture islearned, then A classic example of this culturalblind- culture must also be taught (evenif noting of thought processes is the truc story consciously). It follows, then, that"cultureof thc skyscraper that was builtwith too the be- is communication" (Hall 1970). fcw elevators. Elevator delays at in-ginning and cnd of thc day werecausing The utility of this concept becomes and creasingly obvious as we begin toidentifyproblems of employee dissatisfaction solutions were the many nonverbal formsof cominunica-even resignations. Numerous tion that are used by pie having aproposed, such as installing moreelevators, pmding them up, stopping them atalternate shared culture, such asfl.ce-Z-1expressions, the floors, and staggering workinghours to body language, seating arrangements, finally professorial gown, the thicknessof one'sreduce the load. But the solution selected was neither a technical one or a office rug, and many, many, more. Mirrors Anthropologist Edward Hall hasidenti-direct assault upon the problem. Systems" bywere installed inthe corridors around the fied10 "Primary Message elevators, and the office workers became so which culture is learned, and 9 ofthese are spoken or writtenpreoccupied with looking atthemselves not dependent upon ri (and stealing a glance at others)that no language. For example, membersof differ- one noticed thelong wait for the elevators ent cultures arelikely to have different thereforeany more (deliono1969). perceptions of territoriality, and problem different reactions to feelings ofcrowding By a seemingly simple shift in A 200,000-definition, in this case from one ofmechan- and different needs for privacy. human impa- acre wilderness may seemlike an extrava-ical inadequacy to one of solutionwas avoided. gance to some,while for others itis atience,acostly Perhaps none of our problems inoutdoor cultural necessity. recreation can be so easilysolved. But at Similarly, temporality, or time awareness, desirability does bi-least the example illustrates the varies from culture to CulrUrC; 2S problems. sexuality, expressed in different sexroles in of trying to redefine the approach to Some problems have beenknown to other cultures. OUr cyclical Perhaps that time utilization and our beliefsabout appro-disappear upon redefinition. influence how wepervasive anner's dilemma of "how can priate sex roles strongly recreational needs of perceive leisure and the uses wemake of itwe meet the outdoor

187

101 today's and tomorrow's generations?"is wife dominated homes, from parent-cen- just a wisp of fogwecd? tered homes toward child-centered homes. from independence toward security, from Redefining an accepted "problem" is, ofparental values toward pecr-group values, course, easier said than donc because"cul-from saving toward spcnding, from post- ture hides much more than it reveals,and poned gratification to immediate gratifica- strangely enough what it hidcs, it hidestion, and from respect for the individual participants most efiectively from its own towarddislike of individual differences (Hall 1970). I suspect that cultural blinding (Kotler 1967). becomes most pronounced through training in our professional subcultures, if we may judgc from thc impressive number of major ME EIGHTH PRIMARY advances that have come from outside their MESSAGE SYSTEM field of specialization (Burnett 1966): For many years,outdoor recreation Of three discoveries essential to modem proved to be a popular way of expressing surgery, none was discovered by a sur-such cultural values as thrift, hard work, geon! and self-reliance. Today, we also sec out- door recreation reflecting the more con- Of four important railroad devices, none temporary values of conspicuous consump- WaS invented by a railroad man! tion, immediate gratification, peer-group The motel, that most successful innova-acceptance, and the easy life. This suggests tion in innkeeping, was not developed bythat outdoor recreation is, if not 1 battle traditional innkeepers! ground, at least a focal point for cultural clashes. Thc grcat movie chains did not pioneer Appropriately, in Hall's hierarchy of pri- the drive-in movie! mary message systems, recreationfalls be- And paperback books were not the brain- tween learning, No. 7, and defenseNo. 9. child of the existing publishing houses! A visit to any of today'scrowded parks and recreation areas can readily provide a Two of the major developments in out-vivid experience in learning about other door recreation of the past decade alsopeople's rights while defending your own. came from outside. Just a few short years As I read them., the tirades of one out- ago nearly everyone equated campirigwith canvas and public parkToday, there aredoor interest group against another are clearly ideological: back-pack campers ver- more than 10,000 commercialcampgrounds, franchised camp- susrecreationalvehicles;trailscooters more Than 30 chaim of woods to get groupings, and over 300 manufacturers ofversus those who go into the trailers, motor homes, and other types ofaway from noise and airpollution; rural- bred hunters versus urban-bred hunters; camping vehicles. and snow vehicles against an assorted band Changes such as these reveal one of cul- of hunters, hikers, and cross-country skiers! ture's most interesting aspects. And that is, Mass recreation, once firmly allied with despiteculture's automatic tendency toconservation interests, is increasingly being communicate a positive view of the statuscursed along with industrial polluters and quo, our cultural beliefs areconstantly other desecrators of the landscape. changing in both evolutionary and revolu- Outdoor recreation is a means of express- tionary- ways. Philip Kotler, in his book ing SO wide a range of cultural values that "Marketing .Management," suggests that wethe question of 'how long it can go on are in the midst of change in someof our such as abeing all things to all people?" underlies all most important cultural values, of our research and planning efforts. shift from self-reliance toward reliance upon government, from hard work as agood in At any campground, we may interview itself toward the easy life, from religiouspeople for whom camping provides a re- convictionstowardsecularconvictions, lease from the competitiveness and status- fromhusband-dominated homes towardl consciousness of modem society, and others who find in camping a new way to com-ing subdue-the-wilderness ethicwhich is municate dominance and superiority. Shar- something else entirely. ing any thhing hok wc can find fishermen Since those who endorse areturn-to- who arc compcting with nature by using nature theorv of recreation demand choose lightline, barblcss hooks, and releasing to ignore how the outdoors is used, and thcir catch, alongside others who compctc concentrate only on thc fact that it is used, thc basis of thc most fish brought homc thc concept is little more than a tautology. and, perhaps, given away. Our trails arc Values inferred from thc behavior rather increasingly peopled with machine usersthan measured independently arc gratui- and machine avoiclers, each challenging thc tously uscd to explain that same behavior. other's territoriality. The nct gain in understanding provided These arc the kinds of conflicts that by a tautology is zero. In fact, it may even really delimit society's demand,for out- be less than zero if it should encourage less door recreation. And vet wc continuc to than adequate recreation management. risky find outdoor recreation analysts who per- investment of public and private funds, and sist in a simple-minded pursuit of thc prom- a false sense Of SCCUlity that 2 seller's mar- ise of more leisure more incomc, more ket exists! mobility, and more peopleas though thc The return-to-nature reflects a philoso- outdoors has an endlem capacitv to absorb phy that behavior responds mom to envi- conflict. ronmental pressures than to thc individual's free will. Many outdoor recreation research- More and more cracks are beginning to ers may bc revealing their own philoso- appear in somc of the long-accepted foun- phies in thcir numerols multir.e-regression dations of outdoor recreation planning as thc evidence mounts that the averageanalyses that use environmental data to explain thc variation in park visitation rates American docs not have all thc leisure that and in individual recreation participation he is supposed to have (Linder 1969; Burck /no, that his participation may actually frequencies. be declining (L4Page and Ragain 1970), A more philosophically neutral cultural and that his recreational forays into thc belief that also influences much outdoor wild rarely have anything to do with a recreation thought is the mistaken idea that leisure is the opposite of work. This leads return to nature. to all sorts of unfortunate image-opposites The return to nature, or the "Arcadian as a result of thc persistent Protestant work Myth" as Peter Schmitt calls it, is probably ethic which equates work and with good thc most influential of our outdoor beliefs attributcs, character building, dependability, (Schmitt 1970). Simply stated, the "Ar-honesty, and thrift. Of course, the more cadian Myth" is the belief that goodness physically demanding the work, the stronger and strength flows from the land and that the implied attributes. rural living is vastly more suited to the I recall reading, a few years ago, an ob- human condition than the artificiality and servationinthe READER'S DIGEST complexity of urbanized areas. In one form about a first-grade test. One item in thc or another, this belief has been the themetest showed two drawingsone of a man for countless books, the thesis of much chopping wood, thc other of a man reading serious(if inconclusive study, and thea book. Students were asked to circle thc popular explanation for such social phe- pictum that showed a man at work. One nomena as urban crime and delinquency, little girl circled the reader and was marked urban decline, suburban growth, and out- wrong. What the teacher failed to under- door recreation demand. stand was that the child's father was a This same concept in words and inprofessor who read at work and chopped pictures sells a lot of outdoor equipment. wood for relaxation. Or does it? The buyer of the light-weight Fortunately thc work-leisure dichotomy back-pack outfit and the buyer of the is disappcaring. At a 1964 recreation educa- ;20,000 motor home are equally likely to tion conference in Syracuse, the keynote be expressing an extension of our pioneer-speaker stated emphatically that leisure is

