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British Muslim Converts: an Investigation of Conversion and De-Conversion Processes to and from Islam

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British Muslim Converts: an Investigation of Conversion and De-Conversion Processes to and from Islam BRITISH MUSLIM CONVERTS: AN INVESTIGATION OF CONVERSION AND DE-CONVERSION PROCESSES TO AND FROM ISLAM Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy By Mona Alyedreessy Under the supervision of Dr. Rupa Huq Dr. Heidi Seetzen Professor. David Herbert Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences Kingston University, London 2016 The candidate confirms that the work is her own and appropriate credit has been given where reference has been made to the work of others Table of Contents Acknowledgments v Abstract vi Glossary vii Chapter I Introduction 1.1 Research Aims, Objectives and Questions 1 1.2 Muslims and Colonial History 8 1.3 The Global War on Terror 12 1.4 Early English Muslim Converts to Islam 14 1.5 Organisation of Chapters 20 Chapter II Literature Review 2.1 Introduction 22 2.2 Theoretical Approaches to Religious Identity Formation 22 2.2.1 Postcolonial Identities 27 2.2.2 The Relationship Between Religion and Ethnicity 32 2.3 Theoretical and Sociological Approaches to Conversion 34 2.3.1 The Islamic Fitrah 35 2.3.2 Missionary Influences 36 2.3.3 Western Conversion Theories 39 2.4 Theoretical and Sociological Approaches to De-Conversion 41 2.5 Summary 45 Chapter III Methodology 3.1 Introduction 47 3.2 The Research Design 47 3.3 Interview Techniques 49 3.4 Sampling Methods: Fieldwork 52 3.4.1 The Study Sample 54 3.5 Reflexivity 60 3.5.1 Situating Myself 62 3.5.2 Pilot Study 64 3.6 Challenges with Interviews 65 3.7 Data Analysis 66 3.8 Summary 68 Chapter IV Pre-Conversion Period 4.1 Introduction 69 4.2 The Big Context 69 4.2.1 Conversion to Islam in Postcolonial Britain 70 4.2.2 Religion in Private and Public Spheres 72 4.2.2.1 Private and Public Spheres in Islam 75 ii 4.2.3 The Political Climate 76 4.3 The Small Context 80 4.3.1 Family Upbringing and the Social Environment 80 4.3.2 Problems and Crises within a Religious Context 82 4.4 Problem Solving Solutions 88 4.5 Summary 91 Chapter V Truth and Problem-Solution Seekers 5.1 Introduction 93 5.2 Non-Active/Passive Seekers 94 5.2.1 Tourism and Travel 95 5.2.2 Dreams 96 5.3 Encounters with British Muslims 97 5.3.1 Dawah in Britain 100 5.3.1.1 Direct Dawah 100 5.3.1.2 Indirect Dawah 106 5.4 Summary 109 Chapter VI Interaction with Islam and Muslims 6.1 Introduction 111 6.2 Observational and Experimental Studies 112 6.3 Relationships and Marriage 115 6.4 Obtaining Islamic Knowledge 117 6.5 Summary 121 Chapter VII Conversion Experiences and Consequences 7.1 Introduction 123 7.2 Committing to Islam: The Shahadah 124 7.3 Pre-Islamic De-Conversion 128 7.3.1 Disaffiliation from a Religious Community 129 7.4 Conversion Challenges: Friends and Family Reactions 133 7.4.1 Positive Experiences 139 7.5 Summary 143 Chapter VIII The Creation of a British Muslim Identity 8.1 Introduction 145 8.2 The Negotiation of Faith and a New Muslim Identity 146 8.2.1 Islamic Dress 147 8.2.2 The Social Integration of a New Muslim Identity in Britain 156 8.3 Summary 161 iii Chapter IX The Common Challenges 9.1 Introduction 163 9.2 Islamophobic Attitudes Towards New Muslims 163 9.3 Common Daily Issues 170 9.3.1 Issues with Heritage Muslims 173 9.4 Summary 177 Chapter X Marriage, Divorce and Children 10.1 Introduction 179 10.2 Difficulties in Finding a Suitable Muslim Partner 179 10.3 Marriage Issues 185 10.4 Divorce Issues 192 10.5 Children of Converts 193 10.6 Summary 196 Chapter XI Arabic and Islamic Education 11.1 Introduction 199 11.2 The Importance of an Islamic Education 199 11.3 Difficulties in Obtaining a Broad Islamic Education 201 11.4 Issues with Independent learning 203 11.5 Advanced Islamic Education 207 11.5.1 Learning Arabic 210 11.6 The Prophet Muhammad’s Biography 213 11.7 What Constitutes a Sufficient and Broad Islamic Education? 215 11.8 Summary 217 Chapter XII Leaving Islam 12.1 Introduction 219 12.2 Apostasy in Islam 220 12.3 Intellectual Doubts and Turning Points 223 12.4 Post De-Conversion Experiences 228 12.4.1 Types of Disaffiliates 228 12.4.2 Establishing a New Identity 233 12.5 Summary 236 Chapter XIII Conclusions 13.1 The Main Findings of this Study 238 13.2 Creating a Theoretical Framework to Study Muslim Converts 249 13.3 Suggestions for Further Research 255 Appendices 257 Bibliography 279 iv Acknowledgements First of all, I would like to say that writing this thesis would not have been possible without the help of God. I thank God sincerely for blessing me with the opportunity, knowledge and patience to complete this research that I hope will benefit many academics, Muslims and the