189 195 not idleness; that it is not the opposite of ME RATIONALITY work(Tolley 1964).At a conference on OF IPECREATION RESEARCH Lcisurc in America at Philadelphia, in 1963, While the fogweed of leisure and out- onc of thc conference summarizers ex-door recreation makes the research task pressed thc group's consensus that "rec-difficult conceptually, thc mythology of reation is a field of life standing along withscicncc can be just 2S crippling procedur- health, education, work welfare, and re-ally. Thc myths of "scientific freedom," ligionin bringing 'human wholeness' to"scientific objectivity," 'scientific omnipo- man"(Charles-worth 1964). tence," and the idea that th,,re are some A recent National Academy of Sciences"grand theories" just waiting to be dis- conferencereport continuedthissame covered that will readily simplify complex theme by introducing recreation as a "socialbehavioral phenomena, along with some institution"(National Academy of Scienceswidespread misconceptions about social and 1969).However, thcwork-leisuredi-statistical "significance" are a few of thc chotomy still clearly influences thc waysmore devastating species of scientific fog- in which Americans livc, andit colors weed. (with social acceptability) thc recreational A recent LIFE magazine article nicely motivators that thcv report to researchers.summarizes tte mythology and the reality of science: The Arcadian Myth and the Protestant Ethic arc only two of our cultural beliefs One expectsscientists topviviclethe that can influence research goals, research truth, scientists being dispassionate men who can eliminate preiudice and emotion findings, and outdoor recreation planning. and teH us What is really going on here. There are, of course, many more, including Bat one learns that at the sticking point, the myths of increasing leisure time, in- science breaks down, and the scientists creasing per-capita participation in recrea- ate Waneti MO wrong, frequently biased, snd usually incapable of agreeing among tion, and the myths of perfect planning, themselves. perfect accounting, and perfect market knowledge(La Page1970).And these, From the number of popular anti-science taken together, compel US to treat thebooks that have appeared during the last future as our subservient colony, predict-vear or MO, we can =MC that at least a ing its needs, acquiring land, and planningvocal minority is communicating its distrust for its orderly doelopment. of science! A number of problems for rec- reation research, including a lack of public In designing campsites, for example, oursupport and a redUCCd willingness to co- perfect market knowledge tells us to planoperate with researchers, may result. A "big sites with vegetation between them,"common complaint seems to be based upon because "people want lots of room andscience's cherished "objectivity." There is, privacy" when they camp(Hopkins 1966).for example: And yet numerous studies during the past 10 years have suggested that sociabiliq, .. A growingreaction against science and technology... a mountingfeeling morc than outdoor resources, provides the that science and technology Mate a COld, main motivation for camping (Etzkorn artificial,impersonal, dehumanized, and 1964; Burch 1965). even monstrous world ... arevolution against the machine and everything ma- Our professional compulsion to plan con- chine-like and ... 9revolution against stantly conveys the message that tomor- system. .a revolution on behalf of row's problems are more important, more the individual and individualism, against the invasion of privacy ..." amenable to solution, and MIT attraCtiVe (Waldo 068). to study, than are today's problems. And because today's problems are too urgent Outdoor recreation research may already for research, millions of dollais are spentbe reaping some of the rewards of this new annually in the pursuit of such perfectscientific revolution. Refusals to cooperate planning myths as the idea that publicwith researchersto be interviewed, for acquisition equals resource protection. examplethough still infrequent, seem to 190116 be more common today than thcy were 3 With today's emphasis upon environmental or 4 years ago! quality,it may bc that there are more Thcrc is sonic legitimate question aboutefficient 2nd more appropriate ways of how much scientific freedom actually exists achieving these ends. with thc scientist's subcultures constantly Perhaps thc most scientific of the under- communicating thcir expectations to him.lying premises is thc exaggerated concern The "publish-or-perish" admonition, true(orrepresentivity throughbcttcruser- or not, is thc expression of a powerful cul-counts and more complete visitor rosters, tural norm that effectively limits scientificat the expense of a frequently inadequate freedom. concern for the phenomena being sampled Subtle but apparently veryeffective and measured. Here we sec the fogweed of communications within thc subculture ofscientific objectivity in full bloom. outdoor recreation agencies clearly influ- Nose -counting studies, tests of different ence thc typm of research that will be con-procedures for raising thc level of use of ducted and supported. wilderness trail registers, and comparisons I recently examined two lengthy bibliog- of the data collected by interview and mail raphies of outdoor recreation studies. Thcsc questionnaire all share an assumption that bibliographies listed25papers and reportsbetter sampling means better research. Un- on thc problem of counting visitors at rec-fortunately thc premise is incorrect reation artaS. Twenty-three of the papers No list is ever complete. But, more im- were by agency-employed scientists.Al-portant, no list can contain thc important though the other two were done by uni-small-group and situational elements that versity personnel, one was a cooperative create most outdoor experiences. An after- study with a federal agency, 2nd the otherthe-fact response, framed in the privacy of was done by an ex-Forest Service scientist. one's home, is likely to be much different Since public recreation agencies measure than one that is drawn from shared opin- success by counting heads (Gooda le1967), ions around a wilderness campfire! If we the conclusion from this disparity in prob- really hope to learn the why of different lem recognition between agency and uni-forms of outdoor recreation, we are going versity scientists should be obvion. Thatto have to use appropriate units of observa- conclUsion seems to be saying something tion. And, I suspect, the on-site-group is in about scientific freedom. most instances the appropriate unit, despite The logic behind which problems are it-s formidable sampling problems. selected for study, and the methods that Probably the single most troublesome will be used to study them, can be very piece of scientific fogweed is that perverse convincing if not always rational. Logicword:significinn."Statistical significance and rationality are not synonomous; inof a correlation coefficient, or a regression fact, even paranoid thinking is quite logical coefficient, merely means that there is a once you accept its irrationalunderlying pretty good chance that itis in fact a premise(Braden 1970). number different from zero ... One should of a There are sound (If you accept the un-not exaggerate the worthwhileness derlying premises) reasons for studies that coefficient simply because it probably dif- (Ehrenberg 1970). will yield better estimates of tecreationists. fers from zero" A park manager may be receptive to these Statistical significance says nothing about studies if he happens to see in them a betterthe adequacy of sampling, and nothing way of: (1) identifying distributional prob-about the validity of the measuring tools lems and overloads, (2) justifying addi- used. And since samplijged and measurement tional employees and new services, and (3) are generally acknowl to be the two justifying new rules and regulations tomajor problems of recreationresearch, protecttheresourceandthevisitors "significant" relationships, at this stage of (LaPage 1967).The highly debatable un-the game, must be regarded as the begin- derlying premise is that we have to play thc ning of understanding and analysis, not the numbers game to do any of these things. end.

191 197 For sound research planning,I would because hc will thcn also scc thcir barriers gladly swap all the "highly significant" to problem solving. correlation coefficients of the past 10 years And thcn, while thc rcscarchcr gocs off for a handful of good case studies that to wrestle with thc administrators' prob- yielded some solid conceptual insights to lems, they may go into another huddle with build on. their information specialist to draft a bigger and better promotional campaign for next year. FOOWEED AND THE FUTURE An awareness that culture is communica- It may bc trite, but it is still truc thattion is not, by itself, going to help solve many o(our problems arc duc to communi- any problems. But, it docs stress thc realiza- cations failureseither too little or tootion that problems arc seldom what thcy much. Usually the chargeis "too little seem to be upon first inspcction. The ad- communication," or a failure to communi-ministrator's concern for thc condition of cate at all. If we regard all of culture ashis resource is not equivalent to thc condi- communication, then poKsibly many of our tion of that rcsourcc. It is, more nearly, his problems may arise from too much com-impression of its physical condition exag- municationan informational over-kill. 'We gerated by his apprehensions for thc futurc; have literally talked some of ow problemsboth of which contain more than a pinch into existence_ of fogweed. Whenever a group of experienced out- The challenge of rccrcation research, it door recreation administrators arc discuss-seems to me, is not how to minimize or ing their problems of counting people, ormaximize the amount of information re- of soil compaction in campsites, it takes aceived, or even how to proccss it more rare research consultant to admit that hcefficiently. Thc challenge is to rccognizc can't sec the problem. Perhaps, at first, hethc fogwced. Stated anG!her way, the doesn't. But subtlesocial pressures will challengeisreally to disprove Kenneth eventually force him to sec thc problem Boulding's half serious definition of science with the same sct of blinders that they as: "the proccss of substituting unimportant wear. Obviously, if a real problem doesquestions that can be answered for im- exist, this sort Of acculturation is destinedportant questions which cannot"(Botta- to reduce the number of possible solutions, ing 1956).

References Berebon, Bernard, and Gary A. Steiner. Charlesworth, J. C. (Ed.) 1964. Ht:MAN BEHAVIOR: AN INvENTORT Of WIEN- 1964. LEISURE IN AMERICA: BLESSING OR CURSE? Tux FINDINGS. 712 pp. Harcourt, Brace & Amer. Acad. Poli. and Soc. Sci. Monog. 4. 96 Inc., New York. pp. Philadlphia, Pa. Bennettioseph W. deBono, Edward. 1969. VANDALS wILD. 238 p.. Bennett Publishing 1969. THE vTRTVRES OF ZIGZAG THTNEING. Think Co., Portland, Ore. 35 (3): 7-11. IBM, Armonk, N. Y. Bouldim. Kenneth. Ehrenber.g, A. S. C. 1956. 1111 istAct 175 pp. University of Michi- 1470. Moons or fACT: FKAMPIZs ritom MARKET- gan Press, Ann Arbor. ING. Manage. Sci. 16 (7): 435-445. Braden, William. Etzkorn, K. Peter. 1970. THE AGE OF AQUARIUS: TECHNOLOGY AND 1964. LEISURE AND CAMPING: THE SOCIAL MEANING tin ccurcam. atvottrriox. 306 pp. Quadrangle OF A FORM OF ',UNIX RECREATION. Sociol.and Soc. Boob, Chicago, Ill. Res. 49: 76-89. Burch, William R. Foss, Philip 0. 1965. THE PLAY WORLD Of CAMPING: RESEARCH 1966. THE ISSUES UNDERLYING OVIDOOR RECREA- INTO THE SOCSAL MEANING OF OVIDOOR RECIIZA- TKIN PIRACY. Nat Conf. Policy Issuesin Out- 170N. Amer. J. Sociol. 70 (5): 604-612. door Recreation Proc. 27-36. Bur. Outdoor Rec- Burck, Gilbert reation, Washington, D. C. 1970. Tntaz'm BE LESS 1213VRE THAN YOU THINK. Gars, Herbert J. Fortune 81 (3): 87-89, 162-166. 1962. Ounioco ISZCREATION AND MENTAL HEALTH, Burnett, Leo. hi TRENDS IN AMERICAN LIVING AND OUTDOOR 1966. MAnETING SNAGS AND FALLACIES. J. Market- RECREATION. ORRRC Study Rep. 22.Washing- ing 30 (3): 1-5. ton, D. C Goodale, Thomas L. Forest Serv. Res. Paper NE-183. 25 pp., illus. 1967. THE FALLACY OF OUR PROGRAMS. Parks and NE. Forest Exp. Sta., Upper Darby, Pa. Recreation Nov. 1967:39. Nat. Rec. & Parks Linder, Statran 13. Assoc., Washington, D. C. 1970. Tile HARRIED LEISURE CLASS. 182 pp. Colum- Hall, Edward T. bia Univ. Press, New York. 1970. THE SILENT LANGUAGE. Fawcett World Moser, Don. Library, New York. 1971. A LAMENT FOR SOME COMPANIONS OF MY Hopkins, Walter S. YOUTH. Life Magazine 22, Jan., 1971: 46-53. 1966. MYTHS AND FACTS ABOUT FOREST RECREA- National Academy of Sciences. TION: A REVIEW OF FOREST RECREATION RESEARCH 1969. A PROGRAM FOR OUTDOOR RECREATION RE- IN THE FOREST SERVICE. Trends in Parks and SEARCH. Report of a study conference 2-8 June, Recreation 3(1):19-22. 1968, 90 pp. Nat. Acad. Sci., Washington, D. C. Kotler, Philip. Schmitt, Peter J. 1967. MARKETING MANAGEMENT :ANALYSIS, PLAN- 1970. BACK TO NATURE: THE ARCADIAN MYTH IN NING AND CONTROL. 628 pp. Prentice-Hall, Inc., URBAN AMERICA. 230 pp. Oxford Univ. Press, Englewood Cliffs, N. J. New York. LaPage, Wilbur F. Tolley, William P. 1967.RECREATION REM:. RCH AND PUBLIC LAND 1964. THE AMERICAN HERITAGE OF LEISURE, in MANAGEMENT GOALS. New York Forester 24 (3): National Conference on Professional Education 1-6. inOutdoor Recreation Proc:146-151. Bur, LaPage, Wilbur F. Outdoor Recreation, Washington, D. C. 1970. THE MYTHOLOGY OF OUTDOOR RECREATION Waldo, Dwight. PLANNING. So. Lumberman 221 (2752): 118-121. 1968.PUBLIC ADMINISTRATIONIN A TIME OF LaPage, Wilbur F., and D. P. Ragain. REVOLUTIONS. Public Admin. Rev. 28 (4): 362- 1970. TRENDS IN CAMPING PARTICIPATION. USDA 368.

193 AN OPINION ABOUT THE FUTURE OF FOREST RECREATION RESEARCH

by JOHN F. HAMILTON, JR., University of Indiana, Blooming- ton, hid.

ABSTRACT. A discussion of the research environment, with em- phasis on the quality of future research. Some current research atti- tudes are criticized and a suggestion is given for increasing the value of research.

IN THE LAST several years, the con- ter them. We don't know how to control them. And it isn't at all obvious that we cept ofasystem has received great can control a large system in such a way attentionin many differentareas of as one remains stable. It may verywell research. Analytical enterprises falling un- be that there is a critical massthat when der such headings as operations research, a system gets too large, it just gets auto- maticallyunstable. The problems then decision theory, cybernetics, dynamic pro- we see in our medical systems, in our gramming, and information theory (all of educational systems, in our legal systems, whichareheayilyinterrelated)depend in our transportation systems, in our gar- upon a system within which to work. Thus, bage collection systems, allthe systems when considering problems of long-range you can probably thinkof,theseare planning for forest recreation, it is quite problems of instability. reasonable to approach them by researching If Bellman's conjecture about a "critical the system in which they occur. mass" is correct, it may very well be that It is unfortunate, however, that the re-the forest recreation system (a very large search and administrative agencies that dc-system) does not have a stable control vise and implement decision strategies alsomechanism. For such a system with unstable form a very large system. It is this point Icontrol I think the concept of "long-range wish to discuss first. In a recently publishedplanning" is at best a fantasy, and probably speech (Science 172:491-494; 1971) Prof.just meaningless. RichardBellman ofthe University of Suppose, however, that the Forest Rec- Southern California, a pioneer in dynamicreation (FR) system does have a stable programming and recipient of thefirstcontrol mechanism; and suppose further Norbert Wiener Prize in Applied Mathe-that the FR system and the nature of its matics, observed that: controls are fully understood. The long-

.. . wehave begun to understand ota range planning andcontrol of the FR societyis a contrast of interconnecting, system mightstillbe jeopardized. The interactinglarge systems, andthatso threat, in this case, would come from the many of the difficulties that We see to- day are the difficulties, not of inherent stability problems inherent in the system theory, good theory, bad theory, not of that promotes research in FR, fomtulates conspiracy, but just the difficulties due planning for FR, and administers Control to large systems. I think it's beginning of FR. Call this the RPC system. to be realized that our systems arefalling apart. We don't know how to adminis- For an analogy, consider an automobile

194 as a system. As we allknow, it is a reason-researched recommendations that,inhis ably smdl system and, under normal con-opinion, point in the wrong direction. As ditions, has a stable control mechanism.in any scientific enterprise, the results of an Now consider an automobile being oper-observation depend directly on the current ated by a committee of 15 people. Let dif-theory, which means that it is very easy to ferentpeoplecontroltheaccelerator,see what you want or expect to see. brakes, and Steering wheel. Let some be in Finally, the evaluation as to whether or charge of looking out the windows andnot a particular proposition or problemis others of keeping an eye on the fuel gageresearchable depends heavily on facts about and speedometer. Finally, let the rest of thethe RPC system. More concretely, those unassigned committee members circulateareas of investigation that can qualify as around and help out wherever they see fit.targets for research are more likely to be It should be clear in what sense the fu-found in the FR system than in the RPC ture of this car is in jeopardy. Inreality, system (which I have argued is the more the situation would probably be worse be-significant of the two). It would be inter- cause additional internal problemswould esting to sec more research on such ques- arise such as a dispute over what constitutes tions as; "What istheactual working safe driving, a contest between the gas-structure of the RPC system?", "What are pedal man and the brake-pedal man to seethe actualcriteria used by itsdecision- whose function is more influential, or amakers?", and "Is the current hierarchical front window viewer who just doesn'tstructure of the RPC system the one most know the significance of ice on the road. compatiblewiththesystem'sassigned functions?". Ithink questions like these THE FRAND RPCSYSTEMS will have to be dealt with if future plan- It seems to me that, of the two systemsning is to be very effective. FR and RPCthe more sensitive and influ- In one sense, of course, there always has ential with respect to FR planning is notbeen and always will be long-range plan- FR but rather RPC. Stated another way,ning in the FR system. The sense I refer my contention is that facts about theRPC to is the stipulative or prescriptive sense of system are more significant in the research- planning, such as planning a vacation or ing, planning, and controlling of the FRsetting up a schedule for car payments. system than are facts about the FR system Such planning, however, merelyr predeter- itself.There are even some aspects ofmines certain aspects of the future and RPCing FR which are completely inde-cannot, by itself, respond to the effects of pendent of factual input from the FR sys-any intermediate events. Notice also that tem. under this interpretation almost any de- First, there is always the kind c f situation cision with long-range effects can be con- in which a well-researched and well-formu-sidered as "long-range planning." lated recommendation for planning or con- At the other extreme, we could think of trolisnot implemented. Budgetary orlong-range planning as the formulation of manpower restrictions, previouslyadopted optimal strategies givingrise to control policy commitments, and even personalthat issensitive and responsive to inter- philosophies can easily cause a timely sug- mediate events. In this sense, long-range gestion or plan of action to go unheeded. planning will probably never happen in the Second; the selection and presentation dfFR system unless drastically simplifying appropriate research is very, susceptible to views of its structure can be found. The influence by the ideas and opinions cur-status of planning will always lie some- rently embraced by members of the RPCwhere between the two extremes. To the system. A researcher, for example, maybe extent that planning is going to be respon- unwilling to accept as valid the test resultssive, research will be needed to yield fore- that falsify his conjecture, or may be toosight and planners will have to ask well eager to accept as significant otherresults formulated questions. To the extent that that support it. A planner, too, may beplanning is going to be prescriptive, plan- reticent to give adequate consideration toners will use research tovindicate their actions and researchers will produce hind- valuable and attainable goals--for, if thcy sight. do not choose what they shall do, others will choose for them. A MODEST PROPOSAL The initiative for change, then,isto be Somewhere along the line, thc idea aroseplaced most squarely upon the shoulders of that for one's work to bc "scientific," itthe scientist. But what is a reasonable first had to be precise, cautious, and empiricallystep for him to take? well grounded. Apart from being false, this My recommendation for improving the view is all too easily taken to mean "if it'ssituat:onin firest recreation requires in- wrong, it isn't scientific" (or words to thatdividual participation on the part of re- effect). One side effect of holding such asearchers; and moreover, since good research viewisthcproduction of "not-wrong"cannot be legislated or capsulized into a research, which I call "safe research." research cookbook, each researcher's par- Safe research is almost always publish-ticipation will have to be unilateral. He will able (as a research note if nothing else), andhave to stand alone. I ask that he make a thus is of value to the researcher himselfconcerted attempt to produce fully inter- if to no one else. Safe research most easilypreted research results. arises by researching tractable questions This involves suggesting applications and rather than questions that need answers. Inspeculating on outcomes. It involves saying the event that no tractable questions arethings that might be wrong rather than available, the researcher may well make upsafe. If he uses factor analysis or least- some, or worse, may simply produce thesquares curve-fitting (or both), he might research results and then work backwardspell out what he feels the factor loadings to find the question that "was of interest."signify in his case (if anything), or in what If this last statement seems a bit han;h, 1.way he would recommend using his regres- would point out that in a statistical analysis,sion equation. for example, any dickering with the con- Instead of politely backing off from the fidence levels after the fact may amount to questionofapplication,theresearcher exactly what I've described. In any case, inshould be aggressive and should be willing long-range planning and control, researchto go out on a limb to a certain extent. He that is safe in the short run is most probablymight also include an estimate as to when not safe in the long run. his data will no longer be accurate ("Is it Scientists,however, arepeople. Theygood forever?"; "Isit good for 3 or 4 realize that their survival as scientists de-more years?"; "Is it already inaccurate at pends not only on their scientific skills butthe time of publication?"). also on their ability to serve and pmerve Please notice that I am not asking the the hand that feeds them. In the opinion ofresearcher to be correct in all his sti,Jecula- J. R. Pierce (Bell Telephone laboratories.don. I am simply asking him to shoulder Murray Hill, N. J.) which appeared as ahis fair share of the risk involved in the recent editorial in Science magazine (Aprilapplication of his own research. It is hardly 1971): fair to ask a planner to place confidence in In the end, most scientists will do what- someone's research if the researcher himself ever thereis money for doing. Scien- tists know, or should know, wltich so- isn't willing to do so. Even though some cially and economically useful goals are good research will not have Immediate or within reach and which havea good imminent application, I thimk that a re- chance of accomplishment throvgh prom- searcher should consider himself co-respon- ising research. Yet, in their personal and sibleforany-application(or lackof collectiveactions,scientistsoften seem more concerned with the total number of application) of his work. dollars, with the public image. of science, Such an attitude would lead to the ap- and with the cry for certainspecific pearance of more publications in which the results than with the sens.ibleselection investigatorcouldconclude by saying and vigorous pursuit of fruitful areas of research and application. It will be a sad "more applications in this area are possible" thing for scientists if they fail to choose instead of the usual "more research in this wiselyandactenerp,eticallytoward area is necessary."