society in general. The past four years have been an interesting journey for me, in which I have learnt and gained so much. I have received help, encouragement and support from a number of people, the first being my amazing mother, Samira. I want to thank her with all my heart for her continuously positive attitude, suggestions and encouragement, despite the long hours I spent sharing new information, reading sections of my work, translating difficult Arabic texts and Hadiths for me into English and discussing various subjects. I love you and could not have done this without you. I wish to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisors Dr. Rupa Huq, Dr. Heidi Seetzen and Dr. David Herbert who have been generous with their time, advice, support, guidance, valuable suggestions, comments and kindness. I have learnt so many valuable writing skills with your guidance and constructive criticism. I am very lucky and grateful to have had you all as supervisors. I also want to thank Loulou Brown for proofreading this thesis, Dr. Sonya Sharma from Kingston University for her valuable feedback during the mock viva and Dr. Karin van Nieuwkerk for organising and inviting me to participate in a conference in the Netherlands (2015) about Islamic conversions that helped to develop my thesis. Last, but not least I would like to thank all of the people who contributed to this study, by either being participants, giving me access to their organisation’s members and recommending people for the study. None of this work would have been possible without the contribution of the participants who gave me their time and allowed me to enter their lives at a very personal level. Thank you for trusting me and being a part of this project. v Abstract This study proposes an investigation into the formation of a new British Muslim identity, alongside various personal and social challenges and consequences many Muslim converts face as a result of conversion to, and in some cases from, Islam. The thesis analyses the factors and elements that greatly contribute to a more positive conversion experience and draws on insights from colonial history, the political climate, the Islamic fitrah, and western theories on conversion and identity development. Based on a qualitative study sample of thirty-four British converts, the thesis argues that many challenges Muslim converts face are due to them having a limited understanding of Islamic teachings and their rights. The study was guided by research questions: What are the anticipated benefits and positive elements that encouraged the start and continuation of an Islamic conversion journey? What constitutes a comfortable and balanced British Muslim identity and lifestyle for westerners? and What are the main problems and challenges new Muslims face that can lead to de-conversion? Is Lewis Rambo’s stage model, alongside Helen Ebaugh’s de-conversion stages appropriate for the study of conversion and de-conversion to and from Islam? It was found that those who enjoyed being Muslims were able to create a balanced British Muslim identity by negotiating and applying their own western values to their understanding of The Prophet Muhammad’s biography and The Quran, and integrated Islamic values into their own environments and everyday lives that were free from foreign cultural practices. It was important to understand what they were expecting to benefit from Islam and how they later perceived, practised, expressed and understood their new faith and identities as British Muslims. The study also examines how converts deal with Islamophobia and extremism, and how Islamic conversions can be perceived as a threat to White British identity, social class and values. The participants shared common difficulties regarding gender and racial discrimination, living among Muslims, identity development, marriage, parenting, Muslim culture, isolation, integration and practising Islam, but at different levels, and with differing consequences. The sacrifices, challenges and consequences faced by some individuals as a result of a de-conversion are explored, which includes living with hidden identities as ‘closeted disaffiliates’ out of fear of abuse and stigmatisation. vi Glossary Abaya: The long and loose black cloak worn by many Arab women in the Gulf region. Allah: The Arabic term for ‘The One God’. Al Salamu alaikom: May Allah’s peace and mercy be upon you. This is the Islamic greeting used among Muslims, which is equivalent to “Hello”. Alhamdulilah: Praise be to God. Burka: The traditional Arab and Asian face veil that may either cover the entire face or reveal the eyes only. Dawah: The practice or policy of preaching, proselytizing and inviting people to Islam. Eid: The first Eid of the year is known as Eid Al-Fitr.
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