196 EXPANDING & STRENGTHENING OUTDOOR RECREATION RESEARCH by WALTER S. HOPKINS, Chief, Branch of Forest Recreation and Related Human Environment Research, Division of Forest Environment Research, Forest Service, U. S. Department of Agri- culture, Washington, I). C.

ABSTRACT. Though the Forest Service has pioneered in outdoor recreation research, the funding for recreation research has been inadequate. Specific needs for research are outlined. There is a need to define recreation and recrcation research in termsthat busy legislators can understand.

SIXTEEN YEARS AGO it was evident For example, the Forest Service employs thatvisitsto America's forests snd 270 professionals in timber-management re- parks were no longer a minor and in-search and 21 professionals in recreation cidental resource use. Fifteen years ago theresearch. The research of the 270 scientists Forest Service started a program of recrea- in timber-resource research is much needed. tion research by hiring Dr. Sam Dana toMy point isthata comparable number develop the first problem analysis for out- could be used effectively in recreation re- door recreation research. Twelve years agosearch. the Eisenhower administration launched the In 1962 the Outdoor Recreation Re- Outdoor RecreationResources Reviewsources Review Commissiondetermined Commission. Nine years ago the ORRRCoutdoor recreation to be a $20-billion in- reports urged considerable expansionindustry (it is at least $30 billion today), and recreation management and research. Congress established the Bureau of Outdoor Now it is 1971, and the Forest Service Recreation and authorized it, among other program of recreation researchstarted by tasks,to conduct and sponsor outdoor- Sam Dana in 1956 continues as the only recreation research. Considering the magni- organized program of research attemptingtude of outdoor recreation and its impacts, to span the broad field of outdoor recrea-we can ask: Why isrecreation research so tionin or out of the Government. poorly financed? Before you look upon that as a bragging statement, let me point out(1) that the MUST WE HAVE FUN? Forest Service has eight programs of re- search dealing with major forest uses and Support for almost any research one can major forest problems (such as fire, insects, name is made availablebecause those who watershed, timber, wildlife, and range), and provide the support can see a clearly de- (2)that the Forest Service program infined need. We must control forest fires. recreation research has a firm position atWe must have more timber. We musthave the botcom of the 1isri terms of financing good, clear water. "VVe must beat the Rus- and scientific manpower. sians to the moonand we did. To date,

197 despiteallthc chest-beatingaboutthcplease do not look upon this as an essay on therapeutic benefits of recreation, no onepoliticking, but as examples of "the way it has vet documented recreation as a com-is"and for us in recreation, perhaps thc modity that society must have. way it can be. Congress and other legislat- ing bodies, despite all the criticism they Part of the problem rests in the term receive, arc dedicated hard-working people. recreationitself.Health we must have.We can be grateful that they must be con- Food we must have, Recreation, maybe.vinced of a need before they loosen the Recreation connotes fun. Do we have topurse stringsor yourtaxes andmine have fun? Dr. Phillip 0. Foss, at Coloradowould be 10 times as much as they are now. State University, has pointed out that the founders of our American society ". .. An excellent recent example of pinpoint- brought with them a concept of the no-ing was Rachel Carson. Almost immediately bility of work and the sinfulness of idleness."after the publication of SILENT SPRING, He also pointed out that one of our popu-funds for pesticide research were made lar hymnsis"Work for thenightis available. More recently, funding for pollu- corning"; and that the "idle rich" weretion research has improved. We should resented not because they were rich but.recognize and remember these examples as because they were idle. we seek strengthening for recreation re- search. Though many may not look upon rec---t, reation as immoral, neither do they con- sider it necessary. It is not hard to see why RESEARCH NEEDS the U.S. Congress, State legislators, and other fact-finding groups find it difficult to Now for a few examples of specific appropriate money to research "fun"torecreation research needs. research frivolity. In fact, we have been 1.Recreation is a "people" subject. Most asked by members of appropriations com- of us are pretty adept at managing txees mittees, "Isn't there some way you can and turf, but our real task is people. We keep all of these people out of the woods?" can learn a lot through experience. But What can you and I do? First, we should through research we can .move faster. recognize that theterra "recreation" at We need to be much better able to this point in our culture does not have the understand recreation visitors, their in- magic appeal some of us thought it had 10 terests, their motivations, their percep- years ago. Perhaps it will in another few tions. These are rather nebulous items. years; but for now we might fare better by I cannot see Congress enthusiastically taking an environmental approach to this providing funds to study "motivations." need. Man and his family are going to con- But I can see their supporting studies of tinue to come to the forests, beaches, and vandalism, littering, and rdated unbe- parks in great numbers. As they do so, they coming behavior. And this would be a are going to have an impact uponand be good place to start. part of the environmenttheirs, yours, and2. Outdoor education, interpretation, and mine. It is just as necessary for these people communication. Millions are spent an- to understand, cope with, and benefit by nually on outdoor education and re- the outdoor environment as it is for the lated communication programs, yet un- environment to cope with them. til2 years ago, when Wagar starwd I think two approaches should be made: some interpretation research, no one First, I believe a general approach of "Man was conducting research inthis area. and his interactions with outdoor environ- Again, interpretation research is sort of ments" will yield more than one of "Man vague. But I believe most of ourlegis-. andhisneedfor outdoorrecreation." latorsrecognize thegreat need for Second, I think we should pinpoint oppor- instilling in our visitors a stronger con- tunities as they present themselves.(.A.s I servation conscience and a more mean- talk about pinpointing and opportunities, ingful understanding of ecology.

198 Tf 3.Close!, relatedis the need to present 5. What arc the human benefits of outdoor today s absurd clean-up and mainte- recreation? Most of us arc convinced nance costs. We need much betterpublic that playing with a group of kids in a cooperation; and research can help show park is far better than having police the way. The Forest Service now re- chasing the kids in the streets. Isn't it ceives $40 million for recreation man- timc we documented the benefits(if agement, and $30 million of this is going any) of forest and park experiences for for clean-up and maintenance! And this our youth? Several keylegislators are $3 out of $4 relationship is not unique interested in this; but they need some on the National Forests. Theneed for solid, sincere, grass-roots support. research here should not be hard to explain. We can ask: "How can the private and public sectors of outdoor recreation be 4. So long as we continue to have 200bettcr coordinated?" "How can we en- million people in this great country, andcourage uses more compatible withthe so long as wc attempt tomaintain some- resource?" "Can we develop acceptable thing resembling our present standardmethods for considering intangibl:: values of living, not very many of us are going "What are to be able to go back to nature.It will as we make land-use decisions?" be necessary to produce wood and otherthe economic impacts of various recreation commodities from most of our better development alternatives?" forest landsbut this does not mean that these lands cannot remain or be made We could ask many more key questions, beautiful andused and enjoyed bybut these are more than enough for today. recreation visitors. What it does meanWhat we need to do is to define recreation is the need for more forest-landscapeand recreation research needs in terms that management research both in designa busy legislator canunderstand, can be and application. Thisis not a vagueconvinced of, and can convince others of. topic, and it should not be hard to We can do it, and we cannot start any later explain. than today.

1 THE CHALLENGE OF RECREATION PLANNING: METHODOLOGY AND FACTORS TO CONSIDER

by RONALD B. ULECK, Research Associate, Department of For- estry, University of Illinois, Urbana, lll. This paper is adapted from a Ph.D. dissertation, "Guidelines for preparing development plans for public resource-based outdoor recreation areas." submitted to New York State University College of Forestry at Syracuse Uni- versity, Syracuse, N. Y.

ABSTRACT. The proposed methodology of planning is a descrip- don, explanation, and justification of the methods or techniques that a planner should use in preparing outdoor recreationdevelopment plans. The sequence of steps required is described.

INTRODUCTION AND SCOPE In this paper, public outdoor recreation development planning is defined as a ra- OUTDOOR RECREATION planningtional and systematic process, integrated is a broad and complex activity. Thiswith all the important social and physical paper deals with one aspect of thatfactors, for determining appropriate action activity:development planningthatis, in developing the natural resource to pro- planning of the natural resource base tovide outdoor recreational opportunities.2 change its potential capacity for providing recreationalopportunities. The primary The guidelineswere developed from orientation is toward providing guidelinesseveral sources. General planning theory, for planning an individual outdoor recrea-methodology, methods, and techniques for tion area or complex such as a state, county,various kinds of planning (e.g., urban, en- or regional park. The planning guidelinesterprise, and military) were reviewed, inte- aredevelopedforlargeresource-basedgrated, and adapted to planning public recreation complexes locatedin aruralrecreation. Literature on all phases of out- environment anddevelopedprimarilydoor recreation planning (theoretical and around an extensive natural resource baseapplied studies, and recreation proposals that, in itself, provides opportunities forand plans) proved to be valuable sources outdoor recreational activity.' of information, since they are directly re- 'j lated to the. subject of this paper. Related The primary focus is on public recrea-subjects such as forestry and land-resource don areas, although the guidelines can beeconomics, economic growth and develop-. applied (with minor adjustments) to pri-ment, consumer economics, and decision vate areas. The principal audience addressedtheory, were also used to develop the is the group of persons who prepare devel- opment plans for public outdoor recrea-guidelines. tion areas. The guidelines are broad enough The guidelines are designed primarily as to be applicable to a wide varietyof naturala methodological tool forplanning, and resource bases. thus are not a detailed presentation of the

200 various methods and techniques that can Figure 1.Steps in the planning process. be and are used in planning.

PROPOSED METHODOLOGY The proposed methodology of planning is a description, explanation, and justifica- tion of the methods or techniques that a planner should use to prepare outdoor rec- r1. ,!.C...e.r,or.L.!tr.-Prc.: I...,lap. reation development plans. Es tat 1 if.! Methods function to help the planner and form concepts and hypotheses, make obser- r1/4 vations and measurements, build models ..441 S. Let.11ilel .,tatret ¶ r.,! k andtheories,provideexplanations,and tke Frokle^ make predictions. Methodology aids the planner in understanding and undertaking the process of scientific inquiry by which 6. Outline Alternative Fmposals

he develops a plan.3 The planning process -41141.- is an organized sequence of steps requiring 7, Make Forecasts Contingent on conscious and continuous action. Alternative Proposals The methodologydescribedhereis O. Evaluate and Rank Alternative J. .0.1 oriented toward the planner whose con- Proposals cern lies primarily with preparing a master overall plan that takes into account all .4111.411. major social and physical factors of out- 9. Choose Best Proposal doorrecreationdevelopmentplanning.

These factors are intimately related to the 10. Prepare Master Plan of Best methodology ofplanning. Examples of Proposal where and how some of these factors fit

into the methodology are given in the 11. Implement the Master Plan planning steps outlined in this paper. The master planner should not be bur- dened with the "nitty-gritty" concerns of 12. Replanning specialists (e.g., the color to paint picnic tables, the composition of materials for road pavement, or recreation activity pro- grammingforweekendcampers),for these tasksare performed only after a master plan has been prepared. He must, The planner may enter the process at however, recognize that extent to whichany of several steps. If the planner's task these concerns affect the development ofencompasses all the steps in the planning the master plan. process, he may begin with step 1. If some- one else in the political decision-making hierarchy (e.g., the director of the agency STEPS IN THE PLANNING PROCESS' within which the planner is employed) Figure 1 shows an organized sequence ofhas actually initiated the planning process steps in the Planning process. Heavy arrowsto the point of setting goals for recreation (-->-) show the order in which the stepsdevelopment (see steps 1 to 4), the planner, are performed. Dashed arrows (-- because he must frequently accept the show some of the major feedback linkagesdirectives of his superiors, would begin his between steps, thatis,interdependenciesanalysis withadetailed statement and between each step and preceding steps. scope of the problem (step 5). In situations

201 where each step in the planning process is 2.Inventories of the existing natural and performedbydifferentindividualsor man-madefeaturesoftheplanned agencies, the importance of performing all recreation area. the steps in figure I in an organized and 3. The supply of existing recreational op- integrated sequence cannot be overem- portunities on the planned recreation phasized. arca. The supply of recreational and other Step 0. Collect and Evaluate Data opportunities of other recreation areas and Reduce Them to Usable and and the local community. Meaningful Forms 5. The mcthods for increasing the supply Thc use of adequate data is an absolute of recreational opportunities on the necessityfor sound planning. But data planned area. frequently are not available, coordinated, 6. Thc consumption of recreational op- up-to-date, or in usable forms. In addition, portunitiespresent consumption lev- data related to personal values are difficult els,future consumptionlevels,and to interpret. modelstodetermineconsumption Sources of available data are many and levels. varied. In addition to data generated and 7. Supply-consumption relations. possessed by the planning agency itself 8.Land-usepatternssurroundingthe (e.g., from household surveys, on-site sur- planned recreation area. veys, and inventories of the supply of rec- reational opportunities), many other in- 9.Site-planning data. formational (data) sources exist. 10. The impacts of recreation develop- Federal, regional, state, and local gov- ments on local and regional communi- ernmental agencies have a broad base of tieseconomic impacts on the private datafor example, that possessed by census sector and on local governments, im- bureaus and agencies concerned with eco- pacts on other recreation areas, and nomicdevelopment,transportation,re- social impacts on local communities. search and development, social services,11. The relations between recreation de- soilconservation,civilengineering, and velopment planning and management parks and recreation. Quasi-governmental planningmanagement to control rec- agencies such as public utilities almost al- reationists'use of the planned area, ways have information on the spatial dis- management ofallthe natural and tribution and socio-economic characteris- man-made features of the area, water tics of local populations. Information about resourcemanagement, promotional specific aspects of recreation planning can policies, public relations, etc. also be acquired from colleges and uni- 12.Data on financial planning. versities and their cooperative extension Data should be evaluated for their ac- services. Private businesses in recrcation andcuracy and importance and should be in- related industries can also provide valuableterpretedandreducedtousableand information. Planning documents for othermeaningful forms that will facilitate pre- recreation areas can provide insights intoparing the master plan. Data must be in- the planning problem at hand. tegrated into and used throughout the Many types of data and the relationshipsplanning process. among them prove relevant for planning. Data are needed for all the major social and physical factorsto consider, in outdoor Step 1. Awareness of Need recreation development planning. The fol- The actual planning process begins with lowinglistidentifies the types of dataan awareness of a need forplanning. This needed:' need ultimately stems from a community's' 1. The institutional and social setting ofdissatisfaction with existing and planned the planning process. recreationalopportunities. Thatis,the

202 R community has a "felt difficulty" or "need"3. To provide an objective look at prob- bascd upon the differencebetween the lems that had previously been matters existing situation and some ideal situation. of conjecture. At this step in the planning process, the4. To give initial direction to the whole need is frequently not clearly stated. But a planning process. needis expressed to the planner by the community or by someone in the political5. To identify the problem as potentially or organizational hierarchy. The planner, actionable, that is, to formulate possible of course, may be the first person to rec- and realizable solutions to the problem. ognize such a need. 6. To postulate future courses of action on the planning problem. Step 2. Summarize Existing Situation A general summary and history of theStep 4. Establish and Evaluate Values and Goals' existing situation provides the background for a clear awareness of the necd for plan- The process of establishing and evaluat- ning and for an explicit statement of theing values and goals cannot be taken too problem. Some factors that should be con-lightly, for this step sets the stage for suc- sidered are:community aspirations,the ceeding steps in the planning process. Val- supply and consumption of recreationalues and goals, whether, considered explicitly opportunities, and a broad framework ofor not, determine the overall direction of unrefined data pertaining tothe plannedthe planning process once a general state- complex and to the community. The sum-ment of the problem is expressed. mary and history of the existing situation Values can be expressed as moral state- also provide a feedback of the impacts ofments ("A recreationarea'oughtto' current plans and policies, help to initiateprovide recreationalopportunitiesfor the formal planning process, and are nec-everyone"); preference statements("Plan essary for setting the planning problem inA 'is preferrea to' Plan B"); goal statements context. ("Providing recreational opportunities for persons of all age groups 'is thegoal of' Step 3. General Statement of the Problem Plan A"); orcriteria statements("For choosing between Plan A,. and Plan B, A generalstatementofthe problemchoose the plan that minimizes financial serves many purposes. It presents thebasiccosts tolocal governments"). Recognize considerationsandconceptsunderlyingthat values are intimately related to facts recreation development, enumerates con-(descriptions of what things are). That is, clusions that were previously statedas values and facts are affected by each other. working references,expresses judgments Requisites' are a category of values that and suggestions for periodic and construc-specify limits to goals and the means by tive review, and formulates the planningwhich goals may be realized and indicate problem as a basis for the master plan.° Inwhat necessary conditions must be met in other words,this step provides aclearorder for plans to be accepted. Requisites overview of the whole planning problem. can be expressed in terms offeasibility (the More specifically,thepurposes ofa fiscal, legal, and social conditions needed general statement of the problem are:7 to implement a plan) andimmediacy (the 1. To recognize the discrepancy betweenpriority assigned to a plan in relation to ideal and existing conditions. existing social conditions). When specified 2. To identify the overall problem andlevels of goals are to be attained, requisites provide a broad overview of the socialare called constraints. and physical factors to be investigated Values of individual persons are impor- e.g., the consumption andsupply oftant for planning. But the planner operates recreational opportunities and the im-within the framework of widely held pub- pacts of recreation development onlocal lic values such as conservation, preservation, communities and the natural resource. and development of natural resources to best

203 2(1.9 serve thc public's long- and short-rangerecreation development are:to maximizc interests in providing recreational oppor-efficiency in allocating natural resources for tunitics. Notice that these three values may recreation, to maximize regional growth conflict with or complement onc another. and stability,to provide recreational op- To facilitate choice among values andportunities for specific groups of people combinations of values, the conflicting and in the community, to maximize total usc of complementary natures of values must bethe natural resource for recreation, and to reconciled. This can be accomplished bypreserve thcnatural resource for future structuring a value hierarchy, a list of valuegenerations. Thc goals of the plan should priorities of an entirevalue systcm. To be established in a systematic manner. First, form a value hierarchy, values nccd to bcdefine thc scope of concern and responsi- expressed in rather specific terms that give bility of the planner. Justify why somc clues to thcir source, history, and relevance. goals arc accepted while others arere- Whcn valuesarcconflicting,thatis, jected. Carefully choose goals that reflect when somc of one value has to bc given upthc thinking of the community for which or traded off for anothcr value, a value the plan is prepared. hierarchy can point to, reduce, or even Second, outline the range of choice of eliminate inconsistencies among values ingoals. Establish ultimate ends to which pursuit of a set of goals. Wherever possible, planned action will be directed, such as the value hierarchies should bc structured toultimate end to maximize community wel- provide a basis for establishing goals. Stat- fare. Set out various goal chains that arc ing values explicitly and ordering them inmeans to achieve ultimate ends. terms of priority provides a framework for Third, identify the relationships among their appraisal and lends to thcir beingdifferent goal chains. Identify which goal transformed intoobjectively measurable chains (1) are means to achieving other goal statements. goal chainse.g., goals to limit accessibility A goal is an aim toward which plannedto a recreation area may be a means of action may be directed. Goals lhould implypreserving the natural features of the area; commitment and reflect careful study, for(2)are conflicting and complementary they determine action proposals and thee.g.,preservation and development goals entire coursc of the planning endeavor.may be conflicting, while the goals of pres- Furthermore, it is important that determina- ervation and conservation may be comple- tion of goals assume equal importance with mentary; and (3) are more applicable to thc ways in which they are to be attained.certain levels of the planning problem than Goals are dichotomous in that they canotherse.g.,conservationgoals may be be expressed as either ends or means, de-more applicableto long-range planning pending on how responsibilities and con-than are goals for developing picnic areas cerns are specialized and the point of viewto accommodate a sudden increase in the adopted at a given time. Ends are aspira-consumption of picnicking opportunities. tions fur preferred states. Means are the Fourth, goals must be evaluated to facili- ways in which ends are achieved. In anytatechoice among many different goals. given goal chain (where each goal isa Each means within a given goal chain means to achieve higher level ends), a goalshould be evaluated in terms of how it is an end when viewed from below in theaffects progress toward thehighest end chain and a means when viewed fromgoal in that chain in view of the land, labor, above. To illustrate a typical goal chain,capital, and managerial resources available the goal "To limit the number of personsand in view of recognized constraints. using a park at any one time" is an end in Goal chains must also be evaluated rela- itself, but it is a means to "Conserve naturaltive to each other. This implies structuring resourcesin the park by limiting use"a priority ranking of goal chains in terms which, in turn,isa means to "Achieveof how each goal chain affects progress maximum community welfare." toward achieving ultimate ends. S'iruc ur- Examples of realistic and explicit goalinga priority ranking requires a clear statements (that may be ends or means) forunderstanding of the ultimate ends that

204 210 goal chains serve and of the relative value the entire park for all age groups of assigned to ultimate ends. people" gives some indication of: (1) Several independent ultimate ends can constraintsno one type of opportunity act as time constraints on goal chains that nor age group dominates thc plan; (2) serve them. That is,goal chains cannot benefitsrecreational opportunities will always simultaneouslyservemany ulti- be provided for people of all ages, and mate ends. For example, a goal chain de- all land resources will be used; and (3) signed to"providethe maximum total costspossibly no part of the park will number of recreational opportunities" may be "preserved"providing rec reational effectively serve the ultimate end of "pro- opportunities for all age groups may be viding recreationalopportunities forall morc expensive than providing only a potential recreationists," but it may not few types of opportunitics for selected simultaneously achieveprogress towards age groups. the ultimate end of "providing the maxi-3. Combine related goals to give specific mum number of recreational opportunities direction to each part of the overall for certain kinds of recreationists such as plan. fishermen." 4.Stateshort-rangegoals(within the Choose the means within cach goal chain contextof long-range goals)whosc thatbest satisfy the end ofthe chain. effects on the community are immedi- Choose thegoal chainsthatcontribute ately apparent. most to the ultiman ends of the com- munity. GivenalternativegoalchainsStep 5. Detailed Statement and (means) for achieving a given ultimateScope of the Problem end, choose the goal chain that (1) most clostly satisfies the ultimate end, (2)is Once Stcp 4 is performed in view of a most consistent with other goal chains, (3)general statement of the problem, a detailed ismost manageable in tcrms of on-the-statement and scope of the problem can be ground operations, (4) minimizes financialoutlined. In this step the planner decides and social costs, and (5) has the greatestwhat overview of the planning problem he likelihood of achieving the ultimate end. should accept; thatis,thc scope of the isconcerned One remaining aspect of setting goals isproblem. Here the planner to make goals operational; that is, to presentwith such matters as means-ends relation- them in a manner acceptable to the com-ships, selection and use of data, recreation- ists to be accommodated, recreational and munity and in a way that will enable suc-other activities affected by development of ceeding steps in the planning process tothe natural resource, agencies involved in functionally utilize them. Operational im-the planning process, determination of the pliesthat progress toward goals can beplanning region, and time horizons (short- measured objectively and that all costs andor long-range) to whichplanning isdi- benefits of striving toward goals can berected. Each of these matters is important foreseen and estimated. Goals that lack op-in a detailed statement of the problem. The erationality are difficult to communicatefollowing discussion on the planning region intelligently. and time horizons will serve to illustrate Some ways to make goals operational arc: how these mattersarc considered ina 1.Make goal statements clear and specificdetailed statement of the problem. e.g., use "The goal is to develop a Planning should be somewhat regional varietyofrecreationalopportunitiesin scope. 'That is,it should consider not throughout the park for all age groupsonly the recreation area itself, but also the of people" rather than "The goal is tocommunity and environment surrounding develop recreational opportunities." the recreation area. The planning region 2.State goals in terms that will indicatecan change spatially orgeographically over constraints, benefits, and costs. For ex-time. But thenatural resourcesaround ample, the goal "To develop a varietywhich the planning process centers (e.g., of recreational opportunities throughoutwooded areas for camping andsurface

205 21 1 waters for fishing) must be identified and lands, and mountainous lands; (4) relations defined to give clear direction to planning with local communities, such as the amount for the general design and spatial arrange- of private property to be acquired for ment of recreational opportunities on the public use; and (5) the management prac- recreation area. tices required after the area is developed. Explicit statements of the time horizons of various parts of a plan are important. Step 7. Make Forecasts Contingent on Long- and short-range aspects of the plan Alternative Proposals must be coordinated. A certain amount of Before alternative proposals can be evalu- flexibility in the plan over time (thatis, ated, forecasts contingent on the alternative from the immediate to the distant future) proposals are required. These forecasts de- should be included; for changes in values, pend on what actions each proposal speci- goals, and the social environment may re- fies as well as on forecasts of autonomous quire changes (even major ones) in time factors such as population growth and the horizons of individual aspects of the over-general level of economic activity in the all plan. national economy. Constraints identified in the evaluation of alternative proposals (see Step 6. Outline Alternative Proposals step 8) should be imposed onlyafterpro- This step is a synthesis of all the differ- posals are identified in step 6. ent considerations required for solution of Forecasts of alternative proposals should the problem stated in step 5. The purpose include all relevant aspects that will aid in of this step is to outline the different waysevaluating the proposals and in choosing a recreation area can be developed in view the best one. For example, forecast the of the goals,constraints,and resources likely relationships between the con- identified in preceding steps. sumption and supply of recreational All relevant major proposals" or alter-opportunities, the effects of arecreation native courses of action, including a "no-development on land-use patterns, and the action" alternative," should be outlined. Ifmanagement practices required for each the planner limits himself to only one pro- proposal. posal, he may mTrlook other possible solu- tions to the planning problem. In some Step 8. Evaluate and Rank cases, however, only one way to solve the Alternative Proposals problem may be feasible, in which case Evaluating and ranking alternative pro- only one proposal is outlined. posals is a distinctly separate step in the The financial and time costs of preparingplanning process. The purpose of this step more than one proposal may be limitingis to introduce greater rationality into the factors. These costs can be held to a mini-planning process in order to choose among mum by considering only the most im-proposals in an effort to maximize the portant aspects of each proposal and by attainment of ends stated in step 4. Because limiting the refinement of data and un-of the significance of this step for the needed detail in the analysis. planner, the following paragraphs include Each proposal should, however, include a brief discussion of some of the major enough detailto enable evaluation of itsmethods and techniques that can be used major costs and benefits (see step 8). That to estimate the benefits and costs of recrea- is, each proposal should contain statements tion development proposals. on such matters as: (1) the physical-spatial Methods for evaluating proposals are design of the recreation area, such as thedesigned primarily to compare and rank number and location of campsites and thealternatives, not to test their absolute de- extent and distribution of the transporta- sirability.If noneof severalproposals tion network;(2)the recreationists ac-proves to be highly desirable, the planner commodatede.g., campers and fishermen;may need to retrace step 6 and outline (3) the natural resources used in develop-additional proposals. If no additional pro- ing the areae.g., surface waters, riparianposal is satisfactory, the problem should be

206 1 9 restated(step3)and values and goals environment and the social system that a should be re-evaluated (step 4). recreation development affects and because Criteria for the evaluation of each pro- the structure of the social system itself is posal include the following:(1) consist- difficult to determine. ency of the overall proposal in terms of For example, a major recreation develop- the integration of component parts; (2) ment project is likely to alter the prices and internal consistency of each part of the outputs of many different goods and serv- proposal; (3) general feasibility of pro- ices throughout a small, local economy. In posed actions; (4) resource requirements; such a situation, all the effects (in terms of (5) anticipated effects on the natural re-costs and benefits) of the recreation devel- source, the local community, and the rec-opment on the social structure of the com- reating population; (6) availability of social munity,on recreation-relatedindustries, and financial support; and (7) the degree and on other productive activities may be to which different actions achieve stated difficult to estimate. goals. Furthermore, use of cost-benefit analysis Costs and benefits can be expressed in for evaluating investments in the public several ways, depending on how goals aresector can be accomplished only ifthe stated. Some termsin which costs andfollowing conditions are met: (1) barriers benefits can be expressed are: (1) tangible to the flow of funds and resources are and expressed in monetary termse.g., the minimal;(2)costs and benefits can be dollar cost of constructing facilities; (2) determined at market prices; (3) no ex-, tangible and expressed in quantitative, non- ternal economies or diseconomies are pres- monetary termse.g., the number of people ent; and (4) no other external effects arc that can be accommodated by a picnic created by the investments, such as social area; and (3) intangiblee.g., the personal externalitiesin consumption (the notion satisfactionderivedfromarecreational that outdoor recreation contributes to, or experience. is essential for, a well-balanced personal life Identifying and evaluating the costs and that makes better and more productive benefits of a recreation development out- citizens) that tend to enhance the welfare lined in alternative proposals can be accom- of the Nation as a whole. plished by using many different procedures These four conditions limit the applica- and techniques." A brief description of bilityof cost-benefitanalysistopublic threetechniques traditionalcost-benefit recreation investments. In the public sector, analysis, the "balance sheet of develop-social costs and benefits (which are not ment," and the "goals-achievement" ap- easilymeasured by market prices)and proachfor determining costs and benefits intangibles (e.g., personal satisfaction) are and the jaroblems inherent in each tech-important; and a minor importance is fre- nique will illustrate how alternative pro- quently assigned to economic efficiency. posals may be evaluated. Additionally, in order that cost-benefit Traditional cost-benefit analysisisde- analysis maximize economic welfare, one rived from the theory of the firm. Costs must assume that the existing income dis- and benefits arc usually expressed in mone- tribution is "best" and that costs are borne tary terms. Some problems are inherent inso as to maintain that distribution. Thefirst the use of traditional cost-benefit analysisassumption is questionable (but neverthe- for determining the costs and benefits ofless made anyway) and the second is not public outdoor recreation development pro- likely true." posals. Cost-benefit analysis, then, approximates Cost-benefit analysis is most applicable to maximization of public welfare only for situations where all costs and benefits of a those activities that can be priced in a given action can be identified and estimated. market system. The analysis applies best All costs and benefits of a large public to ranking proposals that are measured in resource-basedoutdoorrecreationarea the same costs and benefits. To choose sometimes cannot be identified, largely be- among proposals, costs and benefitsfor cause of the changing nature of thenatural each proposal are put in a ratio, and the

207 proposal that has the lowest cost/benefitrepresent progress toward goals and costs ratio or the highest benefit/cost ratiois representretrogression from goals. The chosen. value of each cost and benefit is expressed A variant of cost-benefit analysis, "thein terms of each goal, and, where possible, balance sheet of development," is anotherthe same units of measurement are used for technique for evaluating costs and bene-each goal. fits."In thistechnique, all "good" and The final product for the goals-achieve- "bad" consequences of proposed actionsment approachisa"goals-achievement are compared and all benefits and costsmatrix." A typical goals-achievement ma- with respect to the social and natural en-trix for three alternative proposals, each vironmentsareconsidered. A "balancehaving one goal chain designed to maxi- sheet"is constructed which distinguishesmize the same ultimate end, is shown in monetary andnon-monetarycostsandtable 1. Here I, II, and III are descriptions benefits and identifies the sectors(e.g.,of the highest goals in the goal chains for public and private) that bear those costsproposals 1, 2, and 3, respectively. The goal and benefits. of each proposalisassignedarelative A drawback of this technique, like cost-weight, which is derived from the priority benefit analysis, is that it does not alwaysranking established in step 4. The groups enable evaluating proposals that incorpo-of people, institutions, land resources, etc. rate a diversity of actions and that are 'de-affected by goals I, II, and III are identified signed to satisfy many independent goals. by a, b....e. These groups are assigned a Proposals must have common grounds forrelative weight derived from a priority evaluation. Goals must be well-defined and rankingsimilartothatestablishedfor their desirability and worth must be as-goals. 'The groups may De combined in any sured. The "balance sheet" technique, how-meaningful manner to show differential ever, has a broaderperspectivethanincidences of costs and benefits. The letters traditional cost-benefit analysis because it A, B,... are costs and benefitsexpressed does not rely so heavily on monetary costs in monetary units, non-monetary units, or and benefits. quali..ative states (e.g., the amount of per- Another technique for evaluating costssonal satisfaction derived from recreational and benefits of alternative proposals is the experiences). "goals-achievement" approach."Itskey elements are the weighting of goals and Costs and benefits are recorded for each groups effected (e.g., typesof recreation-goal for each group affected. A dash () ists, the public sector, and the private sec-indicates that no cost or benefit would tor) that were outlined in the scope of theaccrue if the proposal were putinto prac- problem. tice. Note that a group may derive both Costs and benefits are always defined incosts and benefits with respect to a par- terms of goal achievement, thatis, benefitsticular goal. For example, under proposal

Table I.Atypical goals-achievement matrix Goal Proposal 1 Proposal 2 Proposal 3 Description II III Relative weight 2 3 5 Incidence Rel. Cost Benefit Rel. Cost Benefit Rel. Cost Benefit weight weight weight

Group a 1 A D 4 Group b 5 21} Group c 1 H 3. 3 Group d 2 4 5 Group e 1 21 j

208 21 1, group a (say campers) may be provided process, for it represents the culmination of with more campsites on a given tract ofthe efforts of all previous steps. land(benefit D),whilesimultaneously The master plan is a statement of willful incurring a loss of privacy due to the close intention that sets forth accepted goals and spacing required for thc development ofthe ways those goals arc to be achieved. additional campsites on that tract of land The master plan systematically outlines the (cost A). actions that are to be taken in acquiring For certain goals, namely I and III, zland, in designing and constructing facili- indicates that summation of the costs and ties, and in structuring human behavioral benefits is meaningful and useful. That is, patterns associated with the development total costs and benefits of proposals 1 and plan. 3 are expressed in similar terms. Thus these The master plan need not (and probably two proposals can be evaluated relative to should not) contain all the details of means- each other, especially when all costs and endidentification. The plan should be benefits are expressed in quantitative units somewhat flexible to accommodate change such as dollars or numbers of campsites. with a minimum of cost and effort. And it The goals-achievement approach is help- should serve as an instrument for evaluating ful for identifying and comparing costs and overseeing the actual physical develop- and benefits of alternative proposals, espe- ment of the natural resource base to judge cially the explicit listing of costs and bene-progress toward stated goals. fits for each goal and each incidence group. But several problems are inherent in the approach. As mentioned above, the summa- Step 11. Implement the Master Plan tion of costs and benefits can be difficult or Some of the important aspects of imple- evenimpossible.The wholeapproach menting the master plan are: (1) organizing breaks down when relative weights for the necessary personnel and resources into goals and the groups affected cannot ob-a well-formed field organization that will jectively be determined. The technique actually do the on-site development of the does not explicitly provide for or register recreation arca, (2) engaging the necessary interactionandinterdependence amongpolitical powers and financial resources to goals. The goals-achievement matrix be-support the plan, and (3) appraising the comes somewhat unwieldy when manyfield organization in terms of its actions proposals are included and when each pro- and the consequences of its actions to meet posal has more than one goal chain. And planning goals. like the other evaluation techniques dis- cussed above, costs and benefits can be Field work on implementing the master difficult to determine, even in quantitativeplan sometimes uncovers problemsthat terms reflecting goal achievement. were not recognized or anticipated in step 10. Some of these problems may have been overlooked in step10, others may arise Step 9. Choose the Best Proposal because of changes in the techniques for After each alternative proposal is evalu- on-site development between the time the ated, the best one should be chosen. Themaster plan was prepared and the time it is best proposal is the one that most closelyactually implemented, and still other prob- achieves, in terms of maximizing benefitslems may arise because of inaccurate esti- and minimizing costs and in terms of rec-mates of the costs and benefits of develop- ognized constraints, the goals set out in ment. step 4. If such problems are minor, appropriate adjustments can be made in the master Step 10. Prepare Master Plan of plan. If problems of implementation re- Best Proposal quire major changes in the design of the Preparation of the master plan designedmaster plan, retracing the planning process around the best proposal is one of the mostfrom step 9 may be necessary. Step 11, rewarding experiencesintheplanning however, should not necessari'y have to be regenerated beginning Nvth steps 1 to 8 ifforwardmechanism)intheplanning those steps were adequately performed. process presented in this paper lends itself to feedback adjustments. Some feedback Step 12. Replanning mechanisms were discussed in the planning steps above. The following discussion will Replanningis the step that makes the serve to further illustrate these mechanisms. whole planning process continuousand Goal-setting feedback is the mechanism dynamic. In a society where the growththat adjusts for new constraints (such as and distributionofthepopulationare changes in financial support) that are ex- changing,wherevaluesarechanging, ternal to the initial goal-setting step. Feed- where the natural environment is changing,back stemming from changes in values and and where thc whole social structure of goals held by society can. also influence the society is changing, continuous research on original goals of the plan. Feedback relating and evaluation of planning is needed. Re-to goals also affects values, so in reality planning, then, is a post-construction step values and goals are jointly determined. that essentially provides for the retracing The process of collecting,processing, of any or all steps in the planning process.transmitting, and using data is circular in nature. Analysis of data back and forth between the past, present, and future helps THE PLANNING PROCESS to achieve a balance between stated goals AS A CIRCLE OF INTERDEPENDENCE" and on - the-groundoperatingrequire- The steps in the planning process arements." interdependent. That is, the planning proc- Time horizons in planning also are re- ess is a circle of interdependence incorpo- latedin a circularfashion. Long-range rating bothfeedback and feedforwardgoals for the master plan are partly derived between the steps. from shorter-range component plans, and Feedback enables the planner to correctpartly shape and direct them. An unfore- for future action in light of past experience.seen problem or opportunity withina Feedback is inherent in all steps where ac-component plan may lead to a modification tions are reviewed, amended, or discardedof the master plan.18 and can stem from the planner himself, Plan revision between steps 9 and 11 and from the local community, and from politi-other revisions in the form of replanning cal decision-makers. (step 12) are other forms of feedback. But The dashed arrows infigure 1 showpractical limits to regular revision, such as some, but not all, of these feedback mech-the limitations of time, money, or person- anisms. The sequence of steps (the feed-nel, must be recognized.

t 210 216 Footnotes 1? Note that A single park may contain many A. Duerr, Gons A ND VALUES, a chapter in a forth- individual resources such as lakes, mountains, and coming book on forest resource management; (4) wooded areas. George R. Hall, STRATEGY AND ORGANIZATION IN 2. Unless otherwise specified, "planning," "plan," PUBLIC LAND POLICY, Nat. Resources J. 7 (2) :162- and "planner" refer to public outdoor recreation 182, 1967; (5) Roger Tippy, PRESERVATION vimuzs developmentplanning,plan,andplanner,re- IN RIVER BASIN PLANNING,Nat.ResourcesJ. spectively. 8(2):259-278, 1968; and (6) R, S. Whaley, MULTI- PLE USE DECISION MAKINGWHERE 1)0 WE GO FROM 3. The distinction between "methodology" and HERE?, Nat. Resources J. 10(3):557-565, 1970. "methods"is made clear in:Abraham Kaplan. THE CONDUCT OF INQUIRY, Chandler Publishing Co., 9. For a discussion on requisites, see Hill, op. San Francisco, pp. 18-33, cit., especially p. 22. 10. A proposal is actually a plan that has at this 4. For outlines and discussions of these steps,stcp in the planning process not been accepted or see:(1) Louis Hamill, THE PROCESS OF MAKING rejected by the planner or the community as tbe GOOD DECISIONS ABOUT THE USE OF THE ENVIRONMENT OF MAN, Nat. Resources J. 8(2) :279-301, 1968; (2) course of action to pursue in developing a recrea- Willard B. Hansen, MzrsoPoLtrAN PLANNING AND tion complex. THE NEW COMPREHENSIVENESS, Amer. Inst. Plan- 11. A "no-action" alternative implies that no ners 34 (5):295-302, 1968; (3) Britton Harris, THE actionistaken to solvethe apparent problem LIMITS OF SCIENCE AND HUMANISM IN PLANNING, J. because the statement of the problem in step 5 Amer. Inst. Planners 33(5):324-335, 1967; and (4) indicates that no problem really exists or because G. Marion Hinckley, PLANNINGA FIRST STEP INno proposal can satisfy the goals set out in step 4. RECREATIONAL DEVELOPMENT, in COUNTY PARKS AND 12. See the discussions and literature citedin RECREATION ... A BASIS FOR ACTION,Philip Warren,the following selectedreferences:(1)Marion Jr. (ed.), Nat. Assoc. Counties, Washington, D. C., Clawson and Jack L. Knetsch, ECONOMICS OF OUT- and Nat. Recreation Assoc., New York, 1964, pp. DOOR RECREATION, Chaps. 11 The Value of Land 117-118. and Water Resources Used for Recreation?" 12 5. A community refers to the people living to- "Economic Impact ofOutdoor Recreationin gether in a given geographical arca and includesLocal Areas," and 13"Cost and investment Con- the entire social and economic structure within siderations in Providing Public Recreation Facili- which those people function. A community mayties" published for Resources for the Future, Inc. be a local town, a county, a state, a geographical by The Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, 1966; (2; region, or even a nation. As used in this paper, a Robert J. Kalter and Lois E. Gosse, OurnooR REC- community r fers to the community that affects REATION IN NEW YORK STATE: PROJECTIONS OF DE- or is affected by a given recreation development. MAND, ECONOMIC VALUE, AND PRICING EFFECTS FOR TIIE PERIOD 1970-1985, Chap. V"Demar:d Projec- 6. These purposes arc adapted from:Melville tions, Economic Value, and Pricing Effects," N. Y. C. Branch, PLANNING: ASPECTS AND APPLICATIONS, State Coll. Agr. at Cornell Univ., Ithaca,1970; John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1966, p. 62. (3) Leonard MereWitZ, ESTIMATION OF RECREA- 7. The followinglistis derived largely from TIONAL BENEFITS AT SOME SELECTED WATER DEVEL- James Oakwood and Michael Chubb, PLANNING OPMENT SITES IN CALIFORNIA, U.S. Dcp. Interior PUBLIC RECREATIONAL BOATING FACILITIESIN Tech. Rep. Washirvon, D. C., no date; and (4) MICHIGAN. Mich. State Univ. Coll. Agr. and Nat. A. R. Prest and R. Turvey, COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS: Resources Dep. Resource Develop. Tech. Rep. A SURVEY, Econ. J. 75 (3):683-735, 1965. This Prude 1: 7-20; East Lansing, 1968. surveys cost-benefit analysis techniques in general and includes references on outdoor recreation and 8. General discussions especially applicable to other natural resource developments. step 4 can be found in the following selected ref- erences:(1)PaulDavidoffand Thomas A. 13. For a discussion of the public welfare as- Reiner, A CHOICE THEORY OF PLANNING, .1 . Amer. pects (including the distribution of income) re- Inst. Planners 28(2):103-115, 1962; Harris, op. cit.;lated to outdoor recreation, see: G. A. Norton, (3)Morris Hill, A GOA1S-ACHIEVEMENT MATRIX PUBLIC OUTDOOR RECREATION AND RESOURCES ALLO- FOR EVALUATING ALTERNATIVE PLANS, J. Amer. Inst. CATION: A WELFARE APPROACH, Land ECOH. 46 (4) : Planners 34 (1):19-28,1968; and(4)Robert C. 413-422, 1970. Young, GOALS AND GOAL-SETTING, J. Amer. Inst. 14. See: Hill, op. cit. pp. 20-21. Planners 32 (2):76-85, 1966. 15. The "goals-achievement" approapcb d2i1s-e2uss ed Selected references relating specifically to values below is adapted from Hill, op. cit. and goals of recreation and other natural resource 16. For a discussion of the planning process as developments arc: (1) Ronald I3eazley, CONSERVA- a circle of interdependence, see Branch, op.cit. TION DECISION-MAKING: A RATIONALIZATION? Nat pp. 303-309. Resources J. 7 (3):345-360, 1967; (2) S. V. Ciriacy- 17. Adapted from Branch, op. cit. p. 305. Wantrup, THE ECONOMICS OF ENVIRONMENTAL. POLICY, Land Econ. 47(1):36-45, 1971; (3) William 18. Adapted from Branch, op. cit. p. 305.

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